Phytoremediation is actually a genneric term for several ways in which plants can be

used to clean up contaminated soils and water. Plants may break down or degrade
organic pollutants, or remove and stabilize metal contaminants. This may be done
through one of or a combination of the methods described in the next chapter. The
methods used to phytoremediate metal contaminants are slightly different to those
used to remediate sites polluted with organic contaminants.
Metal Organic

Phytoextraction Phytodegradation

Rhizofiltration Rhizodegradation

Phytostabilisation Phytovolatilisation



Methods of Phytoremediation

Phytoremediation of metal contaminated
sites
Phytoextraction (Phytoaccumulation)
Phytoextraction is the name given to the process where plant roots uptake metal
contaminants from the soil and translocate them to their above soil tissues. As
different plant have different abilities to uptake and withstand high levels of pollutants
many different plants may be used. This is of particular importance on sites that have
been polluted with more than one type of metal contaminant. Hyperaccumulator plant
species (species which absorb higher amounts of pollutants than most other species)
are used on may sites due to their tolerance of relatively extreme levels of pollution.
Once the plants have grown and absorbed the metal pollutants they are harvested and
disposed of safely. This process is repeated several times to reduce contamination to
acceptable levels. In some cases it is possible to recycle the metals through a process
known as phytomining, though this is usually reserved for use with precious metals.
Metal compounds that have been successfully phytoextracted include zinc, copper,
and nickel, but there is promising research being completed on lead and chromium
absorbing plants.


Rhizofiltration
Rhizofiltration is similar in concept to Phytoextraction but is concerned with the
remediation of contaminated groundwater rather than the remediation of polluted
soils. The contaminants are either adsorbed onto the root surface or are absorbed by
the plant roots. Plants used for rhizoliltration are not planted directly in situ but are
acclimated to the pollutant first. Plants are hydroponically grown in clean water rather
than soil, until a large root system has developed. Once a large root system is in place
the water supply is substituted for a polluted water supply to acclimatise the plant.
Afer the plants become acclimatised they are planted in the polluted area where the
roots uptake the polluted water and the contaminants along with it. As the roots
become saturated they are harvested and disposed of safely. Repeated treatments of
the site can reduce pollution to suitable levels as was exemplified in Chernobyl where
sunflowers were grown in radioactively contaminated pools.

Phytostabilisation
Phytostabilisation is the use of certain plants to immobilise soil and water
contaminants. Contaminant are absorbed and accumulated by roots, adsorbed onto the
roots, or precipitated in the rhizosphere. This reduces or even prevents the mobility of
the contaminants preventing migration into the groundwater or air, and also reduces
thebioavailibility of the contaminant thus preventing spread through the food chain.
This technique can alos be used to re-establish a plant community on sites that have
been denuded due to the high levels of metal contamination. Once a community of
tolerant species has been established the potential for wind erosion (and thus spread of
the pollutant) is reduced and leaching of the soil contaminants is also reduced.

Phytoremediation of organic polluted sites
Phytodegradation (Phytotransformation)
Phytodegradation is the degradation or breakdown of organic contaminants by internal
and external metabolic processes driven by the plant. Ex planta metabolic processes
hydrolyse organic compounds into smaller units that can be absorbed by the plant.
Some contaminants can be absorbed by the plant and are then broken down by plant
enzymes. These smaller pollutant molecules may then be used as metabolites by the
plant as it grows, thus becoming incorporated into the plant tissues. Plant enzymes
have been identified that breakdown ammunition wastes, chlorinated solvents such as
TCE (Trichloroethane), and others which degrade organic herbicides.

Rhizodegradation
Rhizodegradation (also called enhanced rhizosphere biodegradation, phytostimulation,
and plant assisted bioremediation) is the breakdown of organic contaminants in the
soil by soil dwelling microbes which is enhanced by the rhizosphere's presence.
Certain soil dwelling microbes digest organic pollutants such as fuels and solvents,
producing harmless pproducts through a process known as Bioremediation. Plant root
exudates such as sugars, alcohols, and organic acids act as carbohydrate sources for
the soil microflora and enhance microbial growth and activity. Some of these
compound may also act as chemotactic signals for certain microbes. The plant roots
also loosen the soil and transport water to the rhizosphere thus additionaly enhancing
microbial activity.

Phytovolatilization
Phytovolatilization is the process where plants uptake contaminaints which are water
soluble and release them into the atmosphere as they transpire the water. The
contaminant may become modified along the way, as the water travels along the
plant's vascular system from the roots to the leaves, whereby the contaminants
evaporate orvolatilize into the air surrounding the plant. There are varying degrees of
success with plants as phytovolatilizers with one study showing poplar trees to
volatilize up to 90% of the TCE they absorb.

Hydraulic control of Pollutants
Hydraulic control is the term given to the use of plants to control the migration of
subsurface water through the rapid upltake of large volumes of water by the plants.
The plants are effectively acting as natural hydraulic pumps which when a dense root
network has been established near the water table can transpire up to 300 gallons of
water per day. This fact has been utilised to decrease the migration of contaminants
from surface water into the groundwater (below the water table) and drinking water
supplies. There are two such uses for plants:
Riparian corridors
Riparian corridors and buffer strips are the applications of many aspects of
phytoremediation along the banks of a river or the edges of groundwater plumes.
Pytodegradation, phytovolatilization, and rhizodegradation are used to control the
spread of contaminants and to remediate polluted sites. Riparian strips refer to these
uses along the banks of rivers and streams, whereas buffer strips are the use of such
applications along the perimeter of landfills.
Vegetative cover
Vegetative cover is the name given to the use of plants as a cover or cap growing over
landfill sites. The standard caps for such sites are usually plastic or clay. Plants used
in this manner are not only more aesthically pleasing they may also help to control
erosion, leaching of contaminants, and may also help to degrade the underlying
landfill.

Where has Phytoremediation
Been Used?
As it is a relatively new technology phytoremediation is still mostly in it's testing
stages and as such has not been used in many places as a full scale application.
However it has bee tested successfully in many places around the world for many
different contaminants. This table shows the extent of testing across some sites in the
USA

Location Application Pollutant Medium plant(s)
Ogden, UT
Phytoextraction &
Rhizodegradation
Petroleum &
Hydrocarbons
Soil &
Groundwater
Alfalfa, poplar,
juniper, fescue
Anderson,
ST
Phytostabilisation Heavy Metals Soil
Hybrid poplar,
grasses
Ashtabula,
OH
Rhizofiltration Radionuclides Groundwater Sunflowers
Upton, NY Phytoextraction Radionuclides Soil
Indian mustard,
cabbage
Milan, TN Phytodegradation Expolsives waste Groundwater
Duckweed,
parrotfeather
Amana, IA
Riparian corridor,
phytodegradation
Nitrates Groundwater Hybrid poplar
Pro's & Con's of
Phytoremediation
As with most new technologies phytoremediation has many pro's and cons. When
compared to other more traditional methods of environmental remediation it becomes
clearer what the detailed advantages and disadvantages actually are.
Advantages of phytoremediation compared to classical remediation


It is more economically viable using the same tools and supplies as agriculture
It is less disruptive to the environment and does not involve waiting for new
plant communities to recolonise the site
Disposal sites are not needed
It is more likely to be accepted by the public as it is more aesthetically pleasing
then traditonal methods
It avoids excavation and transport of polluted media thus reducing the risk of
spreading the contamination
It has the potential to treat sites polluted with more than one type of pollutant


Disadvantages of phytoremediation compared to classical remediation
It is dependant on the growing conditions required by the plant (ie climate,
geology, altitude, temperature)
Large scale operations require access to agricultural equpment and knowledge
Success is dependant on the tolerance of the plant to the pollutant
Contaminants collected in senescing tissues may be released back into the
environment in autumn
Contaminants may be collected in woody tissues used as fuel
Time taken to remediate sites far exceeds that of other technologies
Contaminant solubility may be increased leading to greater environmental
damage and the possibility of leaching
The low cost of phytoremediation (up to 1000 times cheaper than excavation and
reburial) is the main advantage of phytoremediation, however many of the pro's and
cons of phytoremediation applications depend greatly on the location of the polluted
site, the contaminants in question, and the application of phytoremediation.
Phytoremediation &
Biotechnology
The first goal in phytoremediation is to find a plant species which is resistant to or
tolerates a particular contaminant with a view to maximising it's potential for
phytoremediation. Resistant plants are usually located growing on soils with
underlying metal ores or on the boundary of polluted sites. Once a tolerant plant
species has been selected traditional breeding methods are used to optimize the
tolerance of a species to a particular contaminant. Agricultural methods such as the
application of fertilisers, chelators, and pH adjusters can be utilised to further improve
the potential for phytoremediation.
Genetic modification offers a new hope for phytoremediation as GM approaches can
be used to overexpress the enzymes involved in the existing plant metabolic pathways
or to introduce new pathways into plants. Richard Meagher and colleagues introduced
a new pathway into Arabidopsis to detoxify methylmercury, a common form of
environmental pollutant to elemental mercury which can be volatilised by the plant.
The genes originated in gram-negative bacteria
MerB encodes a protein organomercurial lyase converts methylmercury to ionic
mercury
MerA encodes mercuric reductase, which reduces ionic mercury to the
elemental form
Arabidopsis plants were transformed with either MerA or MerB coupled with a
consitutive 35S promoter
The MerA plants were more tolerant to ionic mercury, volatilised elemental
mercury, and were unaffected in their tolerance of methylmercury
The MerB Plants were significantly more tolerant to methylmercury and other
organomercurials and could also convert mthylmercury to ionic mercury which
is approximately 100 times less toxic to plants
MerA MerB double transgenics were produced in an F2 generation. These
plants not only showed a greater resistance to organic mercury when compared
to the MerA, MerB, and wildtype plants but also capable of volatilising
mercury when supplied with methylmercury.
The same MerA/MerB inserts have been used in other plant species including
tobacco(Nicotiana tabacum), yellow poplar(Liriodendron tulipifera).
Wetland species (bulrush and cat-tail) and water tolerant trees (willow and
poplar) have also been targetted for transformation.
Risk Assessment
The use of phytoremediation in the field is subject to many environmental concerns,
especially in the light of the recent pulic hysteria about the release of GM crops into
the environment. Even if non GM strains of plants are used there are still many
concerns:
It is unknown what ecological effects hyperaccumulator plants may have if
ingested by animals
Fallout from senescing tissues in autumn may also re-enter the food chain
Do volatilized contaminants remain at 'safe' levels in the atmosphere
Exposure of the ecosystem to contaminants is prolonged as phytoremediation is
a relatively slow process
However there are other issues that affect the risk assesment for the use of transgenic
organisms as phytoremediators. Not only do such organisms have the same risks as
witld type remediators but they also have the same risks as releasing any GM
organism into the field have:
The potential genetic pollution of native species
Potential for the gene to recombine with other genes possibly leading to the
hyperaccumulation of non-contaminant compounds
Reporter/marker genes may also escape into the environment
The GM plants may revert to a wild type genotype