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1999 by CRC Press LLC
ugnoIIc IIoId
ousuromonI
18.1 Magnctic Iiclo Iunoamcntals
18.2 IowIiclo Vcctor Magnctomctcrs
Thc Inouction Coil Magnctomctcr Thc Iluxgatc
Magnctomctcr Thc SQUID Magnctomctcr
18.3 HighIiclo Vcctor Caussmctcrs
Thc Hall Fllcct Caussmctcr Thc Magnctorcsistivc
Caussmctcr
18.1 Scalar Magnctomctcrs
Thc Proton Prcccssion Magnctomctcr Thc Optically
Pumpco Magnctomctcr
Magnctic lclo strcngth is mcasurco using a varicty ol oillcrcnt tcchnologics. Fach tcchniquc has uniquc
propcrtics that makc it morc suitablc lor particular applications. Thcsc applications can rangc lrom
simply scnsing thc prcscncc or changc in thc lclo to thc prccisc mcasurcmcnts ol a magnctic lclo`s scalar
ano vcctor propcrtics. A vcry gooo ano cxhaustivc lunoamcntal ocscription ol both mcchanical ano
clcctrical mcans lor scnsing magnctic lclos can bc louno in Iion {1]. Icss octailco but morc uptooatc
survcys ol magnctic scnsor tcchnologics can bc louno in {2, 3]. It is not possiblc to aocquatcly ocscribc
all ol thcsc tcchnologics in thc spacc availablc in a Hanobook. This chaptcr conccntratcs on scnsors that
arc commonly usco in magnctic lclo mcasuring instrumcnts.
As shown in Iigurc 18.1, magnctic lclo scnsors can bc oivioco into vcctor componcnt ano scalar
magnituoc typcs. Thc vcctor typcs can bc lurthcr oivioco into scnsors that arc usco to mcasurc low lclos
(<1 mT) ano high lclos (>1 mT). Instrumcnts that mcasurc low lclos arc commonly callco nagneion
eiers. Highlclo instrumcnts arc usually callco gaussneiers.
Thc inouction coil ano luxgatc magnctomctcrs arc thc most wiocly usco vcctor mcasuring instru
mcnts. Thcy arc ruggco, rcliablc, ano rclativcly lcss cxpcnsivc than thc othcr lowlclo vcctor mcasuring
instrumcnts. Thc lbcr optic magnctomctcr is thc most rcccntly ocvclopco lowlclo instrumcnt. Although
it currcntly has about thc samc scnsitivity as a luxgatc magnctomctcr, its potcntial lor bcttcr pcrlormancc
is largc. Thc optical lbcr magnctomctcr has not yct lclt thc laboratory, but work on making it morc
ruggco ano lclo worthy is unocr way. Thc supcrconoucting quantum intcrlcrcncc ocvicc (SQUID)
magnctomctcrs arc thc most scnsitivc ol all magnctic lclo mcasuring instrumcnts. Thcsc scnsors opcratc
at tcmpcraturcs ncar absolutc zcro ano rcquirc spccial thcrmal control systcms. This makcs thc SQUID
basco magnctomctcr morc cxpcnsivc, lcss ruggco, ano lcss rcliablc.
Thc Hall cllcct ocvicc is thc olocst ano most common highlclo vcctor scnsor usco in gaussmctcrs.
It is cspccially usclul lor mcasuring cxtrcmcly high lclos (>1 T). Thc magnctorcsistivc scnsors covcr thc
mioolc grouno bctwccn thc low ano highlclo scnsors. Anisotropic magnctorcsistors (AMP) arc cur
rcntly bcing usco in many applications, incluoing magnctomctcrs. Thc rcccnt oiscovcry ol thc giant
SIovon . ucInIyro
Aac!nyrc I!ccron!c Ics!gn
1999 by CRC Press LLC
magnctorcsistivc (CMP) cllcct, with its tcnlolo improvcmcnt in scnsitivity, promiscs to bc a gooo
compctitor lor thc traoitional luxgatc magnctomctcr in mcoiumscnsitivity applications.
Thc proton (nuclcar) prcccssion magnctomctcr is thc most popular instrumcnt lor mcasuring thc
scalar magnctic lclo strcngth. Its major applications arc in gcological cxploration ano acrial mapping ol
thc gcomagnctic lclo. Sincc its opcrating principlc is basco on lunoamcntal atomic constants, it is also
usco as thc primary stanoaro lor calibrating magnctomctcrs. Thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr has
a vcry low sampling ratc, on thc orocr ol 1 to 3 samplcs pcr sccono, so it cannot mcasurc last changcs
in thc magnctic lclo. Thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr opcratcs at a highcr sampling ratc ano is
capablc ol highcr scnsitivitics than thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr, but it is morc cxpcnsivc ano
not as ruggco ano rcliablc.
Tablc 18.1 lists various magnctic lclo strcngth instrumcnts ano thcir charactcristics.
48.1 MagnctIc FIcld Fundamcntals
An unocrstanoing ol thc naturc ol magnctic lclos is ncccssary in orocr to unocrstano thc tcchniqucs
usco lor mcasuring magnctic lclo strcngth. Thc most lamiliar sourcc ol a magnctic lclo is thc bar
I!CURE 48.1 Magnctic lclo scnsors arc oivioco into two catcgorics basco on thcir lclo strcngths ano mcasurcmcnt
rangc. magnctomctcrs mcasurc low lclos ano gaussmctcrs mcasurc high lclos.
TABIE 48.1 Iiclo Strcngth Instrumcnt Charactcristics
Instrumcnt
Pangc Pcsolution anowioth
Commcnt (mT) (nT) (Hz)
Inouction coil 10
10
to 10
o
Variablc 10
1
to 10
o
Cannot mcasurc static lclos
Iluxgatc 10
1
to 0.5 0.1 oc to 2 10
3
Ccncralpurposc vcctor magnctomctcr
SQUID 10
9
to 0.1 10
1
oc to 5 Highcst scnsitivity magnctomctcr
Hall cllcct 0.1 to 3 10
1
100 oc to 10
8
cst lor lclos abovc 1T
Magnctorcsistancc 10
3
to 5 10 oc to 10
7
Cooo lor miorangc applications
Proton prcccssion 0.02 to 0.1 0.05 oc to 2 Ccncralpurposc scalar magnctomctcr
Optically pumpco 0.01 to 0.1 0.005 oc to 5 Highcst rcsolution scalar magnctomctcr
1999 by CRC Press LLC
magnct. Thc lclo it proouccs is shown in Iigurc 18.2. Magnctic lclo is a vcctor quantity, that is, it has
both a magnituoc ano a oircction. Thc lclo ol a bar magnct or any othcr magnctizco objcct, whcn
mcasurco at a oistancc much grcatcr than its longcst oimcnsion, is ocscribco by Fquation 18.1.
(18.1)
whcrc
r
is a unit vcctor along r, r is thc oistancc bctwccn thc magnctic lclo sourcc ano thc mcasurcmcnt
point, ano

n is callco thc magnctic oipolc momcnt. Thc ocrivation ol this cquation can bc louno in
many tcxtbooks on clcctromagnctics. This is a vcry convcnicnt cquation lor cstimating thc lclo prooucco
by many magnctizco objccts.
Thc strcngth or intcnsity ol a magnctizco objcct ocpcnos on thc ocnsity ol its volumcoistributco
momcnts. This intcnsity is callco its magnctization M, which is oclnco as thc momcnts pcr unit volumc.
(18.2)
Iikc magnctic lclo, magnctization is a vcctor quantity. Magnctization is a matcrial propcrty that can
arisc lrom intcrnal magnctic sourccs as wcll as bc inoucco by an cxtcrnal magnctic lclo.
Thcrc is a thiro magnctic vcctor

callco magnctic inouction or lux ocnsity. In lrcc spacc, magnctic

lclo ano magnctic inouction arc proportional to onc anothcr by a constant lactor
0
.
(18.3)
Things arc oillcrcnt in mattcr. Fquation 18.1 ocscribcs thc rclationship among thc magnctic lclo, mag
nctic inouction, ano magnctization vcctors in mattcr.
(18.1)
I!CURE 48.2 Magncts prooucc magnctic lclos. A magnctic lclo is a vcctor quantity with both magnituoc ano
oircction propcrtics.

H
n a a n
r

,
3
3

r r

M
n

\oIune

H
0

H M +
, 0
1999 by CRC Press LLC
In this casc, thc magnctic inouction ano thc magnctic lclo vcctors oo not ncccssarily havc thc samc
oircction. Somc matcrials havc anisotropic magnctic propcrtics that makc thcsc two vcctors point in
oillcrcnt oircctions. Thc magnctization vcctor can consist ol pcrmancnt ano inoucco magnctization
componcnts. Thc pcrmancnt magnctization vcctor oocs not ocpcno on thc prcscncc ol an cxtcrnal lclo.
Thc inoucco magnctization vcctor oocs ocpcno on an cxtcrnal magnctic lclo ano only cxists whilc thc
inoucing lclo is prcscnt.
Magnctic matcrials can bc looscly classilco as magnctically "solt` or magnctically "haro.` In a mag
nctically haro matcrial, thc pcrmancnt magnctization componcnt oominatcs (a magnct is an cxamplc).
Magnctization in a solt magnctic matcrial is largcly inoucco ano is ocscribco by thc lollowing cquation.
(18.5)
whcrc is callco thc matcrial`s magnctic susccptibility. In an isotropic matcrial (magnctic propcrtics arc
not oircction ocpcnocnt), is a scalar quantity, ano thc magnctization ano lclo vcctors arc proportional
ano alignco. In anisotropic matcrial (magnctic propcrtics ocpcno on oircction), is a tcnsor rcprcscntco
by a 3 3 matrix, thcrclorc, thc magnctization vcctor magnituoc ano oircction ocpcno on thc oircction
ano strcngth ol thc inoucing lclo. As a rcsult, thc magnctization vcctor will not always align with thc
magnctization inoucing lclo vcctors. Fquation 18.5 can bc mooilco lor magnctically "solt` matcrial to
thc lollowing.
(18.o)
whcrc is callco thc rclativc pcrmcability ol thc matcrial.
A magnctizco objcct with a magnctic momcnt

n will cxpcricncc torquc

T in thc prcscncc ol a unilorm

magnctic lclo

H. Fquation 18.7 cxprcsscs this rclationship.

(18.7)
Torquc is thc crossproouct ol thc magnctic momcnt ano lclo vcctors. Thc magnituoc cquation is.
(18.8)
whcrc is thc anglc bctwccn thc oircction ol

n ano

H.
Thcrc is an intimatc rclationship bctwccn clcctric ano magnctic lclos. Ocrstco oiscovcrco that passing
a currcnt through a wirc ncar a compass causcs thc compass nccolc to rotatc. Thc compass was thc lrst
magnctic lclo strcngth scnsor. Iaraoay louno that hc coulo prooucc an clcctric voltagc at thc tcrminals
ol a loop ol wirc il hc movco a magnct ncar it. This lco to thc inouction or scarch coil scnsor.
Magnctic lclos arc prooucco by thc low ol clcctric chargc (i.c., clcctric currcnts). In cllcct, a magnctic
lclo is a vclocitytranslormco clcctric lclo (through a Iorcntz translormation). Currcnt lowing through
a straight wirc, a loop ol wirc, or a solcnoio will also prooucc a magnctic lclo as illustratco in Iigurc 18.3.
Units arc always a problcm whcn ocaling with magnctic lclos. Thc Caussian cgs (ccntimctcr, gram,
ano sccono) systcm ol units was lavorco lor many ycars. Sincc
0
1 in thc cgs systcm, magnctic lclo
ano lux ocnsity havc thc samc numcric valuc in air, ano thcir units (ocrstcot lor lclo ano gauss lor lux
ocnsity) arc oltcn inoiscriminatcly intcrchangco. This has lco to grcat conlusion. Thc cgs systcm has now
bccn rcplacco by thc Intcrnational Systcm ol Units (SI). Thc SI systcm uscs, among othcrs, thc mctcr
(m), kilogram (kg), sccono (s) ano ampcrc (A) as thc lunoamcntal units. Paync {1] givcs a vcry gooo
cxplanation ol thc oillcrcnccs bctwccn thcsc systcms ol units as thcy rclatc to magnctic lclos. Tablc 18.2
summarizcs thc rclationships bctwccn thc two systcms ol units.
Thc SI systcm ol units is usco throughout this chaptcr.

M H

H H +
,

0 0
1

T n H
T nH sin
1999 by CRC Press LLC
48.2 Lov-FIcld Vcctor Magnctomctcrs
Thc InductIon CoIl Magnctomctcr
Thc inouction or scarch coil, which is onc ol thc simplcst magnctic lclo scnsing ocviccs, is basco on
Iaraoay`s law. This law statcs that il a loop ol wirc is subjcctco to a changing magnctic lux, o, through
thc arca cnclosco by thc loop, thcn a voltagc will bc inoucco in thc loop that is proportional to thc ratc
ol changc ol thc lux.
(18.9)
I!CURE 48.3 Magnctic lclos arc also prooucco by clcctric currcnts.
TABIE 48.2 Iactors lor Convcrting lrom cgs to SI Magnctic Iiclo Units
Dcscription Symbol SI unit Caussian cgs unit Multiply by
Magnctic inouction Tcsla gauss 10
1
Magnctic lclo strcngth H A m
1
ocrstcot (oc) 1r 10
3
Magnctization M A m
1
cmu m
3
10
3
Magnctic oipolc momcnt n A m
2
cmu 10
3
Magnctic lux o Wcbcr (Wb) maxwcll 10
8
Magnctic polc strcngth A m cmu
Pcrmcability ol lrcc spacc
0
H m
1
1r 10
7
1
e i
i
,

o
o
o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Sincc magnctic inouction

is lux ocnsity, thcn a loop with crossscctional arca

A will havc a tcrminal

voltagc.
(18.10)
lor spatially unilorm magnctic inouction lclos.
Fquation 18.10 statcs that a tcmporal changc in

or thc mcchanical oricntation ol

A rclativc to

will prooucc a tcrminal voltagc. Il thc coil rcmains lxco with rcspcct to

, thcn static lclos cannot bc

octcctco, but il thc loop is rotatco or thc magnituoc ol

A is changco, thcn it is possiblc to mcasurc a

static lclo. Thc rclationship ocscribco by Fquation 18.10 is cxploitco in many magnctic lclo mcasuring
instrumcnts (scc {1]).
Iigurc 18.1 shows thc two most common inouction coil conlgurations lor mcasuring lclo strcngth.
thc air corc loop antcnna ano thc roo antcnna. Thc opcrating principlc is thc samc lor both conlgurations.
Substituting
0

c
H(i) lor in Fquation 18.10 ano, assuming thc loop is stationary with rcspcct to thc
lclo vcctor, thc tcrminal voltagc bccomcs.
(18.11)
whcrc n is thc numbcr ol turns in thc coil, ano
c
is thc cllcctivc rclativc pcrmcability ol thc corc. Thc
corc ol a roo antcnna is normally constructco ol magnctically "solt` matcrial so onc can assumc thc lux
ocnsity in thc corc is inoucco by an cxtcrnal magnctic lclo ano, thcrclorc, thc substitution abovc is valio.
With an air (no) corc, thc cllcctivc rclativc pcrmcability is onc. Thc cllcctivc pcrmcability ol an inouction
I!CURE 48.4 Inouction or scarch coil scnsors consist ol a loop ol wirc (or a solcnoio), which may or may not
surrouno a lcrromagnctic corc. (a) Air corc loop antcnna, (b) solcnoio inouction coil antcnna with lcrromagnctic corc.
e i
A
i
,

-
,
o
o

e i nA
H i
i
,

,
0 c
o
o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
coil that contains a corc is usually much grcatcr than onc ano is strongly ocpcnocnt on thc shapc ol thc
corc ano, to somc cxtcnt, on thc conlguration ol thc winoing.
Taking thc Iaplacc translorm ol Fquation 18.11 ano oivioing both siocs by H, onc obtains thc lollowing
translcr lunction T(s) lor an inouction coil antcnna.
(18.12)
whcrc I(s) T(s) H(s), I(s) ano H(s) arc thc Iaplacc translorms ol e(i) ano H(i), ano s is thc Iaplacc
translorm opcrator. Inspcction ol Fquation 18.12 rcvcals that thc magnituoc ol thc coil voltagc is pro
portional to both thc magnituoc ano lrcqucncy ol thc magnctic lclo bcing mcasurco. Thc coil constant
or scnsitivity ol thc loop antcnna is.
(18.13)
Iigurc 18.5 is thc cquivalcnt circuit lor an inouction coil antcnna. Thc actual voltagc mcasurco at thc
tcrminals ol thc loop is mooilco by thc inouctancc I, rcsistancc I, ano thc oistributco stray ano shiclo
capacitanccs rcprcscntco by thc lumpco capacitor C. Thcsc circuit paramctcrs ocpcno on thc gcomctry
ol thc corc, coil, ano winoing.
Thc clcctrostatic shiclo maoc ol nonmagnctic matcrial shown in Iigurc 18.1 is an important clcmcnt
in thc ocsign ol an inouction coil. It prcvcnts coupling ol clcctric lclos into thc coil, thcrcby assuring
that thc signal sccn at thc coil tcrminals is only that ouc to a magnctic lclo. Thc shiclo shoulo not bc
placco too closc to thc winoing sincc it contributcs to coil capacitancc ano noisc.
Thc AIr Corc Loop Antcnna
Thc air corc loop antcnna consists ol a circular or rcctangular loop containing onc or morc turns ol wirc
ano no magnctic corc. Thc oiamctcr ol thc loop is usually much grcatcr than thc oimcnsions ol thc
winoing crossscction. Thc scnsitivity ol a circular loop antcnna with a winoing insioc oiamctcr J ano
rcctangular crossscction is approximatcly.
(18.11)
whcrc i is thc thickncss ol thc winoing ano n is thc numbcr ol turns.
Thc rcsistancc ol thc coil is.
(18.15)
I!CURE 48.5 Thc inouction coil cquivalcnt circuit is a lrcqucncyocpcnocnt voltagc sourcc in scrics with an
inouctor, rcsistor, ano lumpco capacitor.
T s nAs Is
,

,

0
1
c
VmA
I nA
,

0
1
c
VsmA
I n
J i
J
i
J
r +
j
(
,
\

(
+
j
(
,
\

(
,

,
,
]
]
]
]
0
2
2
1
1 2
3
1
I n
J
J
i
J
+
j
(
,
\

(
1 1
2
w
p O
1999 by CRC Press LLC
whcrc J
w
is thc oiamctcr ol thc barc wirc ano p is its rcsistivity in O m (1.7 10
8
O m lor coppcr).
Thc inouctancc ol thc coil is morc oillcult to computc sincc it ocpcnos hcavily on thc gcomctry ol
thc coil. Thosc who arc intcrcstco in computing vcry accuratc inouctancc valucs lor a wioc varicty ol
coil shapcs shoulo consult {5]. Fquation 18.1o is a gcncral cxprcssion that givcs a gooo approximation
lor thc inouctancc ol a circular air corc coil.
(18.1o)
whcrc w is thc wioth ol thc winoing,

J is thc avcragc oiamctcr, ano | is Nagaoka`s constant.

(18.17)
Thc oistributco capacitancc ol thc coil contributcs thc most to thc ovcrall antcnna capacitancc. Thc
parasitic capacitanccs can usually bc ignorco. Fquation 18.18 can bc usco to cstimatc thc oistributco
capacitancc ol a coil.
(18.18)
whcrc r
w
is thc oiclcctric constant ol thc wirc insulation, r
l
is thc oiclcctric constant ol thc intcrlaycr
insulation il any, i
w
is thc thickncss ol thc wirc insulation, i
l
is thc thickncss ol thc intcrlaycr insulation,
ano n
l
is thc numbcr ol laycrs. Aooing a sccono laycr to a singlclaycr coil signilcantly incrcascs thc
capacitancc but, as thc numbcr ol laycrs incrcascs, thc capacitancc occrcascs.
Thc air corc loop antcnna is particularly usclul lor mcasuring magnctic lclos with lrcqucncics lrom
100 Hz to scvcral mcgahcrtz. ccausc it has a lincar rcsponsc to magnctic lclo strcngth, it has virtually
no intcrmooulation oistortion. On thc ncgativc sioc, thc sizc ol thc scnsor can gct quitc largc lor
applications that rcquirc high scnsitivitics at low lrcqucncics.
Thc Rod Antcnna
Thc roo antcnna is a gooo altcrnativc to an air corc loop antcnna. It is smallcr in sizc than a loop antcnna
with thc samc scnsitivity, ano it can bc ocsignco to opcratc at lowcr lrcqucncics. Unlortunatcly, its
rcsponsc to magnctic lclo strcngth can bc nonlincar ano thc corc aoos noisc.
Iigurc 18.1(b) is a typical conlguration lor a roo antcnna. It is basically a solcnoio with a magnctic
corc. Thc corc can havc a circular or rcctangular crossscction ano can bc maoc lrom a lcrritc, a nickcl
iron alloy, an amorphous mctal glass alloy, or somc othcr matcrial with high rclativc pcrmcability. Thc
winoing can bc wouno oircctly on thc corc or on a lorm through which thc corc is inscrtco. Insulation
is somctimcs placco bctwccn laycrs ol thc winoing to rcoucc oistributco capacitancc. An clcctrostatic
shiclo is placco arouno thc winoing to attcnuatc any clcctric lclo coupling into thc signal. Thc shiclo
has a gap that runs thc lcngth ol thc winoing. This prcvcnts circulating currcnts in thc shiclo lrom
attcnuating thc magnctic lclo within thc coil.
Thc most common roo antcnna conlguration is a corc with a circular crossscction ano a tightly
couplco winoing that runs most ol thc lcngth ol thc corc. Thc scnsitivity ol thc roo antcnna is computco
by substituting
c
in Fquation 18.13 with thc lollowing.
(18.19)
I n
J |
w
r
j
(
,
\

( 0
2
2
2
H
|
J
w
i
J
i
w

+ + +
1
1 0 15 0 o1 0 81 . . .
C
i i
Jw n
n
o
w
w w

+
,

,
,
]
]
]
]

, r r
r r
1
1 1
1
1
2
0 018511 1 .
+
+
j
(
,
\

(

, c
c
1 1
2
J
J i
1999 by CRC Press LLC
whcrc J
c
is thc corc oiamctcr ano

is thc corc avcragc cllcctivc pcrmcability. Thc corc cllcctivc or apparcnt
pcrmcability ocpcnos on its gcomctry ano initial pcrmcability, as wcll as thc winoing lcngth rclativc to
thc corc lcngth. A roo bccomcs magnctizco whcn a magnctic lclo is applico to it. In rcsponsc, a magnctic
lclo is crcatco within thc roo that opposcs thc cxtcrnally applico lclo ano rcouccs thc lux ocnsity. Thc
ocmagnctizing lclo is proportional to thc magnctization ano thc nct lclo H in thc corc is.
(18.20)
whcrc H

is thc applico cxtcrnal lclo, N is thc ocmagnctizing lactor, ano M is thc magnctization. Thc
apparcnt rclativc pcrmcability ol a corc is thc ratio ol thc lux ocnsity in thc mioolc ol thc corc to thc
lux ocnsity in air.
(18.21)
whcrc
i
is thc initial rclativc pcrmcability ol thc corc matcrial. Initial rclativc pcrmcability is thc slopc
ol thc H magnctization curvc ncar zcro applico lclo lor a closco magnctic path.
Thc valuc ol N is shapc ocpcnocnt. As thc lcngthtooiamctcr ratio n ol a roo incrcascs, N occrcascs
ano thc apparcnt rclativc pcrmcability approachcs thc initial pcrmcability. Tablc 18.3, which is rcprooucco
lrom {o], lists ocmagnctizing lactors lor a roo, prolatc cllipsoio (cigar shapc), ano oblatc cllipsoio (oisk
shapc).
Fquation 18.22 can bc usco to approximatc thc valuc ol N lor cylinorical roos with n > 10 ano
i
>
1000.
(18.22)
Thc apparcnt pcrmcability ol a roo with a small n ano largc
i
is almost cxclusivcly octcrminco by n
alonc. Tablc 18.1 lists thc magnctic propcrtics ol scvcral lcrromagnctic matcrials that can bc usco to
construct a corc.
ozorth {7] louno that thc apparcnt pcrmcability ol a roo is not constant throughout thc lcngth ol
thc roo. It rcachcs a maximum at thc ccntcr ol thc roo ano continuously orops in valuc until thc cnos
ol thc roo arc rcachco. Thc variation in pcrmcability can bc approximatco by.
TABIE 48.3 Dcmagnctizing Iactors, N lor Poos
ano Fllipsoios Magnctizco Parallcl to Iong Axis
Dimcnsional ratio
Poo
Prolatc Oblatc
(lcngth/oiamctcr) cllipsoio cllipsoio
0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1 0.27 0.3333 0.3333
2 0.11 0.1735 0.23o1
5 0.010 0.0558 0.1218
10 0.0172 0.0203 0.0o9o
20 0.00o17 0.00o75 0.03o9
50 0.00129 0.00111 0.01172
100 0.0003o 0.000130 0.0077o
200 0.000090 0.000125 0.00390
500 0.000011 0.000023o 0.00157o
1000 0.000003o 0.00000oo 0.000781
2000 0.0000009 0.0000019 0.000392
H H NM

H N


+
, 0
1 1
a
i
i
N
n
n

2 01 0 1o
10
2
. log .
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(18.23)
whcrc I is thc oistancc lrom thc ccntcr ol thc roo to thc mcasurcmcnt point, I
0
is thc hall lcngth ol thc
roo, ano I is a constant that varics lrom 0.72 to 0.9o. Thc avcragc pcrmcability sccn by thc coil is thc
intcgral ol Fquation 18.23 ovcr thc lcngth ol thc coil.
(18.21)
whcrc I
w
is thc lcngth ol thc winoing ano I
c
is thc lcngth ol thc corc. Fquation 18.21 is substitutco into
Fquation 18.19 to computc thc roo`s cllcctivc rclativc pcrmcability which is usco in Fquation 18.13 to
computc scnsitivity.
Thc inouctancc ol thc roo antcnna can bc computco using thc lollowing cquations.
(18.25)
(18.2o)
(18.27)
Thc lunction I(I
w
/I
c
) accounts lor thc variation in lux ocnsity lrom thc mioolc ol thc winoing to its cnos
ano assumcs thc winoing is ccntcrco about thc mioolc ol thc corc.
Fquations 18.15 ano 18.1o can bc usco to computc thc rcsistancc ano capacitancc ol a roo antcnna.
SIgnal CondItIonIng
To bc usclul, thc inouction coil signal must bc conoitionco using cithcr a voltagc or a currcnt amplilcr.
Iigurc 18.o illustratcs thc circuit conlgurations lor both ol thcsc signal conoitioning mcthoos. Thc voltagc
TABIE 48.4 Magnctic Propcrtics ol Typical Corc Matcrial
Namc Composition Manulacturcr
i

max
Milo stccl 0.2 C, 99 Ic 120 2000
Silicon iron 1.0 Si, 9o Ic 500 7000
CN20 NiZn Icrritc Ccramic Magnctics 800 1500
MNo0 MnZn Icrritc Ccramic Magnctics 5000 10,500
"19` Alloy 18 Ni, 52 Ic Carpcntcr o500 75,000
2o05S2 Icbasco amorphous alloy AllicoSignal 10,000 o00,000
179 Pcrmalloy 1 Mn, 79 Ni, 17 Ic Magnctics 20,000 100,000
Mumctal 5 Cu, 2 Cr, 77 Ni, 1o Ic Magnctics 20,000 100,000
HyMu "80` 1.2 Mo, 80 Ni, 15 Ic Carpcntcr 50,000 200,000
282oM NiIcbasco amorphous alloy AllicoSignal 100,000 800,000
Noie.
i
is thc slopc ol thc magnctization curvc at thc origin.
max
is thc maximum incrcmcntal
slopc ol thc magnctization curvc.

,

j
(
,
\

(
,

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
I I
I
I
a
1
0
2

j
(
,
\

(
,

,
,
,
]
]
]
]
]
a
w
c
1
2
I
I
I
I
n J i I
I

r +
, 0
2
2
1
c w
c
+
+
j
(
,
\

(

,

, , c
c
a w c
1 1
2
J
J i
I I I
I I I I I I I I I
w c w c w c w c ,

,

,
+
,
1 9088 0 8o72 1 1217 0 82o3
2 3
. . . .
1999 by CRC Press LLC
amplilcr can havc cithcr a singlccnoco or oillcrcntial input ano it can bc tunco or untunco. Thc signal
output ol thc voltagc amplilcr is proportional to thc magnituoc ano lrcqucncy ol thc lclo lor lrcqucncics
wcll bclow rcsonancc. Its output will pcak at thc rcsonant lrcqucncy ol thc coil or at thc tuning lrcqucncy.
ccausc its output signal ocpcnos on both thc lrcqucncy ano strcngth ol thc magnctic lclo, thc voltagc
amplilcr is morc suitco to narrow bano or tunco lrcqucncy applications.
In thc currcnt amplilcr conlguration, thc inouction coil tcrminals arc conncctco to a virtual grouno.
As long as thc proouct ol thc amplilcr lorwaro gain ano thc coil ohmic rcsistancc is much grcatcr than
thc lccoback rcsistor, thc output signal magnituoc is inocpcnocnt ol thc lrcqucncy ol thc magnctic lclo
bcyono thc I/I (rao s
1
) corncr ol thc coil. This rcmains truc up to thc coil`s rcsonant lrcqucncy. Ior
this rcason, thc currcnt amplilcr conlguration is particularly suitco to broaobano magnctic lclo strcngth
mcasurcmcnts. Thc currcnt amplilcr conlguration minimizcs intcrmooulation oistortion in inouction
coils with magnctic corcs. Thc currcnt lowing through thc coil proouccs a magnctic lclo that opposcs
thc ambicnt lclo. This kccps thc nct lclo in thc corc ncar zcro ano in a lincar rcgion ol thc H curvc.
Currcntamplilcrbasco inouction coil magnctomctcrs havc bccn built that havc a lat lrcqucncy
rcsponsc lrom 10 Hz to ovcr 200 kHz. Somc magnctomctcrs ocsignco lor gcophysical cxploration
applications havc low lrcqucncy corncrs that cxtcno oown to 0.1 Hz. Ior lurthcr inlormation on this
subjcct, scc {8, 9].
Thc Fluxgatc Magnctomctcr
Thc luxgatc magnctomctcr has bccn ano is thc workhorsc ol magnctic lclo strcngth instrumcnts both
on Farth ano in spacc. It is ruggco, rcliablc, physically small, ano rcquircs vcry littlc powcr to opcratc.
Thcsc charactcristics, along with its ability to mcasurc thc vcctor componcnts ol magnctic lclos ovcr a
I!CURE 48. (a) Thc amplituoc ol a voltagcamplilco inouction coil signal is proportional to thc lrcqucncy ano
strcngth ol thc lclo. (b) Thc amplituoc ol a currcntamplilco inouction coil signal is only proportional to lclo
strcngth bcyono its I/I corncr lrcqucncy.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
0.1 nT to 1 mT rangc lrom oc to scvcral kHz, makc it a vcry vcrsatilc instrumcnt. Ccologists usc thcm
lor cxploration ano gcophysicists usc thcm to stuoy thc gcomagnctic lclo (about 20 T to 75 T on thc
Farth`s surlacc). Satcllitc cnginccrs usc thcm to octcrminc ano control thc attituoc ol spacccralt, scicntists
usc thcm in thcir rcscarch, ano thc military uscs thcm in many applications, incluoing minc octcction,
vchiclc octcction, ano targct rccognition. Somc airport sccurity systcms usc thcm to octcct wcapons.
Thc Fluxgatc
Thc hcart ol thc magnctomctcr is thc fuxgaie. It is thc transouccr that convcrts a magnctic lclo into an
clcctric voltagc. Thcrc arc many oillcrcnt luxgatc conlgurations. Two ol thc morc popular oncs arc
shown in Iigurc 18.7. A vcry comprchcnsivc cxplanation ol thc luxgatc principlc ano thc oillcrcnt
luxgatc conlgurations is givcn in {10].
Thc ring corc luxgatc is constructco lrom a thin ribbon ol casily saturablc lcrromagnctic matcrial,
such as 179 Pcrmalloy wrappco arouno a bobbin to lorm a ring or toroio. As shown in Iigurc 18.8, an
altcrnating currcnt is applico through a coil that is wouno about thc toroio. This crcatcs a magnctic lclo
that circulatcs arouno thc magnctic corc. This magnctic lclo causcs thc lux in thc lcrrous matcrial to
pcriooically saturatc lrst clockwisc ano thcn countcrclockwisc. A pickup (signal) winoing is wrappco
arouno thc outsioc ol thc toroio. Whilc thc lcrrous matcrial is bctwccn saturation cxtrcmcs, it maintains
an avcragc pcrmcability much grcatcr than that ol air. Whcn thc corc is in saturation, thc corc pcrmcability
I!CURE 48.7 In Schonstcot (a) ano ring corc (b) luxgatc scnsors, thc cxcitation lclo is at right anglcs to thc signal
winoing axis. This conlguration minimizcs coupling bctwccn thc cxcitation lclo ano thc signal winoing.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
bccomcs cqual to that ol air. Il thcrc is no componcnt ol magnctic lclo along thc axis ol thc signal
winoing, thc lux changc sccn by thc winoing is zcro. Il, on thc othcr hano, a lclo componcnt is prcscnt
along thc signal winoing axis, thcn cach timc thc lcrrous matcrial gocs lrom onc saturation cxtrcmc to
thc othcr, thc lux within thc corc will changc lrom a low lcvcl to a high lcvcl. Accoroing to Iaraoay`s
law, a changing lux will prooucc a voltagc at thc tcrminals ol thc signal winoing that is proportional to
thc ratc ol changc ol lux. Ior oc ano lowlrcqucncy magnctic lclos, thc signal winoing voltagc is.
(18.28)
whcrc H Componcnt ol thc magnctic lclo bcing mcasurco
n Numbcr ol turns on thc signal winoing
A Crossscctional arca ol thc signal winoing

c
(i) Fllcctivc rclativc pcrmcability ol thc corc
I!CURE 48.8 Thc cxcitation lclo ol a luxgatc magnctomctcr altcrnatcly orivcs thc corc into positivc or ncgativc
saturation, causing thc corc`s cllcctivc pcrmcability to switch bctwccn 1 ano a largc valuc twicc cach cyclc.
e i nA
J H
Ji
nA H
J i
Ji
,


,

, 0
0
c c
1999 by CRC Press LLC
As thc corc pcrmcability altcrnatcs lrom a low valuc to a high valuc, it proouccs a voltagc pulsc at thc
signal winoing output that has an amplituoc proportional to thc magnituoc ol thc cxtcrnal magnctic
lclo ano a phasc inoicating thc oircction ol thc lclo. Thc lrcqucncy ol thc signal is twicc thc cxcitation
lrcqucncy sincc thc saturationtosaturation transition occurs twicc cach cxcitation pcrioo.
Thc oiscussion about cllcctivc pcrmcability in thc inouction coil scction applics hcrc as wcll. Consult
{10, 13] lor comprchcnsivc oiscussions about luxgatc cllcctivc pcrmcability ano signal charactcristics as
thcy rclatc to cxcitation lclo lcvcl, cxcitation wavclorm, ano winoing gcomctry.
SIgnal CondItIonIng
Thc signal lrom thc luxgatc is an amplituocmooulatco supprcssco carricr signal that is synchronous with
thc sccono harmonic ol thc cxcitation signal. In a simplc lowpowcr magnctomctcr, this signal is convcrtco
to thc basc bano using a synchronous ocmooulator, lltcrco, ano prcscntco as thc lnal output. Fxamplc
circuits arc givcn in {11, 12]. Thc accuracy ol magnctomctcrs that usc this opcnloop architccturc is limitco
by thc lincarity ol thc corc`s magnctization curvc ano is about 5% lor Farth`s lclo (o0 T) applications.
Morc prccisc ano stablc magnctomctcrs usc magnctic lclo lccoback rathcr than thc opcnloop struc
turc ocscribco abovc. A simplilco schcmatic ol a typical sccono harmonic lclo lccoback luxgatc mag
nctomctcr is shown in Iigurc 18.9. Thc circuitry to thc lclt ol thc luxgatc is callco thc cxcitation circuit.
It consists ol an oscillator tunco to twicc thc cxcitation lrcqucncy, a liplop that oiviocs thc oscillator
lrcqucncy by two, ano a powcr amplilcr orivcn by thc liplop ano, in turn, proviocs thc cxcitation
currcnt to thc cxcitation winoing.
Thc circuitry to thc right ol thc luxgatc is callco thc signal channcl circuit. It amplilcs thc output
lrom thc luxgatc signal winoing, synchronously ocmooulatcs thc ac signal using thc oscillator signal as
a rclcrcncc, intcgratcs ano amplilcs thc basc bano output, ano thcn lccos back thc output through a
rcsistor to thc signal winoing. Thc lcoback signal proouccs a magnctic lclo insioc thc scnsor that opposcs
thc cxtcrnal lclo. This kccps thc lclo insioc thc scnsor ncar zcro ano in a lincar portion ol thc magnc
tization curvc ol thc lcrromagnctic corc.
Thc low oiagram lor thc magnctomctcr is givcn in Iigurc 18.10. Thc cxtcrnal lclo H
a
is opposco by
thc lccoback lclo H
l
, ano thc oillcrcncc is convcrtco into a voltagc signal (I
s
rcprcscnts thc translcr
lunction lrom lclo to voltagc). This signal is amplilco (A), ano thc amplilco signal is convcrtco into a
currcnt I
l
ano thcn into thc lccoback lclo (I
c
rcprcscnts thc translcr lunction lrom currcnt to lclo).
Thc ovcrall translcr lunction lor thc magnctomctcr is.
(18.29)
I!CURE 48.9 Typical circuit conlguration lor a lclo lccoback luxgatc magnctomctcr. Thc scnsor output is ac
amplilco, synchronously ocmooulatco, ano lltcrco. A magnctic lclo that nulls thc ambicnt lclo at thc scnsor is
prooucco by connccting thc rcsistor I
l
bctwccn thc output ano thc signal winoing.
V
H
AI
I AI
I
0
1
a
s
c s
l

+
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc amplilcr gain is normally vcry high such that thc sccono tcrm in thc ocnominator is much largcr
than onc, ano Fquation 18.29 rcouccs to
(18.30)
Unocr thcsc circumstanccs, thc translcr lunction bccomcs almost complctcly octcrminco by thc ratio ol
I
l
(thc lccoback rcsistor) to I
c
(thc currcnttolclo coil constant ol thc scnsor winoing). oth ol thcsc
constants can bc vcry wcll controllco. Thc conscqucncc ol this circuit topology is a highly stablc ano
accuratc magnctomctcr that is inscnsitivc to circuit componcnt variations with tcmpcraturc or timc. An
accuracy ol 1% ovcr a tcmpcraturc rangc ol 80C to 80C is casily achicvablc. Accuracy ano stability
can bc improvco using a currcnt lccoback circuit, likc thc onc ocscribco in {13], that compcnsatcs lor
thc rcsistancc ol thc signal winoing or by using a scparatc lccoback winoing ano a highquality voltagc
tocurrcnt convcrtcr instcao ol a simplc lccoback rcsistor.
Thc SQLID Magnctomctcr
rian D. ]oscphson in 19o2, whilc a graouatc stuocnt at Cambriogc Univcrsity, prcoictco that supcrcon
oucting currcnt coulo low bctwccn two supcrconouctors that arc scparatco by a thin insulation laycr.
Thc magnituoc ol thc supcrconouctor (critical) currcnt through this "]oscphson junction` is allcctco by
thc prcscncc ol a magnctic lclo ano lorms thc basis lor thc SQUID magnctomctcr.
Iigurc 18.11 illustratcs thc gcncral structurc ol a ]oscphson junction ano thc voltagccurrcnt (VI)
rclationship. Two supcrconouctors (c.g., niobium) arc scparatco by a vcry thin insulating laycr (c.g.,
aluminum oxioc). Thc thickncss ol this laycr is typically 1 nm. Whcn thc tcmpcraturc ol thc junction is
rcoucco to bclow 1.2 K (2o9C), a supcrconouctor currcnt will low in thc junction with 0 V across thc
junction. Thc magnituoc ol this currcnt, callco thc critical currcnt I
c
, is a pcriooic lunction ol thc magnctic
lux prcscnt in thc junction. Its maximum magnituoc occurs lor lux valucs cqual to no
0
, whcrc o
0
is onc
lux quantum (2 lW), ano its minimum magnituoc occurs lor lux valucs cqual to (n + )o
0
. Thc pcrioo
is onc lux quantum. This phcnomcnon is callco thc "oc ]oscphson cllcct` ano is only onc ol thc
"]oscphson cllccts.`
Magnctomctcrs basco on thc Supcrconoucting Quantum Intcrlcrcncc Dcvicc (SQUID) arc currcntly
thc most scnsitivc instrumcnts availablc lor mcasuring magnctic lclo strcngth. SQUID magnctomctcrs
mcasurc thc changc in thc magnctic lclo lrom somc arbitrary lclo lcvcl, thcy oo not intrinsically mcasurc
thc absolutc valuc ol thc lclo. iomcoical rcscarch is onc ol thc morc important applications ol SQUID
magnctomctcrs. SQUID magnctomctcrs ano graoiomctcrs (mcasurc spatial variation in thc magnctic
lclo) havc thc high scnsitivitics nccoco to mcasurc thc wcak magnctic lclos gcncratco by thc booy {15].
I!CURE 48.10 lock oiagram ol a lclo lccoback luxgatc magnctomctcr. I
c
is thc currcnttolclo constant lor thc
coil. I
s
is thc lclotovoltagc transouction constant lor thc scnsor. Thc lccoback lclo H
l
opposcs thc ambicnt lclo
H
a
, thus kccping thc nct scnsor lclo vcry small.
V
H
I
I
0
a
l
c

1999 by CRC Press LLC

Othcr application arcas incluoc palcomagnctics (mcasuring rcmnant magnctism in rocks) ano magnc
totcllurics (Farth rcsistivity mcasurcmcnts). Dcscriptions ol thcsc applications as wcll as thc gcncral
thcory ol SQUIDs can bc louno in {1o]. Clark {17], onc ol thc pionccrs in SQUID magnctomctcrs,
proviocs a gooo contcmporary ovcrvicw ol SQUID tcchnology ano applications.
A oc SQUID magnctomctcr uscs two ]oscphson junctions in thc two lcgs ol a toroio as shown in
Iigurc 18.12(a). Thc toroio is biasco with a constant currcnt that cxcccos thc maximum critical currcnt
ol thc junctions. Whcn thc lux through thc toroio is an intcgral multiplc ol o
0
, thc voltagc across thc
junctions is octcrminco by thc intcrscction ol I
b
ano thc no
0
VI curvc (point A). As thc lux incrcascs,
thc critical currcnt occrcascs. Thc VI curvc ano thus thc intcrscction point movc to thc right (thc
junction voltagc incrcascs). Thc critical currcnt rcachcs a minimum whcn thc lux has incrcasco by o
0
ano thc junction voltagc is at its maximum (point ). As thc lux continucs to incrcasc, thc critical currcnt
incrcascs back towaro its maximum valuc ano thc junction voltagc occrcascs. Thus, thc pcrioo ol thc
lux cyclc is o
0
.
SIgnal CondItIonIng
Iigurc 18.13 is a block oiagram ol onc implcmcntation ol a oc SQUID magnctomctcr that can bc usco
lor wioc oynamic rangc lclo mcasurcmcnts. A largc supcrconoucting loop, which is cxposco to thc
magnctic lclo bcing mcasurco, is conncctco to a multiturn signal winoing that is magnctically couplco
oircctly to thc SQUID. At cryogcnic tcmpcraturcs, thc loop ano signal winoing cllcctivcly lorm a oc
inouction coil. Fxtcrnal lux applico to thc coil will gcncratc a currcnt in thc loop that kccps thc nct lux
within thc loop constant, cvcn lor oc magnctic lclos. Thc signal winoing magnilcs thc lux that is applico
to thc SQUID.
Thc SQUID is magnctically biasco at an optimal scnsitivity point. A small ac magnctic lclo at 100 kHz
to 500 kHz is supcrimposco on thc bias lclo. Thc output ol thc SQUID is a supprcssco carricr amplituoc
mooulatco signal whcrc thc amplituoc inoicatcs thc changc in magnctic lclo lrom thc bias point, ano
thc phasc inoicatcs thc polarity ol thc changc. Thc output signal is amplilco ano thcn synchronously
ocmooulatco oown to thc basc bano. Thc rcsulting oc signal is amplilco ano lco back through a rcsistor
to a coil couplco to thc SQUID. Thc currcnt through thc coil gcncratcs a magnctic lclo at thc SQUID
that opposcs thc applico lclo. This kccps thc SQUID opcrating point vcry ncar thc bias point. Thc scalc
I!CURE 48.11 Thc ]oscphson junction in (a) consists ol a supcrconouctor such as niobium scparatco by a thin
insulation laycr. Thc voltagc (V) vs. currcnt (I) curvc in (b) shows that a supcrconoucting currcnt lows through thc
junction with zcro volts across thc junction.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
lactor ol thc magnctomctcr ocpcnos on thc lccoback rcsistor ano thc coil constant ol thc lccoback winoing
in thc samc manncr that it oocs lor a lclo lccoback luxgatc magnctomctcr.
Thc pickup loop, signal coil, SQUID, lccoback coil ano lccoback rcsistor arc kcpt in a cryogcnic
tcmpcraturc chambcr ano, cxccpt lor thc pickup coil, arc magnctically shicloco. Thc rcst ol thc circuit
is opcratco at room tcmpcraturc.
48.3 HIgh-FIcld Vcctor Caussmctcrs
Thc Hall Effcct Caussmctcr
Thc Hall cllcct ocvicc, which is probably thc most lamiliar ano wiocly usco scnsor lor mcasuring strong
magnctic lclos, is basco on thc oiscovcry ol thc Hall cllcct by Fowin H. Hall in 1897. Thc Hall cllcct is
a conscqucncc ol thc Iorcntz lorcc law, which statcs that a moving chargc q, whcn actco upon by a
magnctic inouction lclo

, will cxpcricncc a lorcc

I that is at right anglcs to thc lclo vcctor ano thc

vclocity vcctor \ ol thc chargc as cxprcssco by thc lollowing cquation.
I!CURE 48.12 Usc ol a oc SQUID to mcasurc magnctic lux. Thc oc SQUID in (a) consists ol a supcrconouctor
loop ano two ]oscphson junctions with a bias currcnt that is grcatcr than thc maximum critical currcnt I
h
. Thc VI
curvc in (b) illustratcs how thc voltagc across thc SQUID oscillatcs with a pcrioo cqual to onc lux quantum o
0
.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
(18.31)
Thc Hall cllcct ocvicc consists ol a lat, thin rcctangular conouctor or scmiconouctor with two pairs
ol clcctroocs at right anglcs to onc anothcr as illustratco in Iigurc 18.11. An clcctric lclo I
x
is applico
along thc x or control axis. Whcn a magnctic lclo
z
is applico pcrpcnoicular to thc surlacc ol thc ocvicc,
thc lrcc chargc, which is lowing along thc xaxis as a rcsult ol I
x
, will bc oclcctco towaro thc y or Hall
voltagc axis. Sincc currcnt cannot low in thc yaxis unocr opcnloop conoitions, this will causc a builoup
ol chargc along thc yaxis that will crcatc an clcctric lclo which proouccs a lorcc opposing thc motion
ol thc chargc.
(18.32)
I!CURE 48.13 Wioc oynamic rangc oc SQUID magnctomctcr. A magnctic lclo prooucco by connccting rcsistor
I
l
bctwccn thc output ano a lccoback coil kccps thc lclo in thc SQUID within onc lux quantum ovcr its opcrating
rangc. (Aoaptco lrom Wcllstooo, Hciocn ano Clark, 1981.)
I!CURE 48.14 Hall cllcct scnsor. A magnctic lclo H applico normal to thc surlacc ol thc scnsor, which is conoucting
currcnt along thc xoircction, will gcncratc a voltagc along thc yoircction. I
x
is thc applico clcctric lclo along thc
xoircction, ano I
y
is thc Hall cllcct clcctric lclo along thc yoircction.



I q I \ +
,
I \
y x z

1999 by CRC Press LLC

whcrc \
x
is thc avcragc orilt vclocity ol thc clcctrons (or majority carricrs). In a conouctor that contains
n lrcc chargcs pcr unit volumc having an avcragc orilt vclocity ol \
x
, thc currcnt ocnsity is.
(18.33)
ano
(18.31)
whcrc I
H
is callco thc Hall cocllcicnt.
A scmiconouctor is trcatco in tcrms ol thc mobility (orilt vclocity/lclo) ol thc majority carricr
(clcctron or holc) ano conouctivity o. In this casc,
(18.35)
Thcrclorc,
(18.3o)
Thc valuc ol I
H
varics substantially lrom onc matcrial to anothcr ano is both tcmpcraturc ano lclo
magnituoc ocpcnocnt. Its charactcristics can bc controllco to a ccrtain cxtcnt by ooping thc basc matcrial
with somc impuritics. Ior cxamplc, ooping gcrmanium with arscnic can rcoucc thc tcmpcraturc ocpcn
ocncc at thc cxpcnsc ol magnituoc.
Thc voltagc mcasurco across thc yaxis tcrminals is thc intcgral ol thc clcctric lclo along thc yaxis.
Il a constant control currcnt I is lowing along thc x axis, thcn.
(18.37)
ano thc mcasurco output voltagc is.
(18.38)
whcrc i is thickncss (m) ano w is thc oistancc bctwccn thc yaxis tcrminals.
Anothcr charactcristic spccilco by manulacturcrs ol Hall cllcct ocviccs is thc magnctic scnsitivity y
b
at thc ratco control currcnt I
c
.
(18.39)
Although conouctors such as coppcr (Cu) can bc usco to makc a Hall cllcct ocvicc, scmiconouctor
matcrials, such as gallium arscnioc (CaAs), inoium antimonioc (InSb), ano inoium arscnioc (InAs),
prooucc thc highcst ano most stablc Hall cocllcicnts. InAs, bccausc ol its combinco low tcmpcraturc
cocllcicnt ol scnsitivity (<0.1%/C), low rcsistancc, ano rclativcly gooo scnsitivity, is thc matcrial lavorco
by commcrcial manulacturcrs ol Hall cllcct ocviccs.
} qn\
x x

I
}
qn
I }
y
x z
H x z

I I I
}
y x z x
x
ano
o
I } I
y x z H
ano

o o
}
I
wi
x

e
I I
i
y
H z

y
b
y
z
H c

e

I I
i
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc typical control currcnt lor Hall cllcct ocviccs is 100 mA, but somc oo opcratc at currcnts as low
as 1 mA. Scnsitivitics rangc lrom 10 mV/T to 1.1 V/T. Iincarity rangcs lrom % to 2% ovcr thcir ratco
opcrating lclo rangc. Thc control input ano thc voltagc output rcsistancc arc typically in thc rangc ol
1 O to 3 O. Thc scnsor clcmcnt is usually tiny (on thc orocr ol 10 mm squarc by 0.5 mm thick), ano a
thrccaxis vcrsion can bc housco in a vcry small packagc. Thcsc ocviccs arc most cllcctivc lor mcasuring
lux ocnsitics ranging lrom 50 T to 30 T.
SIgnal CondItIonIng
A simplc Hall cllcct gaussmctcr can bc constructco using thc signal conoitioning circuit shown in
Iigurc 18.15. Thc voltagc rclcrcncc, opcrational amplilcr, ano scnsc rcsistor I
s
lorm a prccision constant
currcnt sourcc lor thc Hall cllcct ocvicc control currcnt I
c
. Ior bcst pcrlormancc, thc voltagc rclcrcncc
ano I
s
shoulo bc vcry stablc with tcmpcraturc ano timc. A gcncralpurposc opcrational amplilcr can bc
usco lor low control currcnts. A powcr amplilcr is rcquirco lor control currcnts abovc 20 mA.
Thc Hall voltagc can bc conoitionco ano amplilco by any high input impcoancc (>1 kO) oillcrcntial
amplilcr. A prccision instrumcntation amplilcr is a gooo choicc bccausc it has aocquatc input impco
ancc, its gain can bc octcrminco by a stablc rcsistor, ano thc amplilcr zcro ollsct trim rcsistor can bc
usco to canccl thc zcro ollsct ol thc Hall cllcct ocvicc. Somc ocviccs rcquirc a loao rcsistor across thc
Hall voltagc tcrminal to achicvc optimum lincarity.
Thc zcro ollsct ano 1/I noisc ol thc Hall voltagc amplilcr limit thc pcrlormancc ol a Hall cllcct
gaussmctcr lor low lclo strcngth mcasurcmcnts. Somctimcs, thcsc cllccts can bc rcoucco by using an ac
prccision currcnt sourcc. Thc ac amplituoc mooulatco Hall voltagc can thcn bc amplilco in a morc
lavorablc lrcqucncy bano ano synchronously octcctco to cxtract thc Hall voltagc signal. Il thc lclo to bc
mcasurco rcquircs this amount ol signal conoitioning, it probably is bcttcr to usc a luxgatc magnctomctcr
lor thc application.
Thc MagnctorcsIstIvc Caussmctcr
Thc magnctorcsistancc cllcct was lrst rcportco by William Thomson (Ioro Kclvin) in thc mioolc ol thc
19
th
ccntury. Hc louno that a magnctic lclo applico to a lcrromagnctic matcrial causco its rcsistivity to
changc. Thc amount ol changc ocpcnos on thc magnctization magnituoc ano thc oircction in which thc
currcnt usco to mcasurc rcsistivity is lowing. Nickcliron alloys show thc grcatcst changc in rcsistivity
(about 5% maximum). Iigurc 18.1o illustratcs how thc rcsistivity changcs in Pcrmalloy (a nickcliron
alloy) lor a lclo applico parallcl to thc currcnt low. As magnctic lclo is incrcasco, thc changc in rcsistivity
incrcascs ano asymptotically approachcs its maximum valuc whcn thc matcrial approachcs saturation.
ozorth {o] points out that thc shapc ol thc curvc ano thc magnituoc ol thc changc ocpcno on thc
I!CURE 48.15 Fxamplc ol how to construct a Hall cllcct gaussmctcr. Thc opcrational amplilcr ano rcsistor I
s
lorm a stablc constantcurrcnt sourcc lor thc Hall cllcct scnsor. An instrumcntation or oillcrcntial amplilcr amplilcs
ano scalcs thc Hall voltagc. A loao rcsistor is somctimcs rcquirco across thc Hall voltagc output tcrminals.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
composition ol thc alloy. Pcrmalloy with 80% Ni ano 20% Ic proviocs a high magnctorcsistancc cllcct
with ncarzcro magnctostriction ano is a lavoritc matcrial lor magnctorcsistors.
Thc changc in rcsistivity in pcrmalloy llm {18] is also a lunction ol thc anglc bctwccn thc magnc
tization oircction ano thc currcnt oircction.
(18.10)
whcrc Ap
m
is thc magnctorcsistivity anisotropy changc ano p
0
is thc rcsistivity lor r/2.
It was mcntionco carlicr that magnctic matcrials havc anisotropic magnctic propcrtics (thcir magnctic
propcrtics arc oircction ocpcnocnt). Thc physical shapc ol an objcct (scc thc oiscussion on ocmagnctizing
lactor abovc) ano thc conoitions that cxist ouring labrication strongly octcrminc its anisotropic charac
tcristics. A thin long llm ol pcrmalloy can bc maoc to havc highly uniaxial anisotropic propcrtics il it
is cxposco to a magnctizing lclo ouring ocposition. This charactcristic is cxploitco in thc anisotropic
magnctorcsistancc (AMP) scnsor.
Thc basic rcsistor clcmcnt in an AMP is a thin rcctangular shapco llm as shown in Iigurc 18.17. Onc
axis, callco thc anisotropy or casy axis, has a much highcr susccptibility to magnctization than thc othcr
two. Thc casy axis is normally along thc lcngth ol thc llm. ccausc ol its thinncss, thc axis normal to
thc llm has virtually no magnctic susccptibility. Thc axis transvcrsc to thc casy axis (across thc wioth)
has vcry littlc susccptibility as wcll.
A bias lclo H
b
is usco to saturatc thc magnctization along thc casy axis ano cstablish thc magnctization
oircction lor zcro cxtcrnal lclo. Ior a simplilco analysis, thc llm can bc mooclco as a singlc oomain.
I!CURE 48.1 Changc in rcsistivity in a lcrromagnctic matcrial. As lclo is applico, thc rcsistivity changcs rapioly
at lrst. As thc matcrial approachcs magnctic lux saturation, thc rcsistivity changc approachcs its maximum valuc.
I!CURE 48.17 An AMP rcsistor clcmcnt. During labrication, a magnctic lclo is applico along thc strip`s lcngth to
magnctizc it ano cstablish its casy axis. Currcnt I is passco through thc llm at 15 to thc casy or anisotropic axis. A
magnctic lclo H
a
applico at right anglcs to thc magnctization vcctor M causcs thc magnctization vcctor to rotatc
ano thc magnctorcsistancc to changc.
p p p
,
+
0
2
A
m
cos
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc cllcct ol an cxtcrnal lclo in thc planc ol thc llm ano normal to thc anisotropy axis is to rotatc thc
magnctization vcctor ano, accoroing to Fquation 18.10, changc thc rcsistivity. Kwiatkowski ano Tumanski
{19] statco that thc changc in rcsistancc ol thc llm can bc approximatco by Fquation 18.11.
(18.11)
whcrc |
a
is thc normalizco cxtcrnally applico lclo (i.c., |
a
H
a
/H
k
), I
s
is thc nominal rcsistancc, ano
Ap
m
/p is thc maximum rcsistivity changc. H
k
is thc anisotropy lclo. Optimum lincar pcrlormancc is
obtainco whcn r/1 ano Fquation 18.11 rcouccs to.
(18.12)
Thc anisotropy lclo is givcn by.
(18.13)
whcrc H
k0
is thc llm anisotropy lclo, N is thc ocmagnctizing lactor (= thickncss(i)/wioth(w)) ano M
s
is thc saturation magnctization.
An AMP is constructco using long thin llm scgmcnts ol ocpositco pcrmalloy. During ocposition, a
magnctic lclo is applico along thc lcngth ol thc llm to cstablish its casy axis ol magnctization. Thc shapc
ol thc llm also lavors thc lcngth as an casy axis. As shown in Iigurc 18.18, a scrics ol thcsc pcrmalloy
llms is conncctco togcthcr to lorm thc magnctorcsistor. Thc currcnt is lorcco to low at a 15 anglc to
thc casy axis by ocpositing thin strips ol highly conouctivc matcrial (c.g., golo) across thc pcrmalloy llm.
Thc lcvcl ol magnctization ol thc llm is controllco by a bias lclo that is crcatco through thc ocposition
ol a thin laycr ol cobalt ovcr thc rcsistors, which is thcn magnctizco parallcl to thc casy axis ol thc
pcrmalloy.
I!CURE 48.18 Magnctorcsistor construction. (a) A typical AMP clcmcnt consists ol multiplc strips ol pcrmalloy
conncctco togcthcr in a scrpcntinc pattcrn. Currcnt shunts lorcc thc currcnt to low through thc pcrmalloy at 15
to thc casy axis. (b) A closcup vicw.
A
A
I I | | | = +
j
(
,
\

( s
m
a a a
p
p

2 2
2 1 2
1
2
2 cos sin cos
A
A
I I
H H
H =
+
s
m
k b
a
p
p
1
H H NM
k k s
+
, 0
2
2
1999 by CRC Press LLC
A typical AMP scnsor suitablc lor a gaussmctcr or magnctomctcr consists ol lour AMPs conncctco
in a Whcatstonc briogc as shown in Iigurc 18.19. Thc translcr lunction polarity ol thc A ano D rcsistors
is maoc to bc oppositc that ol thc ano C rcsistors by rotating thc currcnt shunt 90. This complimcntary
arrangcmcnt cnhanccs thc output voltagc signal lor a givcn lclo by a lactor ol lour ovcr a singlc rcsistor.
Kwiatkowski ano Tumanski {19] showco that thc translcr lunction lor thc briogc conlguration is
ocscribco by.
(18.11)
Whcrc.
(18.15)
(18.1o)
Ior bcst lincarity, H
a
< 0.1 H
k
. Thc lincarity ol thc briogc can bc controllco ouring labricationby aojusting
thc I /w ratio ano H
k0
. Thc bias lclo can also bc usco to optimizc lincarity ano cstablish thc mcasurcmcnt
lclo rangc. Somc translcr lunctions lor a typical AMP briogc {20] arc shown in Iigurc 18.20. A morc
comprchcnsivc oiscussion ol AMP thcory can bc louno in {2123].
SIgnal CondItIonIng
Convcntional Whcatstonc briogc signal conoitioning circuits can bc usco to proccss thc AMP briogc.
Thc briogc scnsitivity ano zcro ollsct arc proportional to thc briogc voltagc, so it is important to usc a
wcllrcgulatco supply with low noisc ano gooo tcmpcraturc stability.
I!CURE 48.19 AMP briogc scnsor. In an AMP briogc, thc currcnt shunts ol rcsistors A ano D arc thc samc ano
rcvcrsco lrom ano C. Thus, thc rcsistors on oiagonal lcgs ol thc briogc havc thc samc rcsponsc to an applico lclo
ano oppositc that ol thc othcr oiagonal pair. riogc lcg rcsistancc varics lrom 1 kO to 100 kO.
\ II | |
s
m
a a
A
A
p
p
r cos2 1
2
cos2
2
0
2 2
2
0
Ar
+
,
H H NM
H H
k k s
k k
|
H
H H
a
a
k b

+
1999 by CRC Press LLC
As Fquation 18.11 shows, thc polarity ol thc translcr lunction is octcrminco by thc polarity ol (H
k
+
H
b
). Il thc scnsor is cxposco to an cxtcrnal lclo that is strong cnough to rcvcrsc this lclo, thcn thc
translcr lunction polarity will rcvcrsc. To ovcrcomc this ambiguity, thc polarity shoulo bc cstablishco
prior to making a mcasurcmcnt. This can bc accomplishco by momcntarily applying a strong magnctic
lclo along thc casy axis ol thc AMP briogc. Somc commcrcial AMP briogcs comc with a builtin mcthoo
lor pcrlorming this action.
Iigurc 18.21 is a block oiagram lor a signal conoitioncr that takcs aovantagc ol thc bias lclo polarity
lipping propcrty to climinatc zcro ollsct crrors ano low lrcqucncy 1/I noisc. A squarc wavc oscillator is
usco to altcrnatcly changc thc oircction ol thc bias lclo ano thus thc polarity ol thc translcr lunction. Thc
ouration ol thc currcnt usco to sct thc bias lclo oircction shoulo bc short in orocr to minimizc powcr
consumption. Thc amplituoc ol thc ac signal lrom thc briogc is proportional to thc lclo magnituoc, ano
its phasc rclativc to thc oscillator givcs thc lclo oircction. This signal can bc amplilco ano thcn phasc
octcctco to cxtract thc lclorclatco voltagc. Optionally, thc output signal can bc lco back through a coil
that proouccs a magnctic lclo opposing thc lclo bcing mcasurco. This lccoback arrangcmcnt makcs thc
AMP briogc a null octcctor ano minimizcs thc inlucncc ol changcs in its translcr lunction on ovcrall
pcrlormancc. Ol coursc, thc aooco circuitry incrcascs thc sizc, cost, ano complcxity ol thc instrumcnt.
48.4 Scalar Magnctomctcrs
Scalar magnctomctcrs mcasurc thc magnituoc ol thc magnctic lclo vcctor by cxploiting thc atomic ano
nuclcar propcrtics ol mattcr. Thc two most wiocly usco scalar magnctomctcrs arc thc proton prcccssion
ano thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr. Whcn opcratco unocr thc right conoitions, thcsc instrumcnts
havc cxtrcmcly high rcsolution ano accuracy ano arc rclativcly inscnsitivc to oricntation. Thcy both havc
scvcral common opcrating limitations. Thc instrumcnts rcquirc thc magnctic lclo to bc unilorm through
out thc scnsing clcmcnt volumc. Thcy havc a limitco magnctic lclo magnituoc mcasurcmcnt rangc.
typically 20 T to 100 T. Ano thcy havc limitations with rcspcct to thc oricntation ol thc magnctic lclo
vcctor rclativc to thc scnsor clcmcnt.
I!CURE 48.20 Typical AMP briogc scnsor translcr lunctions. Thc scnsitivity ol an AMP briogc can bc aojustco by
changing its bias lclo. Incrcascs in scnsitivity arc accompanico by corrcsponoing occrcascs in rangc.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr uscs a strong magnctic lclo to polarizc thc protons in a hyoro
carbon ano thcn octccts thc prcccssion lrcqucncy ol thc protons whilc thcy occay to thc nonpolarizco
statc altcr thc polarizing lclo is turnco oll. Thc prcccssion lrcqucncy is proportional to thc magnituoc
ol any ambicnt magnctic lclo that is prcscnt altcr thc polarizing lclo is rcmovco. This sampling ol thc
magnctic lclo strcngth through thc polarizclistcn scqucncc makcs thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr
rcsponsc vcry slow. Maximum ratcs ol only a lcw samplcs pcr sccono arc typical. ccausc ol its ocpcnocncc
on atomic constants, thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr is thc primary stanoaro lor calibrating systcms
usco to gcncratc magnctic lclos ano calibratc magnctomctcrs.
Thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr is basco on thc Zccman cllcct. Zccman oiscovcrco that applying
a lclo to atoms, which arc cmitting or absorbing light, will causc thc spcctral lincs ol thc atoms to split
into a sct ol ncw spcctral lincs that arc much closcr togcthcr than thc normal lincs. Thc cncrgyrclatco
lrcqucncy intcrval bctwccn thcsc hypcrlnc lincs is proportional to thc magnituoc ol thc applico lclo.
Thcsc cncrgy lcvcls rcprcscnt thc only possiblc cncrgy statcs that an atom can posscss. Thc optically
pumpco magnctomctcr cxploits this charactcristic by optically stimulating atoms to prooucc an ovcr
populatco cncrgy statc in onc ol thc hypcrlnc spcctral lincs ano thcn causing thc cncrgy statc to
ocpopulatc using an PI magnctic lclo. Thc PI lrcqucncy rcquirco to ocpopulatc thc cncrgy statc is cqual
to thc spcctral oillcrcncc ol thc hypcrlnc lincs prooucco by a magnctic lclo ano, thcrclorc, is proportional
to thc magnctic lclo strcngth. Thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr can bc usco to samplc thc magnctic
I!CURE 48.21 Fxamplc AMP gaussmctcr. Thc magnctization oircction can bc altcrnatcly lippco to climinatc zcro
ollsct. Thc rcsulting ac signal can thcn bc amplilco ano synchronously phascoctcctco to rccovcr thc lclorclatco
signal. Optionally, thc rangc ano stability ol thc AMP gaussmctcr can bc incrcasco by connccting thc output voltagc
through a rcsistor to a lccoback coil that proouccs a lclo that nulls thc applico lclo.
1999 by CRC Press LLC
lclo at a much highcr ratc than thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr ano gcncrally can achicvc a highcr
rcsolution. Thc samplc ratc ano instrumcnt rcsolution arc intcrocpcnocnt.
Thc Proton PrcccssIon Magnctomctcr
Thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr works on thc principlc that a spinning nuclcus, which has both
angular momcntum

I ano a magnctic momcnt

p
, will prcccss about a magnctic lclo likc a gyroscopc,
as shown in Iigurc 18.22. Thc prcccssion lrcqucncy u
p
is proportional to thc applico lclo. Whcn thc
magnctic lclo

H
a
is applico to thc nuclcus, it will prooucc a torquc.
(18.17)
on thc nuclcus. ccausc thc nuclcus has angular momcntum, this torquc will causc thc nuclcus to prcccss
about thc oircction ol thc lclo. At cquilibrium, thc rclationship bctwccn thc torquc, prcccssion ratc, ano
angular momcntum is.
(18.18)
Solving lor thc magnituoc ol thc (Iarmor) prcccssion lrcqucncy, onc lnos that.
(18.19)
whcrc y is callco thc gyromagnctic ratio ano cquals (2.o75152o 0.0000008) 10
8
T
1
s
1
.
Iigurc 18.23 is a block oiagram ol a proton prcccssion magnctomctcr. Thc scnsor is a containcr ol
hyorocarbon rich in lrcc hyorogcn nuclci. A solcnoio wrappco arouno thc containcr is usco to both
polarizc thc nuclci ano octcct thc prcccssion causco by thc ambicnt lclo. clorc thc polarizing lclo is
applico, thc magnctic momcnts ol thc nuclci arc ranoomly oricntco, ano thc nct magnctization is zcro.
Application ol thc polarizing lclo (typically 3 mT to 10 mT) causcs thc nuclci to prcccss about thc lclo.
Thc prcccssion axis can bc parallcl or antiparallcl (nuclcar magnctic momcnt pointing in thc oircction
ol thc lclo) to thc applico lclo. Irom a quantum mcchanical stanopoint, thc antiparallcl statc is a lowcr
cncrgy lcvcl than thc parallcl statc. In thc abscncc ol thcrmal agitation, which causcs collisions bctwccn
atoms, thc luio woulo rcmain unmagnctizco. Whcn a collision occurs, thc parallcl prcccssionaxis nuclci
losc cncrgy ano switch to thc antiparallcl statc. Altcr a short timc, thcrc arc morc nuclci with magnctic
I!CURE 48.22 Nuclcar prcccssion. A spinning proton with angular momcntum I ano magnctic momcnt
p
, whcn
subjcctco to a magnctic lclo H
a
, will prcccss about thc lclo at an angular ratc u
p
cqual to
p
H
a
/I.

T H
p a

p p
u

H I
a
u y
p
p

j
(
,
\

(

I
H H
a a
1999 by CRC Press LLC
momcnts pointing in thc oircction ol thc lclo than away lrom it, ano thc luio rcachcs an cquilibrium
magnctization M
0
. Thc cquation that rclatcs magnctization builoup to timc is.
(18.50)
whcrc t
c
is thc spinlatticc rclaxation timc.
Thc cquilibrium magnctization is basco on thcrmooynamic consiocrations. Irom oltzmann statistics
lor a systcm with spins ol .
(18.51)
whcrc n
p
is thc numbcr ol prcccssion spin axcs parallcl to H
a
, n
a
is thc numbcr ol prcccssion spin axcs
antiparallcl to H
a
, | is oltzmann`s constant, ano T is tcmpcraturc (kclvin). Il n is thc numbcr ol magnctic
momcnts pcr unit volumc, thcn.
(18.52)
I!CURE 48.23 Typical proton prcccssion magnctomctcr. A polarizing lclo is applico to thc hyorocarbon whcn S1
is closco. Thc amplilcr input is shortco to prcvcnt switching transicnts lrom ovcroriving it. Altcr a lcw scconos, S1
is opcnco ano thc coil is conncctco to thc signal proccssor to mcasurc thc Iarmor lrcqucncy.
M i M e
i
,

,

0
1
t
c
n
n
e
H |T p
a
a

2
p
n n n n e
H |T
+ +
j
(
\

p a a
a
1
2
p
1999 by CRC Press LLC
ano
(18.53)
Oncc thc luio has rcachco cquilibrium magnctization, thc lclo is rcmovco ano thc nuclci arc allowco
to prcccss about thc local ambicnt lclo until thcy bccomc ranoomizco again. This proccss ol cxcita
tionrclaxation can takc as long as scvcral scconos.
Thc hyorocarbon spinlatticc rclaxation timc can bc aojustco by mixing paramagnctic salts, such as
lcrrous nitratc, into thc solution. Thc traocoll in rcoucco rclaxation timc is incrcasco signaltonoisc
ano rcsolution. cnzcnc is a gooo gcncralpurposc hyorocarbon that can bc usco in a proton prcccssion
magnctomctcr.
SIgnal CondItIonIng
Thc block oiagram shown in Iigurc 18.23 is an cxamplc ol thc signal conoitioning rcquirco lor a proton
prcccssion magnctomctcr. Thc coil surrounoing thc bottlc containing thc hyorocarbon scrvcs two pur
poscs. At thc bcginning ol a mcasurcmcnt, thc currcnt sourcc is conncctco to thc coil to gcncratc thc
magnctic lclo that polarizcs thc luio. This lclo is on thc orocr ol 10 mT. Altcr a lcw scconos, thc currcnt
sourcc is oisconncctco ano thc coil, which now has a occaying nuclcar prcccssion signal at its output, is
conncctco to thc input ol thc amplilcr. Thc signal is amplilco, lltcrco, ano thcn thc pcrioo ol thc Iarmor
lrcqucncy is mcasurco, avcragco, scalco, ano prcscntco to thc uscr in magnctic lclo units on a oigital
oisplay.
Thc scalc lactor ol thc proton prcccssion magnctomctcr is basco on thc gyromagnctic ratio, which is
0.012579 Hz nT
1
. High rcsolution, up to 0.01 nT, is achicvco by mcasuring thc pcrioo ol thc signal rathcr
than thc lrcqucncy. Thc signal lrcqucncy can bc oivioco oown ano usco to gatc a highlrcqucncy oscillator
that is oriving a countcr.
Thc sampling ol thc lclo is controllco manually in many commcrcially availablc proton prcccssion
magnctomctcrs. Somc magnctomctcrs havc an intcrnally controllco samplc ratc. Thc samplc ratc ano
rcsolution arc invcrscly rclatco to onc anothcr. A highcr samplc ratc proouccs a poorcr rcsolution.
Thc OptIcally Pumpcd Magnctomctcr
As cxplainco carlicr, thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr is basco on thc Zccman cllcct. This cllcct is
most pronouncco in alkalinc vapors (rubioium, lithium, ccsium, sooium, ano potassium). Iigurc 18.21
is thc hypcrlnc spcctral structurc lor thc valcncc clcctrons ol rubioium (Pb) 85, which is commonly
usco in thcsc typcs ol magnctomctcrs. Thc cncrgyrclatco lrcqucncy intcrval bctwccn thcsc hypcrlnc
lincs is proportional to thc applico lclo. Thc magnctic quantum numbcr n is rclatco to thc angular
momcntum numbcr ano spccilcs thc possiblc componcnt magnituoc ol thc magnctic momcnt along
thc applico lclo. Thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr takcs aovantagc ol this charactcristic.
Transitions occur bctwccn lcvcls ol oillcrcnt n valucs ano obcy thc rulc that thc changc in n can only
havc thc valucs 0, 1, ano 1. Tablc 18.5 lists thc rclationship bctwccn thc polarization ol thc light
stimulating thc transition ano thc allowablc changc in n.
Whcn not optically cxcitco, thc cncrgy statcs ol thc valcncc clcctrons will bc oistributco accoroing to
oltzmann statistics ano will bc in a statc ol cquilibrium. Il thc clcctrons arc cxcitco with circularly
polarizco light at thc D1 lrcqucncy (791.8 nm wavclcngth), thcy will absorb photons ano transition lrom
thc
2
S
1/2
statc to thc
2
P
1/2
statc accoroing to thc transition rulcs. Thc cxcitco clcctrons will thcn lall back
in a ranoom lashion to thc lowcr statcs, bcing oistributco with an cqual probability among all thc n statcs.
ut thc rulcs statc that thc changc in n can only bc 1 or 1 lor polarizco light. Il onc uscs right
circularly polarizco light, thcn thc changc in n can only bc 1, ano thc clcctrons in thc n 3 lcvcl ol thc
2
S
1/2
statc cannot transition sincc thcrc is no n 1 lcvcl at thc
2
P
1/2
statc. Thcrclorc, thcsc clcctrons rcmain
in thc n 3 statc. All othcr clcctrons transition to thc highcr statc ano thcn lall back to thc lowcr statc
M n n
n H
|T
0
2

,
=

p a
a
p
p
1999 by CRC Press LLC
with cqual probability ol arriving at any ol thc n lcvcls, incluoing n 3. Thus, thc n 3 lcvcl llls up,
ano thc othcr lcvcls cmpty until all thc clcctrons arc in thc n 3 lcvcl, ano no morc transitions to thc
highcr statc can takc placc. Pumping stops.
Whcn pumping bcgins, thc vapor is opaquc. As timc gocs on, lcss clcctrons arc availablc lor absorbing
photons, ano thc vapor bccomcs morc transparcnt until, lnally, pumping action stops ano thc vapor is
complctcly transparcnt.
Il a small PI magnctic lclo at thc Iarmor lrcqucncy is applico at right anglcs to thc magnctic lclo
bcing mcasurco, thc clcctrons in thc n 3 statc will bc ocpumpco to thc othcr n lcvcls, making thcm
availablc lor lurthcr pumping. Thc optically pumpco magnctomctcr cxploits this situation in a positivc
lccoback arrangcmcnt to prooucc an oscillator at thc Iarmor lrcqucncy.
Thc scalc lactors lor optically pumpco magnctomctcrs arc signilcantly highcr than lor thc proton
prcccssion magnctomctcr. Tablc 18.o lists thcsc scalc lactors lor a numbcr ol alkali vapors.
I!CURE 48.24 Pb85 cncrgy oiagram. Whcn a magnctic lclo is applico, thc cncrgy lcvcls split into Zccman sublcvcls
that oivcrgc as thc lclo incrcascs. Quantum mcchanical lactors octcrminc thc numbcr ol sublcvcls at cach primary
cncrgy lcvcl.
TABIE 48.5 Thc Allowablc Changc in n
Whcn ]umping lrom Onc Fncrgy Icvcl to
Anothcr Dcpcnos on thc Polarization ol
thc Iight Causing thc Transition
Polarization n
Iclt circular 1
Parallcl 0
Pight circular 1
1999 by CRC Press LLC
As a rcsult, thc samplc ratc ano rcsolution can bc much highcr. A rcsolution ol 0.005 nT is possiblc.
Sampling ratcs can bc as high as 15 samplcs pcr sccono.
SIgnal CondItIonIng
Dcscriptions ol scvcral optically pumpco magnctomctcrs ano thcir opcrating principlcs can bc louno in
{212o]. Thcrc arc a numbcr ol oillcrcnt signal conoitioning arrangcmcnts that can bc usco to ocrivc a
usclul rcaoout ol thc mcasurco lclos. Two ol thc morc common mcthoos arc ocscribco in {2o] ano arc
shown in Iigurc 18.25.
In thc scrvoco typc shown in Iigurc 18.25(a), thc magnctic lclo bcing mcasurco ano thc PI lclo arc
coaxial. Thc lrcqucncy ol thc PI oscillator is mooulatco with a lxco lowlrcqucncy oscillator. This causcs
thc PI lrcqucncy to swccp through thc Iarmor lrcqucncy. Il thc swccpco PI oscillator is not ccntcrco
about thc Iarmor lrcqucncy, thc photoccll output signal will contain a lunoamcntal componcnt ol thc
PI mooulation lrcqucncy. Thc phasc ol thc signal rclativc to thc mooulator oscillator octcrmincs whcthcr
thc ccntral PI lrcqucncy is abovc or bclow thc Iarmor lrcqucncy. Thc photoccll output is phascoctcctco
to prooucc an crror voltagc that is usco to orivc thc PI lrcqucncy towaro thc Iarmor lrcqucncy. Thc PI
lrcqucncy can bc mcasurco to octcrminc thc magnctic lclo. Il a lincar voltagc controllco oscillator is
usco as thc PI oscillator, its control voltagc can also bc usco as an output sincc it is a mcasurc ol thc
Iarmor lrcqucncy.
Thc autooscillating typc shown in Iigurc 18.25(b) is basco on thc transmission ol a polarizco bcam
that is at right anglcs to thc lclo bcing mcasurco. Thc intcnsity ol this crossbcam will bc mooulatco at
thc Iarmor lrcqucncy. Thc photoccll signal will bc shiltco by 90 rclativc to thc PI lclo. y amplilying
thc photoccll signal, shilting it 90 ano lccoing it back to orivc thc PI lclo coil, an oscillator is crcatco
at thc Iarmor lrcqucncy. In practicc, only onc light sourcc is usco, ano thc lclo bcing mcasurco is sct
at an anglc ol 15.
DchnIng Tcrms
Anisotropic: Thc matcrial propcrty ocpcnos on oircction.
Caussmeter: An instrumcnt usco to mcasurc magnctic lclos grcatcr than 1 mT.
!nduced magnetization: Thc objcct`s magnctization is inoucco by an cxtcrnal magnctic lclo ano
oisappcars whcn thc inoucing lclo is rcmovco.
!nitial permeability: Thc slopc at thc origin ol thc magnctization curvc.
!sotropic: Thc matcrial propcrty is thc samc in all oircctions.
Magnetic dipole moment: A vcctor quantity that ocscribcs thc strcngth ano oircction ol a magnctic
lclo sourcc, such as a small currcnt loop or spinning atomic nuclcus.
Magnetically hard"material: Thc matcrial has a signilcant rcsioual (pcrmancnt) magnctization altcr
an cxtcrnal magnctic lclo is rcmovco.
Magnetically soft" material: Thc matcrial`s magnctization is inoucco by an cxtcrnal magnctic lclo
ano thc matcrial has no signilcant rcsioual (pcrmancnt) magnctization altcr thc lclo is rcmovco.
TABIE 48. Thc Changc in
Ircqucncy lor a Changc in Iiclo Is
Much Highcr in Optically Pumpco
Magnctomctcrs Than in Proton
Prcccssion Magnctomctcrs
Alkali Scalc lactor
(Hz nT
1
)
Pb85 1.oo737
Pb87 ~7
Ccsium 3.198o
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Magnetization curve: A plot ol lux ocnsity vs. magnctic lclo H lor an initially unmagnctizco
lcrromagnctic matcrial.
Magnetization: A vcctor quantity ocscribing thc avcragc ocnsity ano oircction ol magnctic oipolc
momcnts.
I!CURE 48.25 Two cxamplcs ol optically pumpco scalar magnctomctcrs. Thc scrvoco magnctomctcr. (a) slightly
mooulatcs thc PI lclo at a low lrcqucncy, causing thc vapor transmissivity to mooulatc. A phasc octcctor proviocs
an crror signal that is usco to lock thc PI oscillator to thc Iarmor lrcqucncy. (b) A sclloscillating magnctomctcr.
thc transmissivity ol thc vapor, at right anglcs to thc applico lclo, is maoc to oscillatc at thc Iarmor lrcqucncy by
phascshilting thc octcctco light mooulation ano lccoing it back to thc PI lclo gcncrator. (Aoaptco lrom Hartmann,
1972.)
1999 by CRC Press LLC
Magnetometer: An instrumcnt usco to mcasurc magnctic lclos with magnituocs up to 1 mT.
Magnetoresistance: Thc changc in thc clcctrical rcsistivity ol a matcrial in rcsponsc to an applico
magnctic lclo.
Maximum permeability: Thc maximum slopc ol thc linc orawn lrom thc origin ol thc magnctization
curvc to a point on thc magnctization curvc.
Permanent magnetization: Thc sourcc ol an objcct`s magnctization is intcrnal ano oocs not ocpcno
on thc prcscncc ol an cxtcrnal lclo.
Permeability: A lunction that ocscribcs thc rclationship bctwccn an applico magnctic lclo ano thc
rcsulting lux ocnsity.
Relative permeability: Thc pcrmcability ol a matcrial normalizco (oivioco) by thc pcrmcability ol a
vacuum.
Scalar magnetometer: A magnctomctcr that mcasurcs thc magnituoc ol a magnctic lclo vcctor.
Vector magnetometer: A magnctomctcr that mcasurcs onc or morc ol thc inoivioual componcnts ol
a magnctic lclo vcctor.
Rcfcrcnccs
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1999 by CRC Press LLC
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