1

SALTS
What is salt?





In the preparation of salts, we must identify the type of salt. This can be done by analysing
the cations and the anions that are present in salts.


Two types of salts
Soluble salt salts that can be dissolve in water at room temperature
Insoluble salt salts cannot be dissolve in water at room temperature
Type of salt Solubility in water
Sodium salts
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts
All dissolves in water
Nitrate salts All dissolves in water
Chloride salts
All dissolves in water, Except: Lead(II) chloride, PbCl
2

Silver chloride, AgCl
Mercury chloride, HgCl
Sulphate salts
All dissolves in water Except: Lead(II) sulphate, PbSO
4

Barium sulfat, BaSO
4
Calcium sulfat, CaSO
4

Carbonate salts
All did not dissolves in water, Except: Sodium carbonate, Na
2
CO
3

Potassium carbonate, K
2
CO
3

Ammonium carbonate, (NH
4
)
2
CO
3


Special Properties of lead(II) chloride and lead(II) iodide
NOTES: Lead halide such as lead(II) chloride (PbCl
2
), lead(II) bromide (PbBr
2
), and
lead(II) iodide (PbI
2
) did not dissolve in cold water but dissolve in hot water.












White precipitate of
PbCl
2
White precipitate
dissolves in hot
water

White precipitate formed
when the water is cooled
down.

Salt is an ionic compound formed when the hydrogen ion, H
+
from acid
is replaced by a metal ion or ammonium ion, NH
4
+


PbCl
2
are soluble in
hot water.
2















Use of salts;
I tem Use Example
Food preparation
Flavor
Monosodium glutamate (MSG)
Sodium chloride
Preservatives
Sodium chloride - salted fish
Sodium benzoate - sauce
Sodium nitrite - processed meat, burger
Baking powder Sodium hydrogen carbonate
Agriculture
Nitrogen fertilizers
Potassium nitrate
Sodium nitrate
Pesticide
Copper(I I ) sulphate
I ron(I I ) sulphate
Medicine
Reduce stomach acidic
(gastric)
Calcium carbonate
Calcium hydrogen carbonate
Sniff salt (fainted) Ammonium carbonate
Plaster of Paris (cement
to support broken bone)
Calcium sulphate



A. Preparation of Salt
The procedure of preparation salt depends to the type of salt.

a. Insoluble salt is prepared through precipitation reaction.

b. Soluble salt is prepared by one of these reactions;
i. Acid and alkali
ii. Acid and metal oxide
iii. Acid and metal carbonate
iv. Acid and reactive metal


Yellow precipitate of
PbI
2
Yellow crystals formed when
the water is cooled down.

Yellow precipitate
dissolves in hot water

PbI
2
are also soluble
in hot water.
3

a. Insoluble Salts
i. Preparing Insoluble Salts
1. Insoluble salts can be prepared through precipitation reactions or double decomposition reactions.
2. Precipitation or double decomposition reaction involves;
- two aquoues solutions/soluble salts were mix together
- one of the solutions contains the cations of the insoluble salt.
- one of the solutions contains the anions of the insoluble salt.
- the ions of the two aqueous solutions above interchange to produce two new compound
which is insoluble salt or precipitate, and aqueous solution.
- the precipitate produced is obtained by filtration. The residue left in the filter paper is the
insoluble salt. The filtrate is soluble salt.
- the residue/precipitate (insoluble salt) then rinsed with distilled water to remove any other
ions as impurities.









Na
+
Na
+

NO
3
-

NO
3
-

PbCl
2

Pb
2+
ions combined
with Cl
-
ions to form
white precipitate
Na
+
ions and NO
3
-
ions do not
take part in the reaction and
are free to move in the solution
Ionic equation: Pb
2+
+ 2Cl
-
PbCl
2

Anion
(Non-metal ion)
Cation
(Metal ion)
n n m m
4



Chemical and ionic equations
Chemical equation : MX(aq) + NY(aq) MY(s) + NX(aq)
solution solution precipitate solution

Ionic equation : M
+
(aq) + Y
-
(aq) MY(s)

Study this reaction carefully
In the formation of the precipitate of barium sulphate, BaSO4, the chemical equation can be written:
BaCl
2
(aq) + Na
2
SO
4
(aq) BaSO
4
(s) + 2NaCl (aq)


Ions Ba
2+
+ Cl
-
+ Na
+
+ SO
4
2-
BaSO
4
+ Na
+
+ Cl
-


Ionic equation : Ba
2+
+ SO
4
2-
BaSO
4

(shows the ions that take part in the reaction to form precipitate/insoluble salts)

More examples;
Insoluble Salt Ions Ionic equation
ZnCO
3
Zn
2+
, CO
3
2-
Zn
2+
+ CO
3
2-
ZnCO
3

AgCl Ag
+
, Cl
-
Ag
+
+ Cl
-
AgCl
BaSO
4
Ba
2+
, SO
4
2-
Ba
2+
+ SO
4
2
BaSO
4

PbCl
2
Pb
2+
, Cl
-
Pb
2+
+ Cl
-
PbCl
2

PbSO
4
Pb
2+
, SO
4
2-
Pb
2+
+ SO
4
2-
PbSO
4

CaCO
3
Ca
2+
, CO
3
2-
Ca
2+
+ CO
3
2-
CaCO
3

Glass rod
Residue/precipitate
(Insoluble salt)
Filtrate
(Soluble salt)
Mixture of solutions
Filter funnel
Filter paper
Retort stand
5


ii. Preparation and purification of insoluble salts

Preparation of Plumbum(I I ) iodide
Chemical equation : Pb(NO
3
)
2
(aq) + 2KI (aq) PbI
2
(s) + 2KNO
3
(aq)

Ionic equation : Pb
2+
(aq) + 2I
-
(aq) PbI
2
(s)

Step 1: Preparation

1. 20 cm
3
lead(II) nitrate 0.1 mol dm
-3
solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml,
and poured into a beaker.
2. 20 cm
3
potassium iodide 0.1 mol dm
-3
solution is measured with measuring cylinder 50 ml
and poured into a beaker contains lead(II) nitrate solution.
3. The mixture is stirred with a glass rod. A yellow precipitate is formed.




4. The mixture is filtered to obtain the yellow solids of lead(II) iodide as the residue.
Glass rod
Precipitate of lead(II) iodide
(yellow)
Sodium nitrate solution
Mixture of solutions
Filter funnel
Filter paper
Retort stand
Beaker
+
20 cm
3

Lead(II) nitrat
0.1 mol dm
-3

20 cm
3

potassium iodide
0.1 mol dm
-3

6



Step 2: Purification

5. The residue is rinsed with distilled water to remove other ions in it.

6. The yellow solid is dried by pressing between two pieces of filter paper.

EASY LAH !














Precipitate of lead(II)
iodide
Filter paper
Glass rod
Distilled water
Precipitate of lead(II)
iodide
7


b. Soluble Salt
i. Preparaing Soluble Salt

- Sodium salts
- Potassium salts Acid + alkali salts + water
- Ammonium salts

Soluble Salts
Acid + metal oxide salts + water
- Others salts Acid + reactive metal salts + hydrogen gas
Acid + metal carbonate salt + water + carbon dioxide
Notes: Reactive metal is magnesium, aluminium, and zinc
Unreactive metal is iron, lead, silver

a. Sodium, potassium or ammonium salts prepared from acid and alkali reaction.

Salt Alkali Acid Chemical equation
NaCl NaOH HCl NaOH + HCl NaCl + H
2
O
K
2
SO
4
KOH H
2
SO
4
2KOH + H
2
SO
4
K
2
SO
4
+ 2H
2
O
NH
4
NO
3
NH
3
/NH
4
OH HNO
3
NH
3
+ HNO
3
NH
4
NO
3
+ H
2
O
CH
3
COONa NaOH CH
3
COOH NaOH + CH
3
COOH CH
3
COONa + H
2
O

Note: To prepare the above salts, titration technique is use.

b. Soluble salt (except sodium, potassium and ammonium salt) is prepared using these methods
- Acid and metal
- Acid and metal oxide
- Acid and metal carbonate

Name of Salt
Acid that must be
used
Substance that can be use to react with acid
Metal Metal oxide Metal carbonate
ZnCl
2
HCl Zn ZnO ZnCO
3

Mg(NO)
3
HNO
3
Mg MgO MgCO
3

CuSO
4
H
2
SO
4


CuO CuCO
3

Pb(NO
3
)
2
HNO
3


PbO PbCO
3

8


Write a chemical equation for each experiment above.

Remember this notes ok
1. Metal that is less reactive from hydrogen such as copper, lead and
silver/argentum did not react with dilute acid.
2. Metal, metal oxide and metal carbonate above is a solid that cannot dissolves in
water, hence during reaction that solid must be added excessively to make sure
all hydrogen ions in acid is completely reacted. Excess solid can be expelling
through filtration.
3. Impure soluble salt can be purified through crystallization process.


ii. Preparation and purification of soluble salts

A. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid and alkali.

Preparation of Soluble Sodium, Potassium and ammonium Salts
Soluble salts of sodium, potassium and ammonium can be prepared by the reaction between an
acid and alkali.

Acid (aq) + alkali (aq) Salt (aq) + Water (l)

Procedure :
Using pipette, 25 cm
3
of alkali solution is measured and
transferred into a conical flask.
Two drops of phenolphthalein are added to the alkali solution.
Dilute acid is place in a burette. The initial reading is recorded.
Acid is added slowly into the alkali solution while shaking
the conical flaks, until the pink solution turn colourless.
The final reading of the burette is recorded.
The volume of acid added, V cm
3
is calculated.
The experiment is repeated by adding V cm
3
of acid to
25 cm
3
of alkali solution in a beaker without using
phenolphthalein as an indicator.
The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish.
The mixture is heated until saturated and the saturated solution
is allowed to cool at room temperature.
Salt crystals formed are filtered and rinsed with a little of cold distilled water.
Salt crystals are dried by pressing it between filter papers (or in oven)


The reaction between acid and alkali is known as what process?
Refer to acids and bases notes ok. Dont worry Ill help you.!
Kita bukan along kita cuma nak tolong.


9


Example: Preparing sodium chloride

Step 1: Preparation (Titration)

1. 25.0 cm
3
sodium hydroxide solutions is pipette into conical flask.
2. Two drops of phenolphthalein indicator are added into conical flask. The colour of solution is
recorded.
3. A 50 cm
3
burette is filled with hydrochloric acid. The initial burette reading is recorded.
4. Hydrochloric acid is added gradually from a burette into conical flask and swirling the conical
flask.
5. Titration is stopped when phenolphthalein changes from pink to colourless. The final burette
reading is recorded.
6. The volume of hydrochloric acid used is calculated.
7. The experiment is repeated by adding hydrochloric acid (known volume) to 25.0 cm
3
sodium
hydroxide in a beaker without using phenolphthalein.

Step 2: Preparation (Crystallization)

Bunsen burner
Evaporating dish
Salt solution
Retort
stand
Burette
Hydrochloric acid
Conical flask
25 cm
3
NaOH + phenolphthalein
indicator
10

8. The mixture is transferred into a evaporating dish.
9. The colourless solution is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated or to about one-third
(1/3) of the original volume.
10. The saturated solution is then cooled to allow crystallization to occur.

Step 3: Purification


10. The white crystals formed are then filtered, rinsed with a little distilled
water and dried by pressing between filter paper.


Note: Phenolphthalein indicator is used at the beginning of the experiment to determine the volume
of hydrochloric acid that is required to react completely with 25 cm
3
of sodium hydroxide.
However experiment is repeated without using phenolphthalein so that the salt prepared will
not contaminated by the indicator.


















Glass rod
Distilled water
Copper(II) sulphate
Filter funnel
11



B. Preparing soluble salt through reaction between acid
i. Metal oxide. ii. Metal iii. Metal carbonate

Procedure To Prepare a Soluble Salt (not Na, K or NH
4
+
)
50 cm
3
of acid is measured using a measuring cylinder and poured into a beaker. The acid is
heated slowly.
Using a spatula, metal / metal oxide / metal carbonate powder is added a little at a time while
stirring the mixture with a glass rod.
The addition of the solid powder is stopped when some solids no longer dissolve anymore. (the
solid is excess and all the acid is completely neutralised by the solid)











The mixture is filtered to remove the excess solid powder.









The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.
The filtrate is heated until saturated. (The filtrate is evaporated to about one-third (1/3) of the
original volume)
The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature and the salt crystals are
formed.
The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.








Heating
Acid
Powder
of :
Metal oxide
Metal carbonate
Metal
Excess of solid powder
Filtrate (Salt solution)
Heating
Saturated solution
Crystals
Filtrate
12


Example: Preparing copper(I I ) sulphate
(Sulphuric acid and copper(I I ) oxide powder)

Step 1: Preparation

1. 50 cm
3
sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm
-3
is put in a beaker and is heated.
2. Using spatula copper(II) oxide powder is added a little at a time to the hot sulphuric acid while
stirring continuously with glass rod.
3. The addition of copper(II) oxide is stopped when solids powder remain undissolved.



4. The mixture is filtered to remove the excess copper(II) oxide.
5. The filtrate is transferred to an evaporating dish.


Glass rod
Reactant mixture
Excess copper(II) oxide
Copper(II) sulphate solution
xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx
Copper(II) oxide
Glass rod
Beaker
Wire gauze
50 cm
3
sulphuric acid 0.1 mol dm
-3

Tripod
Bunsen
burner
Spatula
Stir
13


6. The filtrate is slowly heated/evaporated until its saturated, or to about one-third (1/3) of the
original volume.
7. The saturated solution is then allowed to cool to room temperature.

Step 3: Purification


8. The crystals are filtered and rinsed with a little cold distilled water.
9. Salt crystals are then dried by pressing it between filter papers.


REMEMBER. THIS NOTES OK

Unreactive metal such as lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and silver (Ag) cannot react
with dilute asid. So to prepare salt contains lead ions (Pb
2+
), copper ions (Cu
2+
)
or silver ions (Ag
+
), we must use either oxide powder or carbonate powder only.

Example: CuO + H
2
SO
4
CuSO
4
+ H
2
O (ok)

CuCO
3
+ H
2
SO
4
CuSO
4
+ H
2
O + CO
2
(ok)

Cu + H
2
SO
4
no reaction (not ok)
Glass rod
Distilled water
Copper(II) sulphate
Bunsen burner
Evaporating dish

Copper(II) sulphate
solution
14


B. Physical Characteristics of Crystals.


A salt is made up of positive and negative ions. When these ions are packed closely
with a regular and repeated arrangement in an orderly manner, a solid with
definite geometry known as crystal lattice is formed.



All crystals have these physical characteristics:
a) Reqular geometry shapes, such as cubic or hexagonal.
b) Flat faces, straight edges and sharp angles.
c) Same angle between adjacent faces.
d) All crystals of the same salt have the same shape although the sizes may be different.









Start to memorize the solubility of a salt in water OK.
I t will help you a lot to better understand this chapter.
KNOWLEDGE I S POWER




The solubility of a salt in water depends on the types of cations and anions present.

Salt Solubility in water
Sodium, potassium and
ammonium salts
(Na
+
, K
+
, NH
4
+
)
All are soluble
Nitrate salt (NO
3
-
) All are soluble
Chloride salt (Cl
-
)
All chloride salts are soluble in water except
PbCl
2
, AgCl and HgCl
2

Sulphate salt (SO
4
2-
)
All sulphate salts are soluble in water except
PbSO
4
, BaSO
4
and CaSO
4

Carbonate salt (CO
3
2-
)
All carbonate salts are insoluble except
Na
2
CO
3,
K
2
CO
3
and

(NH
4
)
2
CO
3

15

C. Qualitative Analysis of Salts

What is Qualitative analysis?





In the qualitative analysis of salts, we need to identify the ions that are present in salts.
This can be done by analysing their physical and chemical properties.


Observations on the physical properties of salts

1. Colour and solubility in water

Certain physical properties of salts such colour and solubitity in water are observed to help us infer certain
cations and anions that are present in salts.

The table shows the colour of salts in solid , in aqueous solution and the solubility of salts in water

Salt Colour in solid
Solubility in
water
Colour in Aqueous solution
1. Ammonium chloride NH
4
Cl white soluble colourless
2. Ammonium nitrateNH
4
(NO
3
)
3
white soluble colourless
3. Calcium carbonate CaCO
3
white insoluble -
4. Calcium nitrate Ca(NO
3
)
2
white soluble colourless
5. Magnesium sulphate MgSO
4
white soluble colourless
6. Magnesium carbonate MgCO
3
white insoluble -
7. Zinc sulphate Zn SO
4
white soluble colourless
8. Zinc nitrate Zn(NO
3
)
2
white soluble colourless
9. Lead(II) chloride , PbCl
2
white insoluble -
10. Lead(II) sulphate , PbSO
4
white insoluble -
11. Lead(II) carbonate , PbCO
3
white insoluble -
12. Copper(II) chloride , CuCl
2
Blue soluble Blue
13 Copper(II) sulphate , PbSO
4
Blue soluble Blue
14. Copper(II) carbonate , PbCO
3
Green insoluble -
15. Iron(II) sulphate , FeSO
4
Green soluble Pale green
16. Iron(III) chloride , FeCl
3
Brown / Yellow soluble Brown/Yellow/ Yellowish brown
17. Sodium nitrate , NaNO
3
white soluble colourless
18, Sodium carbonate , Na
2
CO
3
white soluble colourless
19. Potassium nitrate , KNO
3
white soluble colourless
20. Potassium carbonate , K
2
CO
3
white soluble colourless
Qualitative analysis is a chemical technique used to determine
what substances are present in a mixture but not their quantities.
16

The table shows the colour of different cations in the solid form or in aqueous solution

Observation Inference
Blue solution Ion copper (Cu
2+
) present
Pale green solution Ion Iron(II) Fe
2+
present
Yellow/Yellowish-
brown/brown solution
Ion Iron (III) Fe
3+
present
Green solid Hydrated Fe
2+
, CuCO
3

Brown solid Hydrated Fe
3+
salt
White solid
Salts of Na
+
, K
+
,NH
4
+
, Mg
2+
, Ca
2+
Al
3+
, Zn
2+
, Pb
2+
(If the anions
are colourless
Colourless solution Na
+
, K
+
,NH
4
+
, Mg
2+
, Ca
2+
, Al
3+
, Zn
2+
, Pb
2+


The table shows the solubility of different types of salts in water

Compounds Solubility in water
Sodium salts
Potassium salts
Ammonium salts

All are soluble
Nitrate salts

All are soluble
Chloride salts

All are soluble except AgCl, HgCl and PbCl
2
(soluble in hot water)
Sulphate salts

All are soluble except BaSO
4
, PbSO
4
and CaSO
4

Carbonate salts

All are insoluble except sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate and
ammonium carbonate








17

2. Tests for gases

Gases are often produced from reactions carried out during laboratory tests on salts. By identifying the gases
evolved,it is possible to infer the types of cations and anions that are present in a salt.

The table shows the test and the result of different gases

Gas Test Result
Oxygen gas, O
2

Test with a glowing wooden
splinter
Wooden splinter is rekindled /lighted
Hydrogen gas , H
2

Test with a lighted wooden
splinter
Gas explodes with a pop sound
Carbon dioxide gas , CO
2

Bubble the gas produced into
lime water
Lime water turns milky
Ammonia gas, NH
3

Test with moist red litmus
paper
Moist red litmus paper turns blue
Chlorine gas, Cl
2

Test with moist blue litmus
paper
Moist blue litmus paper turns red and then
turns white

Hydrogen chlorine gas , HCl
Test with a drop of
concentrated ammonia NH
3

solution
Dense white fumes
Sulphur dioxide gas , SO
2

Bubble the gas produced into
purple acidified potassium
manganate (VII), KMnO
4

solution
Purple acidified potassium manganate
(VII),KMnO
4
solution decolourises
Nitrogen dioxide gas , NO
2

Test with moist blue litmus
paper
moist blue litmus paper turns red
















18

3. Action of heat on salts

Effect of heat on carbonate salts

Carbonaate salt
Colour of salt
before heating
Colour of residue
Effect on lime water
Hot cold
Copper (II)
carbonate, CuCO
3

Green powder Black powder Black powder
The gas liberated turns
lime water milky/chalky
Zinc carbonate ,
ZnCO
3

White solid Yelow solid White solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water milky/chalky
Lead(II) carbonate,
PbCO
3

White solid Brown sold Yelow solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water milky/chalky
Sodium carbonate,
Na
2
CO
3

White solid White solid White solid No change
Calcium carbonate,
CaCO
3

White solid White solid White solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water milky/chalky
Potassium
carbonate, K
2
CO
3

White solid White solid White solid No change
Magnesium
carbonate, MgCO
3

White solid White solid White solid
The gas liberated turns
lime water milky/chalky


Effect of heat on nitrate salts

Nitrate Salt
Colour of salt
before heating
Colour of residue
Test on gases liberated
Hot cold
Copper (II) nitrate,
Cu(NO
3
)
2

Blue solid
Black
powder
Black
powder
A brown gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Zinc nitrate,
Zn(NO
3
)
2

White solid
Yellow
solid
White solid
A browan gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Lead(II) nitrate,
Pb(NO
3
)
2

White solid Brown solid
Yellow
solid
A browan gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Sodium nitrate,
NaNO
3

White solid White solid White solid
A colourless gas that rekindles a
glowing splinter is liberated
Calcium nitrate,
Ca(NO
3
)
2

White solid White solid White solid
A browan gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
19

Potassium nitrate,
KNO
3

White solid White solid White solid
A colourless gas that rekindles a
glowing splinter is liberated
Magnesium nitrate,
Mg(NO
3
)
2

White solid White solid White solid
A browan gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Iron(II) nitrate,
Fe(NO
3
)
2

Pale Green
solid
Pale Green
solid
Pale
Green
solid
A browan gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter
Iron(III) nitrate,
Fe(NO
3
)
3

Brown solid
Reddish-
Brown solid
Reddish-
Brown
solid
A browan gas that turns blue litmus
paper red is liberated.
The gas liberated also ignites a
glowing splinter

The table shows the comparison of the effect of heat on carbonate and nitrate salts

Metal Effect of heat on carbonate salt Effect of heat on nitrate salt
Potassium
Sodium
Are not decomposed by heat Decompose to nitrite salt and oxygen gas.
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Tin
Lead
Copper
Decompose to metal oxide and
carbon dioxide gas.
Decompose to metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide
gas and oxygen gas.
Mercury
Silver
Gold
Decompose to metal, carbon
dioxide gas and oxygen gas.
Decompose to metal , nitrogen dioxide gas
and oxygen gas.


Most sulphate salts are not decomposed by heat. Only a few sulphate such as iron(II) sulphate,zinc sulphate
and copper sulphate decompose to sulphur dioxide or sulphur trioxide gas when heated.

All chloride salts are stable when heated except ammonium chloride. Ammonium chloride sublimes and
decomposes to produce ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas.

The table shows the deduction of the types of ion present based on the gas produced

Type of gas produced Type of ion present(anion)
CO
2
Carbonate ion (CO
3
2-
) present except Na
2
CO
3
and K
2
CO
3

O
2
Nitrate ion (NO
3
-
) present
NO
2
Nitrate ion (NO
3
-
) present except NaNO
3
and KNO
3

SO
2
Sulphate ion (SO
4
2-
) present
NH
3
Ammonim ion (NH
4
+
) present


20


Tests for anions

Reagent / Condition Observation Anion Ionic Equation (if any)

2 cm
3
the unknown solution +
dilute hydrochloric acid / nitric
acid / sulphuric acid pour
into a test tube gas liberated
is immediately bubbled through
lime water.


Effervescence.
Colourless gas
turns lime water
milky.

CO
3
2-
ion

CO
3
2-
+ 2H
+
CO
2
+
H
2
O

2 cm
3
of nitric acid + 2 cm
3
of
the unknown solution pour
into a test tube + 2 cm
3

silver nitrate solution


White precipitate
is formed.

Cl
-
ion

Ag
+
+ Cl
-
AgCl

2 cm
3
of dilute hydrochloric
acid / nitric acid + 2 cm
3
of the
unknown solution pour into
a test tube + 2 cm
3
of
barium chloride / barium nitrate
solution shake well


White precipitate
is formed.

SO
4
2-
ion

Ba
2+
+ SO
4
2 -
BaSO
4



2 cm
3
of the unknown solution
pour into a test tube
2 cm
3
of dilute sulphuric acid +
2 cm
3
of iron(II) sulphate
solution shake well.
Then drop carefully and slowly
a few drops of concentrated
sulphuric acid along the side of
a slanting test tube into the
mixture without shaking it.


Brown ring is
formed at the
boundary
between the
concentrated
H
2
SO
4
(top layer)
and aqueous
solution of the
mixture (bottom
layer)

NO
3
-
ion

-














21

Tests for cations

Confirmatory Test for Fe
2+
, Fe
3+
, Pb
2+
, NH
4
+
Ions

Confirmatory Test for Fe
2+

Reagent Observation Conclusion
Potassium
hexacyanoferrate(II) solution
Pale blue precipitate Fe
2+
ion is present
Dark blue precipitate Fe
3+
ion is present
Potassium
hexacyanoferrate(III) solution
Dark blue precipitate Fe
2+
ion is present
Greenish-brown solution Fe
3+
ion is present
Potassium thiocyanate
solution
Pale red colouration Fe
2+
ion is present
Blood red colouration Fe
3+
ion is present

Confirmatory Test for Pb
2+

Method Observation Ionic Equation

Using aqueous solution of chloride
- 2 cm
3
of any solution of Cl
-
+
2 cm
3
of any solution of Pb
2+

dilute with 5 cm
3
of distilled water
heat until no further change occurs
allow the content to cool to room
temperature using running water from
the tap


- A white precipitate is
formed

When heated dissolve in
water to form colourless
solution

When cooled white
precipitate reappear


Pb
2+
+ 2Cl
-
PbCl
2


Using aqueous solution of iodide
- 2 cm
3
of any solution of I
-
+
2 cm
3
of any solution of Pb
2+

dilute with 5 cm
3
of distilled water
heat until no further change occurs
allow the content to cool to room
temperature using running water from
the tap


- A yellow precipitate is
formed

When heated dissolve in
water to form colourless
solution

When cooled yellow
precipitate reappear



Pb
2+
+ 2I
-
PbI
2


Confirmatory Test for NH
4
+

Method Observation

2 cm
3
of any solution of NH
4
+
+ 2 cm
3
of
NaOH / KOH / Ca(OH)
2
heat put a
piece of moist red litmus paper at the
mouth of the test tube

- Moist red litmus paper turns blue

Reaction with Nesslers Reagent
2 cm
3
of any solution of NH
4
+
+ 2 cm
3
of
Nesslers Reagent shake well

- A brown precipitate is formed

22

Reaction of Cations With NaOH


Pb
2+
Zn
2+
Al
3+
: White precipitate dissolves/larut in excess NaOH
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
: White precipitate insoluble/tidak larut in excess NaOH
Cations
+ NaOH (aq)
Precipitate produced No precipitate
White precipitate Coloured precipitate
Green Blue Brown
Fe
2+
Cu
2+
Fe
2+
NH
4
+
K
+
Na
+
Dissolve in excess
NaOH (aq) to form
colourless solution
Sodium hydroxide solution is poured
slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be
tested in a test tube, until in excess.


Insoluble in
excess
NaOH (aq)
NH
3
gas produced
warm
Zn
2+
Al
3+
Pb
2+
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
Easylah
23

Reaction of Cations With NH
3



Zn
2+
: White precipitate dissolves/larut in excess NH
3

Pb
2+
Al
3+
Mg
2+
: White precipitate insoluble/tidak larut in excess NH
3

Cations
Precipitate produced No precipitate
White precipitate Coloured precipitate
Green Blue Brown
Fe
2+
Cu
2+
Fe
2+
NH
4
+
K
+
Na
+
Aqueous ammonia solution is poured
slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be
tested in a test tube until in excess.


NH
3
gas produced
warm
Zn
2+
Al
3+
Pb
2+
Ca
2+
Mg
2+
Easylah
+ NH
3
(aq)
+ excess
NH
3
(aq)
Dark blue
solution
Dissolve in excess
NH
3
(aq) to form
colourless solution

Insoluble in
excess NH
3
(aq)
24








Zn
2+
ion is the only cation that form white precipitate and dissolves in
both excess NaOH and NH
3
solutions.

Mg
2+
ion is the only cation that form white precipitate and insoluble in
both excess NaOH and NH
3
solutions.

Ca
2+
ion in the only cation that form white precipitate in NaOH
solutions, but no precipitate in NH
3
solution.

Fe
2+
, Fe
3+
and Cu
2+
ions is easy to spot because the ions shows
coloured precipitate.

Pb
2+
ion and Al
3+
ion form white precipitate and dissolves in excess
NaOH
solution, but insoluble in excess NH
3
solutions.















Example: lead(II) nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution

Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a
test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.






Based from the observation, I can conclude that

How to differentiate between Pb
2+
and Al
3+
?

A chemical tests can be carried out in
the laboratory to differentiate between
Pb
2+
and Al
3+
.
(Please refer to Confirmatory Test for
Pb
2+
, in ealier notes).



25











Example 1:

Describe chemical tests that can be carried out in the laboratory to differentiate between

(a) lead(II) nitrate solution and aluminium nitrate solution

Sodium sulphate solution is added slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then then the solution tested is lead(II) nitrate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is aluminium nitrate.


(b) aluminium nitrate solution and zinc nitrate solution

Aqueous ammonia solution is poured slowly into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube
until in excess.
If a white precipitate that dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia solution is formed, than the
solution tested is zinc nitrate.
If a white precipitate that is insoluble in excess aqueous ammonia solution is formed, than the
solution tested is aluminium nitrate.


(c) ammonium chloride solution and potassium chloride solution

Nesslers Reagent is added to 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a brown precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is ammonium chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is potassium chloride


(d) iron(II) sulphate solution and iron(III) sulphate solution

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(II) solution is poured into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a
test tube.
If a dark blue precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.

Or

Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III) solution is poured into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a
test tube.
If a greenish-brown solution is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.

Or
Now let see some questions about salt.
Try to solve it by yourself first and then
compare with the answers provided.
26


Potassium thiocyanate solution is poured into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a blood red colouration is formed, then the solution tested is iron(III) chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is iron(II) chloride.


(e) sodium chloride and sodium sulphate

Silver nitrate solution is poured into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is sodium chloride.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is sodium sulphate.

Or

Barium chloride solution is poured into 2 cm
3
of the solution to be tested in a test tube.
If a white precipitate is formed, then the solution tested is sodium sulphate.
If no change occurs, then the solution tested is sodium chloride.



Example 2:


1. State three examples of
a) soluble salts b) insoluble salts

Potassium carbonate Magnesium carbonate
Lead(II) nitrate Lead(II) sulphate
Ammonium chloride Argentum chloride


2. Which of the following salts is soluble










3. Identify the gas that turns moist red litmus paper blue

Ammonia gas


4. Gas X has the following properties








Gas X is carbon dioxide gas

Lead(II) chloride Sodium carbonate
Calcium sulphate Barium sulphate
Colourless
Acidic gas
Turns lime water milky
27



5. Heat +



Colour of metal oxide X is yellow when hot and white when cold. Gas Y turns lime water milky.

a) Name gas Y : carbon dioxide gas

b) Name metal oxide X : zinc oxide

c) Name salt P : zinc carbonate


d) Write an equation to represent the action of heat on salt P

ZnCO
3
(s) ZnO (s) + CO
2
(g)




6. A sample of copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO
3
)
2
was heated strongly. Write down the expected observation.

Copper(II) nitrate decompose to produce black colour of residue when hot and cold. A brown
gas that changed moist blue litmus paper to red and colourless gas that lighted up a glowing
wooden splinter are produced.































Salt P Metal oxide X Gas Y
28


D. Numerical problem involving stoichiometric reaction in the
preparation of salt










Example 1;
Ammonium phosphate, (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
is use as a fertilizer. 29.8g of this salt is prepared by neutralizing
phosphoric acid, H
3
PO
4
with ammonium gas, NH
3
. Calculate the volume of ammonium gas, NH
3

reacted at room conditions.
( Relative atomic mass; H, 1: N, 14: P, 31; O, 16; Molar volume; 24 dm3 mol
-1
at room conditions)

Solutions;



a. Calculate the number of moles




2.88 g
[3(14) + 12(1) + 31 + 4(16)
= 0.2 mol

b. Write a balanced chemical equation

Compare the mole ratio of NH
3
and
(NH
4
)
3
PO
4



H
3
PO
4
(aq) + 3NH
3
(aq) (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
(aq)

c. Calculate the number of moles of NH
3
base on
the mole ratio



= 3 X 0.2 mol
= 0.6 mol

d. Calculate the volume of NH
3


Volume = number of mole X volume




= 0.6 mol X 24 dm
3
mol
-1

= 14.4 dm
3








A balanced chemical equation for a reaction in preparation of a salt
can be used to calculate the stoichiometric quantities of the following
Masses of reactants
Volumes and concentrations of reactants
Masses of products
Volumes of products

=
3 mol 1 mol
29

Example 2:
3.9 g of potassium is burnt completely in the air as shown in the following equation;
4K(s) + O
2
(g) 2K
2
O(s)
What is the mass of potassium oxide produced?
[Relative atomic mass: K, 39; O, 16]

Solutions
Tip: Solve the question step by step

Step 1: Write Chemical Equation

4K(s) + O
2
(g) 2K
2
O(s)

4 mol of K react with 1 mol of O
2
produce 2 mol K
2
O

Step 2: Calculate the number of mole
[Get the information from the question]

Step 3: Find the coefficient From Balance Chemical Equation
FBCE;
4 mol of K produce 2 mol K
2
O
Thus;
0.1 mol of K produce 2/4 mol K
2
O = 0.2 mol K
2
O

FBCE;
[Sebelah kiri] [Sebelah kanan]
Bil. mol yang telah dikira Bil. Mol yang hendak ditentukan

4 mol K = 2 mol K
2
O
0.1mol K = 2/4 x 0.1mol K
2
O = 0.05 mol K
2
O

No. of mol of K
2
O = 0.05 mol

Step 4: Solve the questions
Thus;
Mass of K
2
O = 0.05 mol Molar mass
= 0.05 mol 55 g mol
-1

= 2.75 g

No. of mol K =
mass
Molar mass
=
3.9 g
39 gmol
-1

0.1 mol =
30

Example 3:
Acids reacts with calcium carbonate, CaCO
3
in limestone to form a salt and carbon dioxide, CO
2
.
A piece of limestone reacted completely with 100 cm
3
of 31.5 g dm
-3
nitric acid, HNO
3
.
[Relative atomic mass: H, 1; C, 12; N, 14; O, 16; Ca, 40. Molar volume: 24 dm
3
mol
-1
at room
conditions]
a. Calculate the mass of salt produced.
b. What is the volume of carbon dioxide, CO
2
liberated at room conditions?

Step 1: Write Chemical Equation
Chemical Equation: 2HNO
3
+ CaCO
3
Ca(NO
3
)
2
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O



Step 2: Calculate the number of mole
Get the information from the question;


FBCE; 2HNO
3
+ CaCO
3
Ca(NO
3
)
2
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O


2 mol HNO
3
= 1 mol Ca(NO
3
)
2

0.05 mol HNO
3
= x 0.05 mol Ca(NO
3
)
2
= 0.025 mol Ca(NO
3
)
2


No. of mol of Ca(NO
3
)
2
= 0.025 mol

Mass of Ca(NO
3
)
2
= 0.025 mol 40 + 2[14 + 3(16)] g mol
-1

= 4.1 g


No. of mole of HNO
3

=
Molarity Volume
1000
=
0.5 mol dm
-3
100 cm
3

1000
= 0.05 mol
Concentration of HNO
3

=
31.5 g dm
-3

=
Molar mass of HNO
3

31.5 g dm
-3

=
0.5 mol dm
-3

=
31.5 g dm
-3

1 + 14 + 48 g mol
-1

Change the
concentration
given in g dm
-3

to mol dm
-3
first

31


FBCE; 2HNO
3
+ CaCO
3
Ca(NO
3
)
2
+ CO
2
+ H
2
O


2 mol HNO
3
= 1 mol CO
2

0.05 mol HNO
3
= x 0.05 mol CO
2
= 0.025 mol CO
2


No. of mol of CO
2
= 0.025 mol

Volume of CO
2
= 0.025 mol 12 + 2(16) dm
3
mol
-1

= 1.1 dm
3



Example 4:
Pb(NO
3
)
2
compound decomposes when heated as shown in the following equation.
If 6.62 g of Pb(NO
3
)
2
compound is heated, calculate;
[Relative atomic mass: N, 14; O, 16; Pb, 207; 1 mol of gas occupies 22.4 dm
3
at s.t.p.]
(i) mass of PbO that is produced
(ii) volume of nitrogen dioxide produced at s.t.p
(ii) volume of oxygen produced at s.t.p

Solution:






FBCE; 2Pb(NO
3
)
2
2PbO + 4NO
2
+ O
2

2 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
= 2 mol PbO
0.02 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
= 0.02 mol PbO

No of mol PbO = 0.02 mol

Mass of PbO = 0.02 x 223 = 4.46 g


No of mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
=
mass
Molar mass
=
6.62 g
331 gmol
-1

0.02 mol =
2Pb(NO
3
)
2
2PbO + 4NO
2
+ O
2

32


FBCE; 2Pb(NO
3
)
2
2PbO + 4NO
2
+ O
2

2 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
= 4 mol NO
2

0.02 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
= 4/2 x 0.02 mol O
2
= 0.04 mol O
2


No of mol O
2
= 0.04 mol

Volume of O
2
= 0.04 x 22.4 dm
3

= 0.896 dm
3
// 896 cm
3



FBCE; 2Pb(NO
3
)
2
2PbO + 4NO
2
+ O
2

2 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
= 1 mol O
2

0.02 mol Pb(NO
3
)
2
= x 0.02 mol O
2
= 0.01 mol O
2


No of mol O
2
= 0.01 mol

Volume of O
2
= 0.01 x 22.4 dm
3

= 0.224 dm
3
// 224 cm
3



Numerical Problems involving stoichiometric reactions in the precipitation of salts

Question 1:
A student prepare copper(II) nitrate, Cu(NO
3
)
2
by reacting copper(II) oxide, CuO with 200 cm
3
of 2.0
moldm
-3
nitric acid, HNO
3
. Calculate the mass of copper(II) oxide, CuO needed to react completely
with the acid.
[Relative atomic mass: Cu, 64 ; O, 16]


Question 2:
X cm
3
of 0.5 moldm
-3
sulphuric acid, H
2
SO
4
is added to 100 cm
3
of 1.0 moldm
-3
lead(II) nitrate
solution to produce lead(II) sulphate, PbSO
4
.
[Relative atomic mass: Pb, 20; O, 16; S, 32]
a. Calculate the value of X.
b. Calculate the mass of lead(II) sulphate obtained.


Start to do exercises from any book.
I will help and guide you to master this topic.

Prepared by;
Kamal Ariffin Bin Saaim
SMKDBL