Cs1198811enc 001

T h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n c o m p o n e n t of t h e J o u l e - T h e r m i e P r o g r a m m e
E nergy sav ing

in the b rick and
ti l e industry
uin ectorate General for E nergy (DG XVII)
The JOULE-THERMIE programme was launched n 1995 as the
European Union's first 'integrated' programme, bringing together the
resources of the European Commission's Directorates-General XII
(Science, Research and Development) and XVII (Energy). This program-
me is funded by the European Union's fourth framework programme for
research and technological development, one of the most extensive
research funding initiatives available to European companies and
research organisations.
The JOULE-THERMIE programme runs until 1998 and has a total
budget of 1,030 million ECU of which 566 million ECU is allocated to
the THERMIE demonstration component of the programme for the
support of projects and assosciated measures. THERMIE is focused on
the cost-effective, environmentally-friendly and targeted demonstration
and promotion of clean and efficient energy technologies. These
consist of renewable energy technologies; rational use of energy in
industry; buildings and transport; a clean and more efficient use of
solid fuels and hydrocarbons. Essentially, THERMIE supports actions
which are aimed at proving both the technologcal and economic
viability and validity of energy technologies by highlighting the benefits
and by assuring a wider replication and market penetration both in EU
and global markets.
Col our Codi ng
To enable readers to quickly identify those Maxibrochure relating to spe-
cific parts of the THERMIE Programme each Maxibrochure is colour
coded with a stripe in the lower right hand corner of the front cover, i.e.:
RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY - RUE
RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES - RES
SOLID FUELS - SF
HYDROCARBONS - HC
GENERAL - GEN
Reproduction of the Contents is subject to acknowledgement of the
European Commission.
Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf:
a) make any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect
to the information contained in this publication; b) assumes any liability
with respect to the use of, or damages resulting from this information.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views of the Commission.
Energy saving in the brick
and tile industry
T HE RMI E P ROG RAMME ACT I ON I 227
For the E uropean Commission,
Directorate-General for E nergy (DG XVII)
Memb er of the OPE T Network
Istituto Cooperativo per l'Innovazione
Via Nomentana, 133
00161 Roma
Italia
tel. +39-6-8845848/8549141
fax +39-6-8550250
The front cover shows the tunnel kiln of Yorkshire Brick Company at Barnsley (UK).
Reproduction of the Contents is Subject to Acknowledgement
of the European Commission.
Neither the European Commission, nor any person acting on its behalf:
a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with
respect to the information contained in this publications:
b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or damages resulting
from this information.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the
views of the Commission.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the following for their contribution to this publication:
ETSU, Energy Technology Support Unit. Harwell (UK)
for information and case studies in United Kingdom;
IMPIVA. Instituto de la Mediana y Pequea Industria Va-
lenciana (E) for information and case studies in Spain;
INNOTEC, Systemanalyse GmbH, Berlin (D) for infor-
mation and case study in Germany;
NOVEM, Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Envi-
ronment, Sittard (NL) for information and case studies in
The Netherlands;
Mr. R. Ronchetti, for information about the case study of
RDB;
Mr. I. Braga, for information about the case studies of
DILS LATERIZI Spa;
Mr. C. Vimini, TECNOCER.
A great deal of additional information on the European Union is available on the Internet. It can be accessed
through the Europa server (http://europa.eu.int).
Cataloguing data can be found at the end of this publication.
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 1998
ISBN 92-828-2353-9
European Communities, 1998
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Printed in Italy
PRINTED ON WHITE CHLORINE-FREE PAPER
CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
page
1.1 Present situation (years 1991-1993) of the brick and tile industry in the
European Union (9 nations) 1
1.2 Evaluation of mean European energy consumption 1
1.3 Energy consumption in the various stages of the production cycle 2
1.3.1 Consumption of thermal energy 2
1.3.2 Consumption of electrical energy and cogeneration plant 2
2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE BRICK AND TILE INDUSTRY IN
THE ' NINETIES' 3
2.1 Thermal consumption 3
2.2 Raw materials used 3
2.3 Drying 3
2.3.1 Heat of evaporation 3
2.3.2 Bonding energy 3
2.3.3 Total evaporation energy 4
2.3.4 Drying by direct heating of the moist clay 4
2.3.5 Indirect hot air convection dryers 4
2.3.6 Rational management of thermal energy in drying 4
2.4 Recovery of heat from exhaust air expelled from the dryer 6
2.5 Correct management of drying 7
2.5.1 Management of dryers during weekends 7
2.6 Conclusions 7
3. BAKING OF BRICKS AND TILES 7
3.1 Thermal consumption of tunnel kilns 7
3.2 Technological characteristics of new tunnel kilns and repercussions for
energy management 8
3.2.1 Losses of heat in the exhaust gases 8
3.2.2 Losses by heat storage 9
3.2.3 Heat losses in the kiln structure 9
3.2.4 Recovery of hot air from the tunnel kiln 9
4. ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION 10
5. INNOVATION IN PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY 10
5.1 Rapid drying 10
5.2 Rapid baking 10
6. CASE STUDIES 11
6.1 Yorkshire Brick Company (UK) 11
6.2 Societ Fabbrica di Laterizi (I) 12
6.3 RDB Edilizia (I) 12
6.4 Wienerberger Ziegelindustrie (D) 13
6.5 Kleiwarenfabriek Gebr. (NL) 13
6.6 Koramik Narvik . V. (NL) 14
6.7 Donati Laterizi Sri (I) 15
6.8 Cermicas Valbona sa (E) 15
6.9 Cermicas Hijos de F. Moratal sa (E) 16
6.10 SILS Laterizi Spa, Plant 1 (I) 17
6.11 SILS Laterizi Spa, Plant 2 (I) 18
BIBLIOGRAFY 19
ENERGY SAVING IN THE BRICK AND TILE INDUSTRY 1
1. INTRODUCTION
In the eighties there was a sizeable fall in the number of
brick and tile manufacturing plants in the European
Union from about 3,000 in 1980 to about 1,900 in 1990.
At the same time, demand dropped because of a reduc-
tion of investments in buildings, and as a consequence
output fell by about 15% over the decade, though with
differences both between the various countries of the
European Union and between product categories.
The number of producer firms also fell significantly.
In Italy there was a clear trend towards concentration
which reduced the number of firms from about 470 to
about 300 in the course of the decade.
Investment in the sector during the decade was consid-
erable and aimed essentially at reducing production
costs per unit of output or at conversion to or construc-
tion of plants for production of more valuable products
such as roof, floor and wall tiles.
Energy-related policies in the period can be sum-
marised as follows:
a) reduction of energy wastage by introduction of kiln
exhaust heat recuperators; maximum cooling of oven
cars and products issued from the tunnel kiln with
heat recovery for drying and control of dryer opera-
tion;
b) actions on plant (dryers, kilns) to reduce losses,
particularly of heat, by modifying the plant itself or
replacing components with high heat consumption
(replacing heat generators with others with higher
yields, lightening oven cars with light- weight refrac-
tories for insulation such as kaolin fibre etc. to
reduce heat losses);
c) management of drying and baking plant to minimise
energy consumption, using computerised automatic
process control systems;
d) use of alternative fuels (following the Gulf crisis)
such as coal or petroleum coke, or waste from in-
dustrial processes (fly-ash obtained by filtering ex-
haust gas from thermal power stations, sawdust from
sawmills, paper-mill sludge, olive waste in Mediter-
ranean countries etc.).
In reality, the majority of energy-actions in the decade
were guided by a policy of containing or reducing
production costs, inspired more by the building crisis
and the increasing unit cost of energy than by a united
brick and tile industry policy aimed at rational use of
energy and reduction of consumption.
It is only in the last five years that plants have been built
with i nnovat i ve t echnol ogy and t echnol ogi cal
modifications made to existing plants to significantly
reduce energy consumption and permit rational use of
energy.
1.1 Present situation (years 1991-1993) of the
brick and tile industry in the European
Union (9 nations)
In spite of the fact that the policy of brick and tile
producers over the last decade has aimed at an overall
reduction in industrial costs more than at energy saving
in the production cycle, energy consumption has in fact
been reduced significantly, more especially during the
Gulf energy crisis, less so in the most recent period in
which energy prices have fallen sharply.
The attached Tab. 1 for 9 countries of the E.U. shows
the output in tons per year of bricks and tiles in the
individual countries and corresponding thermal and
electrical energy consumption (year of reference,
1991).
The following are the mean values for 9 E.U. countries
(Belgium, Switzerland, Spain, France, United King-
dom, Italy, The Netherlands, Sweden, Finland):
Total output
54,900,000
tons/year
Electrical
consumption
2,819.6
GWh/year
Tliennql
consumption
120,292
TJ/year
To which correspond the following specific means :
Electrical energy = 51.3 kWh/ton = 184,680 kJ/ton
Thermal energy = 2,191,110 kJ/ton
Total energy = 2,375,790 kJ/ton
It should be explained that since 1980, as a result of the
technological changes made in restructuring, both in
creating innovative plant and for the reasons given
earlier, specific thermal consumption has fallen signi-
ficantly, whereas specific electrical energy has increa-
sed by about 4-6% up to now because of mechanisation,
the increase in control equipment, and more powerful
preprocessing plants for the raw material.
1.2 Evaluation of mean European energy
consumption
Mean energy consumptions per ton of product are
useful only for comparing any given production cycle
with theoretical ideal values.
In fact, the industrial reality in the various E.U. nations
is a compound in terms both of the mix of products and
production line technology (Tab. 1).
Comparing the situation in the two largest brick and tile
producing countries in the E.U., Spain and Italy, which
also produce a practically complete range of products,
we find almost identical specific thermal consumption
per ton of product, whereas specific electrical con-
sumption is higher in Italy, because a higher percentage
of output is in the form of tiles (roof, floor and wall).
Such products require a higher specific electricity con-
sumption.
2 ENERGY SAVING IN THE BRICK AND TILE INDUSTRY
State
B*
CH
E
F
GB**
Fletton:
I
NL
S
SF
-\ * * *
Total
Production
t 1,000
2,939
1,300
13,000
4,947
8.786
20,380
3,046
171
334
9,998
Consumption
Fuel TJ
5,003
3,195
27,093
12,521
20,230
42,900
8,124
422
804
17,255
Electricity
GWIi
133.0
74.8
560.8
340.2
442.4
1,092.0
133.9
13.5
29.0
488,0
of which Brick
Production
t 1,000
2,939
1,300
10,500
2,611
6,743
2,044
13,600
2,873
171
334
8,630
Consumption
Fuel TJ
5,003
3,195
21,840
18,680
1,550
28,600
7,335
422
804
13,955
Electricity'
GWIi '
133.0
74.8
451.5
389.9
52.5
720.0
107.0
13.5
29.0
388,0
of which Tile
Production
tx 1,000
750
2,042
1,430
173
1,368
Consumption
Fuel TJ
1,620
3,100
789
3,300
Electricity
GWIi
33,3
92.0
26.0
100,0
1989 values 1TJ = IO
9
J = 10
6
K 1 Therm (BTU) = 105.49 MJ
* 1990values-Tile tonnage not notified (4.6xl0
6
m
2
covered) 1 GWh = 10
6
kWh;
* * * 1988 values - The estimate is calculated on the basis of 455,990,000 tiles of 3 kg/tile
Tab. 1
In contrast, in the Netherlands, where the production
of full bricks from soft paste (with a high percentage of
water in the mix and therefore with high thermal con-
sumption in drying) predominant specific thermal con-
sumption is higher than the E.U. average, whereas
specific electrical consumption is lower for the same
reason.
Therefore, in order for manufacturers to be guided
towards correct energy management, it is advisable and
appropriate for them - before taking actions that in-
volve technological transformations of their plant and
significant investment - to conduct an energy audit
either themselves or using outside consultants, starting
from the raw materials used and following the flows
during the various stages of manufacture.
1.3 Energy consumpt i on in the vari ous
stages of the production cycle
The production process in the brick and tile industry,
starting from the raw material dug out and stocked at
the factory site, can be summarised as follows:
a) preprocessing and forming of the product (by ex-
trusion or extrusion followed by pressing);
b) drying;
c) baking;
d) selection and packing.
With reference to energy consumption, the various
stages of the technological cycle each require both
thermal and electrical energy, which can be subdivided
as follows.
13.1 Consumption of thermal energy
The stages of the production process indicated as a)
and d) in point 1.3 require thermal energy that amounts
to 0 to 5% of the total required in the cycle, when steam
is used in extrusion and shrink-wrap film in packing.
The remaining 95% of the thermal energy is used in
stages b) drying and c) baking.
Therefore stages b) and c) will be examined in detail to
identify possible economies in managing the process,
and actions directed to the rational use of the thermal
energy required.
13.2 Consumption of electrical energy and cogenera-
tion plant
The stages a) preprocessing and forming and d) Selec-
tion and packing, together with requirements for
general services (maintenance, lighting etc.) represent
35-40% of total electrical consumption and generally
require a high percentage of electric power, since these
uses are for limited periods of the working day (8 hours,
maximum 16 hours per day).
Stages b) and c) account for the remaining 60-65% of
total electrical energy and generally extend over the
whole 24 hours of the working day with almost constant
electrical power except for the weekend in which part
of the electric power is gradually reduced, as also is the
electrical energy required for drying, since the material
has completed its drying cycle.
Total electrical consumption per ton of baked product
has not changed much in recent years, even in recent
factories, since the increase in electricity consumption
due to more accurate preparation of the raw materials
and clay mixtures and to greater mechanisation and
automation of the various stages of the production cycle
has been counterbalanced by economies achieved
through rationalisation of the stages of production by
electronic process controls and shortening of process
times.
The advisability of installing cogeneration groups - with
simultaneous production of electrical power and heat -
also requires consideration, both for existing brick and
tile works and for new ones.
In the small-medium power range (as required for brick
and tile works) groups with internal combustion en-
gines are used:
a) alternating Otto-cycle engines using gas fuel and gas
turbines when natural gas is available as a fuel;
b) alternating Diesel cycle engines in the absence of gas
fuel.
With cogeneration groups it is possible to achieve total
energy yields of 90-93% (as against maximum total
yields of 45-50% obtainable in the most modern power
stations). The primary energy saved with such groups
can reach 40% of the total (thermal + electric) energy
produced.
The size of cogeneration groups is tied to the changes
in the thermal and electrical loads resulting from the
production process, the thermal load being essentially
the heat additional to that recovered from the kiln
required for the drying stage of the manufacturing
process. Generally, this "additional" thermal energy is
about 20% of the total thermal energy in the production
cycle (at least for 5 days a week).
Looking at the electrical indices I = Ee/Et of cogenera-
tion groups (where Ee = electrical energy produced
and Et = thermal energy obtained)
I = 0.20 - 0.25 for a gas turbine group
I = 0.7 - 0.9 for an alternating engine group
The hypotheses for sizing a cogeneration plant are
therefore as follows:
a) when one wants to meet almost all the electricity
requirements of the production cycle, one should
opt for an alternating engine group;
b) opting for a gas turbine group, about 40-45% of the
electricity requirements of the cycle will be met.
The explanation herefore can be found in the ratio I
a
dd
= Ee/Etadd (with Etadd = additional thermal energy
to supply in the drying stage) is as follows per ton of
baked product
Ee = about 55 kWh/ton = about 198,000 kJ/ton
Et = 0.20 (thermal energy) = about 420,000 kJ/ton
I = Ee/Et = 0.47.
This electrical index is obtainable only with alternating
engine cogeneration groups.
2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN
THE BRICK AND TILE
INDUSTRY IN THE 'NINETIES
By examining European thermal and electric consump-
tion separately, we can draw the following conclusions.
2.1 Thermal consumption
The mean European consumption of about 2,190,000
kJ/ton of baked product can be significantly reduced by
a rationally implemented energy management policy
using electronic process control.
For correct evaluation of thermal energy management
criteria, it is advisable to analyse each stage of the
production process in which addition of thermal energy
is required, following the production process.
2.2 Raw materials used
For thermal energy consumption purposes it is of great
importance to know the percentage of carbonates
present in the raw material. The decarbonating reac-
tion in the baking stage is, in fact, endothermic and each
kg of carbonate requires the following thermal energy
input to dissociate.
Referring to the dry weight of the material:
a) for each 1% weight of CaC03,18,900 kJ/ton of dried
clay are required;
b) for each 1% weight of MgC03, 6,790 kJ/ton of dried
clay are required.
Therefore a clay with 15% carbonates will require a
higher consumption/ton compared with one without
carbonates: this higher consumption can be calculated
as 283,500 KJ/ton of dry product and 359,000 of baked
product. As compared with the European average this
represents an increase of about 16.4% in total thermal
consumption. It is therefore of great importance from
the energy point of view to find and use clays with a low
carbonate content.
2.3 Drying
Drying of clay products takes place by evaporation of
moisture from the mix. The total thermal energy to be
supplied can be subdivided as follows:
23.1 Heat of evaporation
In industrial plants one can estimate 2,380-2,500 kJ/kg
is required for water evaporation.
23.2 Bonding energy
Further thermal energy must be added to break the
water-clay bonds, the strength of which varies accord-
ing to the percentage moisture and physico-chemical
characteristics of the raw material used. This bond
energy can be estimated at about 1% of the total ther-
mal energy required for drying and hence at 20-40 kJ/kg
of water evaporated.
2 3 3 Total evaporation energy
This energy can be estimated at 2,400-2,540 kJ/kg of
water to evaporate, depending on the physico-chemical
characteristics of the raw material. In industrial dryers
for brick and tile manufacture - excluding cases where
rapid baking kilns have been installed - drying is con-
tinued until a residual moisture content of 1.5% to 2.5%
is attained. Drying may take place by either direct or
indirect heating.
23.4 Drying by direct heating of the moist clay
This may be achieved by infra-red radiation, electro-
magnetic induction or low pressure steam, in closed
dryers or in autoclaves.
In spite of the fact that these dryers consume less
energy, they are rarely used in industrial practice be-
cause of the high cost of electrical or electromagnetic
energy (required by radiant or induction dryers) and
the sealing problems when pressurized steam is used.
Generally, dryers for brick and tile manufacture use
indirect heating by hot air convection.
23.5 Indirect hot air convection dryers
The hot air recovered from the kilns, supplemented
with fresh air appropriately heated by heat generators,
is fed into the the dryers where the clay products to be
dried are deposited and is guided by fans on the
material to dry.
In hot air convection dryers, the inevitable heat losses
in the dryer must be added to the total evaporation
energy of point 2.3.4. That is:
Qw = Losses to the dryer structure
M = Sensible losses in the materials (bricks, tiles
and supports) leaving the dryer
Qs = Sensible heat in exhaust air
Qv = Sensible heat of the water vapour
Losses M and Qw may be between 12% and 15% of
total dryer consumption.Fig. 1 shows the dryer heat flow.
Depending on the type of dryer, total consumption may
vary as shown in the following Tab. 2:
Item
Static
Continuous
Rapid
(under 6 hours)
Dryer consumption
(kJ/kg water evaporated)
Min
3,750
3,500
3,800
Max
5,100
4,400
5,400
Where:
A static dryer is one in which the material to be dried
does not move. The drying cycle therefore starts by
heating the material and the walls of the dryer.
A continuous dryer, on the other hand, is one in which
the material to be dried is stacked on moving bogies,
passing through zones of progressively increasing
temperature and decreasing humidity to the end of the
cycle when the temperature is at its maximum and the
humidity is negligible (about 2%).
A rapid dryer is a continuous dryer with very short
drying cycles (maximum 4-5 hours, minimum 30
minutes).
When analysing thermal consumption excluding losses
M and Qw, the expulsion of hot air, combined with
evaporated water, amount to about 85% of the thermal
consumption in drying.
The enthalpy of the expelled air, for every kg of dry air
and X kg of water vapour, is:
J = 4.186 [(0.243 + 0.46X)tu + 595X]
where: tu = temperature of the mixture and
595 X = heat of evaporation of X kg of water.
Showing this enthalpy as a function of the temperature
of expulsion of the exhausted air gives the diagram of
Fig. 2.
23. 6 Rational management of thermal energy in
drying
The diagram shows that:
a) the thermal requirement for drying increases as the
relative humidity of the exhaust air falls;
b) the thermal requirement for drying increases as the
temperature of the exhaust air falls; this occurs in the
30-80C range, which is the maximum range of ex-
haust air temperatures from brick and tile dryers.
Sensib le heat loss
Outgoing material
Loss to walls fr- S
Qw
Sensib le heat loss
exhaust air
Tab. 2 Fig. 1 - Dryer heat flow scheme
5000
4000
3000 ;
2000
1000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Temperature C
Fig. 2 Quantity of heat removed by exhaust air per kg of water
evaporated as a function of temperature for three levels of
exhaust air saturation
Therefore, in order to achieve minimum consumption
in existing dryers, the aim is the highest possible
temperature and highest possible humidity of the ex
haust air.
In practice, this presents no special problems with con
tinuous dryers. The only condition which must be ful
filled is availability of a thermal source that allows the
dryer to be fed with hot air at a temperature higher then
180C, to reduce specific consumption per kg of water
evaporated. Under these conditions it is possible to
achieve consumptions of 830850 kcal/kg of water
evaporated (3,4803,560 kJ/kg).
From the Mollier diagram one can easily determine
that, to obtain an exhaust air temperature of about 50C
and a corresponding relative humidity of 80%, the
end cycle
mid cycle
start of cycle
Ax = 2+3 g/kg
= kg steam/kg air
Fig. 3 Changes during the cycle in the chamber of a static dryer
supplied with external hot air
dryer must be supplied with ingoing hot air at about
180C.
The situation is different with static dryers, in which the
temperature and humidity of the exhaust air change
during the drying cycle, following a curve which is an
inverted "C" in the Mollier (moist air) diagram (Fig. 3).
At the start of the cycle heat must be supplied to warm
the moist material and its supports and to heat the
internal structure of the dryer; the temperature of the
exhaust air will therefore be low, its relative humidity
high and specific consumption will be high.
Later, the humidity of the expelled air remains high
while its temperature increases, but specific consump
tion falls until the end of the drying period; then the
temperature of the exhaust air rises rapidly and its
relative humidity falls, with specific consumption again
high (Fig. 4) .
C
o
n
s
u
m
p
t
i
o
n

k
c
a
l
/
k
g

w
a
t
e
r

o

C

3

O

O

O

C

1

.

I

I

I

I

(
k ^ S .
\ \
\ s ^
X
\ >
Roo tile drying, 20 hour cycle. Air intake temperature about 120C
Brick drying, 40 hour cycle. Air intake temperature about 100C
Brick drying, 40 hour cycle. Air intake temperature about 120C
^
) 10
^-.eJ^~
' " * "
,-_--____-_.
--ZSZ-^~-^
"_
"
*
^ 4
, .

20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Duration of drying cycle (%)
*
.' s
- ' >
' V
90 )0
Fig. 4 Trend of specific thermal consumption over the drying cycle for three different products with different static dryer intake temperatures
In these dryers, too, the supply of air to the dryer must
be at a high temperature, but additional action is
needed for correct management of the thermal energy
required per kg of water evaporated.
l.a) To increase the thermal yield in the initial stage, it
is advisable to recirculate the expelled air for initial
heating of the materials and dryer structure;
l.b) or else provide an internal source of heat which
rapidly raises the temperature of the materials and
dryer, reducing expulsion of exhausted air at high
humidity.
2.a) To raise the thermal yields in the final phase drying
must be halted when the residual moisture reaches
2. 53% (with the remaining moisture being
removed during preheating in the kilns);
2.b) it is also necessary to halt the flow of hot air into
the static dryer in advance, using the heat stored
in the structures, material and supports to com
plete the drying process and possibly also feed the
dryer with unheated ambient air.
With such operating criteria it is possible to achieve
thermal efficiency with static dryers close to the one
achieved with continuous dryers.
2.4 Recovery of heat from exhaust air ex
pelled from the dryer
The enthalpy of the moist air expelled from the dryer
may reach 85% of the total thermal requirement in a
normal drying cycle and the search for even partial
recovery of its heat content is therefore of great interest.
Evaluating this enthalpy at an expulsion temperature of
50C according to the equation of para 2.3, one has:
J = 4.186 [(0.243 + 0.46X) 50 + 595X]
The total heat of the expelled air is therefore a linear
function of the water vapour content according to the
diagram of Fig. 5.
Partial recovery of the heat content of the exhaust air
may be achieved by two different plant technologies,
300
260
260
240
| 220
r 200
I
180
160
140
120
I 100
80
to
60
40
20
0
Specific energy content of moist air at 30
0 3 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85
Water content of air (g/kg)
Fig. 5 Specific energy contents of moist air as a function of water
content
I
Heat
exchanger
,
Feed air
Ware Dryer Ware
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of plant heat recovery from the dryer
exhaust with a recuperator
according to the amount of heat that is to be recovered.
The first plant, sketched in Fig. 6, consists essentially of
a heat exchanger exhaust air/ambient air, according to
the temperature of the ambient air. In addition to some
of the sensible heat of the airwater vapour mixture,
some of the latent heat of vaporisation in the mixture is
also recovered when the temperature of the exhausted
air falls below the condensation temperature, yielding
up 2,500 kJ/kg condensate.
This way it is possible to obtain a supply of supplemen
tary air to the dryer, to add to that recovered from the
kiln, which can be raised to a higher temperature by a
supplementary heat generator.
The second plant, sketched in Fig. 7, includes the instal
lation of a supplementary heat pump and is applied
when one wants to recover more heat from the exhaust
air but at a lower thermal level. Through the heat pump,
the ambient air is brought to a higher temperature,
increasing the thermal level through the heat pump's
own compressor.
In both these plants it is of fundamental importance to
recover heat from the exhaust air at the highest possible
temperature so that it can be used continuously when
heat additional to that recovered from the kilns is re
quired. However the heat recovered from the exhaust
air is always at a low thermal level, generally below
4550C.
Air intake
Condenser
Compressor
Expansion
valve
Air
exhaust
MFan
Dryed
material
exit
Dryer
Evapo
rator
Material
to dry
intake
Fig. 7 Application of heat pump to the dryer
2.5 Correct management of drying
The actions described above can lead to a total reduc-
tion of thermal consumption in existing plant of up to
500-600 kJ/kg of water evaporated (15% of total drying
consumption).
Further reductions in energy consumption can be ob-
tained by continuous control of the main factors that
govern the drying process itself and their automatic
regulation to maintain them at optimal values for the
whole cycle.
The parameters to be regulated are:
a) dryer temperature;
b) dryer humidity;
c) temperature of the incoming flow of air (by varying
the speed of the fan motors or the hot air input
control shutter) has to be measured by appropriate
sensors in the dryer (temperature and humidity) and
in the hot air ducts (temperature and pressure).
It is possible to control temperature and humidity con-
ditions in the dryer at any time and elaborate drying
programmes with specific cycles according to the type
of product being manufactured.
The optimal drying cycles, tested industrially, are
generally controlled by a microprocessor with video
terminal, keyboard and printer which ensure con-
tinuous control of the cycle and perform any necessary
modifications.
Such automatic control of the drying cycle can achieve
the following results, from the point of view of rational
use of energy.
a) realise drying cycles that require less energy;
b) managing drying in such a way as to shorten the cycle
(without creating quality problems in the dried
product), which means reduction in total consump-
tion, both thermal and electrical, because thermal
losses are proportional to the duration of the cycle,
and electricity consumption by the dryer fans is also
proportional to the lenght of the cycle;
c) in static dryers, halting the supply of hot air at least
1- 2 hours before the end of drying cycle in order to
utilise the heat stored in the structure to complete
the drying process. This also means avoiding immis-
sion of excess hot air when drying has already been
completed.
2.5.1 Management of dryers during weekends
Normally a brick or tile factory in which production is
not continuous seven days a week has a sufficient stock
of oven cars to permit continuation of baking during the
weekend, even if at a reduced rate.
With automatic control of drying cycles it is possible to
program longer drying cycles that avoid or at least
reduce thermal losses during the weekend when ex-
trusion is interrupted but the kilns continue to bake,
even if operating at a slower rhythm. This allows most
of the heat recovered from the kilns to be reused,
avoiding significant thermal losses on the days when
extrusion is halted.
2.6 Conclusions
The thermal energy required for drying accounts for
over 50% of the entire thermal energy in the manufac-
turing process.
It is possible to reduce the amount of heat needed
significantly using the energy management criteria
described.
Assuming that the weight of water evaporated is about
25% of the weight of the final baked product, it is
possible to achieve a specific thermal consumption for
drying of 200-210 kcal/kg, or 840-880 kJ/kg, of finished
product.
3. BAKING OF BRICKS AND TILES
The baking of bricks and tiles in the E.U. is essentially
performed in tunnel kilns and to a lesser extent in
moving flame kilns (Hoffmann, zig-zag, type etc.). In-
termittent kilns clad internally with kaolin fibre are
used only for high value products that require par-
ticularly well-controlled (by microprocessor) environ-
ment to produce perfect uniformity of baking and good
colour in the finished product.
3.1 Thermal consumption of tunnel kilns
In examining the thermal consumption of tunnel kilns
it is of great importance to subdivide it into its various
components in order to attain correct management of
the thermal energy required for baking.
A thermal and mass balance makes it possible to iden-
tify energy and mass flows entering and leaving the
various zones of the kiln. The material flow can be
either solid (oven cars, clay etc.) liquid or gaseous (air,
water, gas, fuel and gaseous emissions in general) in the
various zones. The thermal energy produced by the
burners in the tunnel kiln can be divided into:
- primary energy required for physico-chemical trans-
formation during the baking process;
- thermal energy needed to cover thermal losses
during the baking process.
The primary energy consumption can be reduced by
seeking out raw materials that require less energy
during the baking phase (e.g. carbonate-free clays).
Once the raw material has been chosen, the primary
energy required for the baking process is fixed.
The thermal losses are practically irrelevant to the
production of a good product and therefore rational
energy management must aim at making these losses
minimal.
They are dependent on the technological charac-
teristics of the kiln and of the operating conditions. This
energy can be subdivided as follows:
- loss of heat accumulated in the products from the
kiln (baked bricks and tiles, oven cars and acces-
sories);
- heat losses to the kiln structure;
- recovery of hot air from the kiln.
3.2 Technological characteristics of new tun-
nel kilns and repercussions for energy
management
In recent years, there has been a considerable evolution
in the design of new tunnel kilns aimed at a variety of
objectives including shorter baking times, lower weight
of refractories, and provision of more equipment in-
cluding electronic process control equipment.
From the energy point of view regulation by PLC
(Programmable Logical Control) achieves control of
burner function, regulating the temperature, check-
ing against the set values for the various zones of the
kiln and making any necessary corrections.
PLC controls the set values of temperature and
pressure in the three zones into which the kiln is
divided - preheating, baking and cooling - by altering
the fan motor speed and control shutters of the
various fans installed in the kiln.
Through such regulation it is possible to achieve the
correct gas flow rate enter and leave the kiln.
These control operations would scarcely achieve the
required optimum values without PLC control.
Installation of a PLC-governed process controller,
together with the structural modifications referred to
in new tunnel kilns, is essential for rational use of both
thermal and electrical energy.
In fact, the reduction of thermal losses in a tunnel kiln
is associated with various factors:
a) the technical characteristics of the kiln, as already
discussed;
b) the study of the baking process according to the
product; study of packs and of the passage of heat
exchange gas between the material in the packs and
in the passages among the packs and between the
kiln wall and roof and the packs;
c) correct management of the baking process, if pos-
sible with the aid of an electronic process controller.
It is therefore fundamental to adopt all the devices and
to have all the kiln equipment available to ensure con-
tinuous control of the energy actually utilised in baking.
Let us examine the thermal losses individually.
32 Losses of heat in the exhaust gases
The quantity of these losses depends on the weight of
exhaust gases expelled per kg of product and on the
temperature of the exhaust. In an old tunnel kiln these
losses can be between 210 and 380 kJ/kg of baked
product.
The technological modifications that have been made
in new tunnel kilns which influence such stack losses
can be summarised as:
a) airtight tunnel construction with steel shell and wall
and roof insulation of light fibre (rock wool and
kaolin fibre);
b) more effective sealing of the kiln floor with detection
of pressure differences between kiln interior and
external truck floor;
c) lightening of oven car refractories with a weight ratio
between oven car refractory structure and material
being baked of 1:3 -1:3.5, insulation of oven car floor
with kaolin fibre mattresses.
These modifications allow a considerable reduction of
heating requirements due to less parasitic air heating
(practically air tight kiln) and less heat losses from oven
cars and structure (lower thermal capacity).
Lateral burners with a high combustion product output
speed are installed in the preheating section to supple-
ment the lower output of exchange exhausts from the
kiln. These burners can supply the thermal energy re-
quired to preheat the material to bake and the refrac-
tory supports of the oven car. Also the high outlet speed
of the products of combustion creates sufficient tur-
bulence in the kiln, which promotes heat exchange with
the products to be baked.
Fig. 8 shows the thermal trend in the preheating zone,
with reduced quantities of hot gas coming from the
baking: both with the high speed burners in opera-
tion (curve B) and without the burners in operation
(curve A).
900
800
O
S_ 600
0)
5 500
5
4

E 300

H
200
100
0
A
V A = Gas leaving baking area
\ v = Gas expelled lo chimney
\
K
. " " - -
\ .
V
' \ b
^^\.
a S
** -
B
~-~^
Fig. 8-Trend of gas temperature in prehating area with low outflow
from the baking area in the normal case (a) or with heat
injection (b)
The effect of the lateral burners (saw-toothed curve) is
obvious; they raise the temperature of the material
while leaving the temperature of the gas exhausted
unchanged.
In modern tunnel kilns it is possible, by the means
described, to achieve exhaust/baked product weight
ratios of 1.5-1.6, with the result that thermal losses in
the exhaust gas are reduced to 180-200 kJ/kg of baked
product.
322 Losses by heat storage
The adoption of light-weight oven cars, with low-den-
sity refractories and kaolin wool thermal insulation, as
well as of rapid cooling on leaving the baking area, has
permitted a reduction of these losses of about 45-60
kJ/kg baked product, excepting tunnel kilns with spe-
cial refractory supports ("U" or of "H" type for roofing
tiles).
3.23 Heat losses in the kiln structure
The adoption of air-tight kiln walls and roof with steel
shells and of control of pressure difference between the
interior of the kiln and the exterior tunnel at the lorry
floor for the whole length of the kiln has not only
drastically reduced the infiltration of parasitic air, but
also eliminated the risk of gas escaping under excess
pressure in parts of the kiln close to the burners or close
to the recycling and rapid cooling high pressure fans.
Additionally, thorough insulation of roof and walls of
the kiln has made additional cooling with outside air
(not always usable continuously in the drying process)
superfluous.
3.2.4 Recovery of hot air from the tunnel kiln
This recovery is carried out in the cooling zone of the
kiln. In modern kilns an attempt has been made to
reduce the extent of this heat recovery by trying to use
part of the heat in the tunnel kiln itself, for example in
combustion air for the burners. The advantage in this
method is reduction of weekend heat losses, when only
part of the heat recovered can be utilised.
Tab. 3 shows the breakdown of the heat consumption
in the baking process, excluding
a) endothermic losses, since these are dependent on
the characteristics of the raw material and therefore
independent of the characteristics of the tunnel kiln;
b) heat recovered from the kiln, since at least 80% can
be used in the dryers.
This signifies evaluation of losses as about 20% of heat
recovered to take account of weekend losses. For a
tunnel kiln not of recent construction and for new
process-controlled kilns the following figures are ob-
tained for consumption in kJ/kg of baked product
(Tab. 3).
Item
Consumption
Exhaust
losses
Heat storage
Dispersion
Total
% recovered
heat unutilized
Total losses
Non-recent
tunnel kilns*
Minimum
210
80
70
360
20
450
Maximum
400
200
110
710
20
800
Recent
tunnel kilns
Mean
~200
~60
~70
~330
20
~420
Tab. 3 - Measurements obtained from heat balances in 11 tunnel kilns
in use
Air exhausted to dryer <
chimney
Evaporation of water
from mix
Fuel to subsidiary
dryer source
Weekend non-
recoveries
Losses to kiln
smokestack
Endotermic
O
Losses from
kiln
Fig. 9 - Heat balance diagram for a brick and tile factory
The hypothesis of a total thermal consumption with
optimisation of technological plant, kiln and dryers
regulated by electronic process controllers (PLC) is
described as an example
Assuming a raw material with about 7% of carbonates,
with endothermic losses of 120 kJ/kg of baked product,
it is possible to achieve an overall thermal consumption
of 1725 kJ/kg of baked product.
A representation of the optimal energy balance of such
a plant achievable with presently emerging tech-
nologies is attached. 30% recovery from the dryer ex-
haust air has been assumed (Fig. 9).
5. INNOVATION IN PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY
In recent years new technologies have particularly ad-
dressed two stages of great importance in the brick and
tile industry: drying and baking.
These stages are certainly the most important ones
from the energy point of view, even if the technological
approach does not aim only at the energy savings at-
tainable but also at other economic and operational
aspects such as reduction of investment cost and rapid
cycles appropriate to the type of clay product to be
produced.
4. ELECTRICITY CONSUMPTION
For correct division of the electrical energy require-
ments of a brick or tile factory it is advisable to sub-
divide them into:
4.a) electricity requirement for production plant, in-
cluding maintenance activities;
4.b) electricity requirement of drying plant and kilns.
Under 4 b), some kiln fans (kiln heat recovery) may feed
the dryers and therefore their separation is not simple.
Assigning figures to these requirements we can es-
timate consumption as follows:
4.a) processing and production about 23 kWh/ton
4.b) drying and baking about 30 kWh/ton
Total about 53 kWh/ton
These values are in line with the E.U. mean consump-
tion surveyed in 1991 of 51.3 kWh/ton of baked product
with the innovations that have taken place in the last five
years. This electrical consumption can be considered
unchanged for the following reasons.
On one hand the modifications made to plant (dryers
and kilns in particular) have required installation of
new electrical and electronic equipment for automat-
ion and controls, thus increasing consumption.
On the other hand, this automation and the use of
inverters (particularly for fan output control) have
reduced electrical consumption, so that it is reasonable
to take consumption per ton of baked product as un-
changed at 50-55 kWh/ton.
The "inverter" is a device for control of A.C. motor
speed through frequency variation.
It is particularly suitable for control of fan motor speeds
in situations where frequent air flow changes are re-
quired.
5.1 Rapid drying
In reality such dryers are not an innovation, since there
are many rapid roller dryers with 40' to 1.5 hour cycles
in operation for flat products and equally many ex-
amples of dryers for hollow and roof tiles with a 3-4
hour cycle.
The innovation consists in the search for a 2-3 hour
cycle appropriate for different types of clay, using air
recirculation within the dryer and control of tempera-
ture and humidity levels in the various zones in such a
way that optimal drying is ensured.
5.2 Rapid baking
The baking technology is derived from the roller kilns
used in the ceramic industry.
The experience acquired is of a roller kiln with 3 orders
of multiple channels and baking of thin-layer materials
(slab components)
The technical data recorded for a 3-5 hour baking cycle
are:
declared thermal consumption net of recovery =
= 606 kJ/kg baked product;
electric energy consumption = 6.75 kWh/ton of
baked product which figures are comparable with
those of a traditional tunnel kiln.
6. CASE STUDIES
6.1 Yorkshire Brick Company (UK)
The Yorkshire Brick Company makes several types of
perforated clay bricks for use in building construction;
they are produced by extrusion and dried in a tunnel
kiln.
The factory operates two gas fired tunnel kilns; before
the Demonstration Project throughput per kiln was
typically 18 cars/day, giving an output of about 34,000
bricks/kiln/day; the main raw material is coal measure
shale.
The company decided to modify one of the gas fired
tunnel kilns with the main aim of improving the tempe-
rature distribution in the brick setting and implement-
ing a faster firing schedule.
The changes envisaged were situated in three areas:
a method of redistributing hot air around the brick
setting in the early heating stage;
extra burners in the pre-heat and main firing zones;
installation of a closely controlled cooling system.
The project was supported through the Energy Ef-
ficiency Demonstration Scheme.
The kilns are made up of 32 modules, each of 2,5m long
and lined internally with insulating bricks; five stages in
the firing schedule of the kilns could be identified:
1) exhaust heating zone;
2) first pre-heat zone;
3) second pre-heat zone;
4) two main firing zones;
5) cooling zones.
A high temperature air recirculation system was incor-
porated to take air from the hotter upper regions via a
crown off-take and blow it back into the cooler lower
regions from both sides of the kiln.
Ten additional high velocity burners were installed
below deck level in preheat zone and three at crown
level; the side burners were directly opposed so as to
increase turbulence; seven further crown burners were
located in the second pre-heat and main firing zones;
rapid cooling was achieved by direct injection of air
recovered from further down the cooling zone, diluted
with air at ambient temperature and many other tech-
nical changes were made in the kiln structure.
Monitoring was carried out for three months before
and six months after kiln was modified; some results are
summarised in the following Tab. 4:
Kiln output
cars/day
Kiln output te/year
Specific fuel
consumption
therms/te
Fuel consumption
therms/year
Fuel consumption
therms/year based
on 24 cars/day
output level
Before
modification
18
(17-19)
28,100
30.3
852,000
1,139,000
After
modification
18
(17-19)
28,100
26.9
756,000
-
24
(23-24)
37,600
22.8
857,000
857,000
Tab. 4
To check product quality, samples taken from the top,
bottom and centre of the setting were tested regularly
for water absorption: these tests showed that product
quality has been maintained at the higher level of output
following the kiln modification.
The increase in annual output was 9,500 te, which are
calculated assuming the 80% of "best" grade bricks; this
means . 221,200/year (294,769 ECU/year) to the
Yorkshire Brick Company based on the profit margin
at the time of kiln modification.
The reduction in specific energy consumption follow-
ing modification yields a further . 84,600/year (112,039
ECU/year) in production cost savings at 1988 prices
(30p/therm).
The overall benefit of the modifications was . 243,300
(324,512 ECU), which gives a simple payback period of
1,1 years.
For Yorkshire Brick Company the system has improved
the control of the firing process with a subsequent
Fig. 10 - Exterior view of the factory
improvement in output quality, giving a greater flexibil-
ty in output rates, which is an important factor consider-
ing the cyclic nature of this kind of industry.
Finally, the installation of the system improved the
performance of the existing equipment to standards of
efficiency and volume of a modern plant at a fraction of
its capital cost.
6.2 Societ' Fabbrica di Laterizi (I)
The "Societ' Fabbrica di Laterizi" of San Quirico d'-
Orcia produces high quality building materials and
tiles.
In 1990, as part of a far-reaching restructuring of the
brick line, an old masonry kiln was replaced by a new
modular prefabricated plant, complete with oven cars.
In addition to a marked improvement in the quality of
the baking, the investment made possible significant
energy savings, resulting essentially from functional and
constructional features of the new kiln, the aspects are:
airtight construction;
high level of insulation;
low thermal inertia of the oven cars.
The operational advantages are:
uniform preheat i ng with high velocity lateral
burners;
rapid cooling with lateral lances and recovery of the
hot air from the roof;
minimum flow of parasitic air and therefore low
specific exhaust flow;
automatic control according to output, with a conse-
quent optimisation of gas flows.
Comparison between the consumption of the two kilns
yielded the results summarised below (Tab. 5).
The energy recovery achieved is about 18% and permits
a saving of about 293 kJ/kg of product, for a possible
annual saving of 40,000 GJ.
Exhaust
Endothermic
Thermal dispersion
Storage
Recovery
TOTAL
Old kiln
kJIkg baked
439
418
125
146
544
1672
New kiln
kJ/kg baked
209
418
63
63
628
1381
Tab. 5
Fig. 11 - Detail of the highspeed pre-heating side burners applied to
the prefabricated "Modulo" type kiln
6.3 RDB Edilizia (I)
The RDB group is the largest brick and tile manufac-
t urer in Italy with factories in various locations
throughout the country.
In 1993 a roller kiln with the following characteristics
was brought into operation for rapid baking of bricks
and tiles.
Type of kiln: single channel, two layers of rollers.
Type of product: slab component blocks.
Firing cycle: 2h 45' - 3h according to product type.
Firing temperature: 1020C.
Length: 130 m.
Useful width: 1870 mm.
The performance of the kiln measured in the accep-
tance trials was as follows.
Thermal consumption of 1088 kJ/kg baked product of
which about 293 kJ/kg of baked product were recovered
for the dryer. The raw material is rich in carbonates and
this results in a total endothermic heat consumption of
about 209 kJ/kg of baked material.
Electricity consumption, including that of the loading
and unloading machines, was 6 kWh/kg of baked
product.
Output was 400 t/24 hours.
The quality of the finished product was high and con-
stant. A special comparison test lasting over a week was
carried out on this aspect, comparing the roller and
tunnel kilns when loading both with identical dry
blocks with absolutely equal conditions at entry.
The analyses carried out on some thousands of pieces
at an accredited laboratory gave interesting results. The
blocks baked at 1020C for 2 hours 50' were superior by
15% in compression strength and by 30% in bending
strength to those baked at 1050C in the tunnel over 40
hours.
Reliability and flexibility are two important additional
factors encountered during the year the kiln has been
operating. In this period the kiln has alternated daily
between full operation and shut-off. This means that
the kiln has passed a very severe test with good results
in terms of productivity, seal, control and flexibility,
retaining the high performance described with over 300
switch-ons in one year.
6.4 Wienerberger Ziegelindustrie (D)
Approximately 100,000 tonnes of brick are produced
annually in the brick factory Rietberg. Its com-
puterised, automatically controlled production equip-
ment makes it one of Europe's most modern plants as
far as energy efficiency and emission levels are con-
cerned. The emissions produced lie far below the strict
legal requirements in Germany.
Brick production consists of the following steps:
1. Milling the clay in course and fine rolling mills (ap-
prox. 37 m /h);
2. homogenisation of the raw material;
3. moulding under addition of steam to keep material
flexible;
4. drying to reduced water content (from 20% to 1%
water content);
5. firing of the bricks;
6. packing and transport.
The energy intensive production steps drying (4.) and
firing (5.) have been optimised and make use of modern
technologies.
A continuous flow dryer allows air temperature to in-
crease from 45C to 80
C
C. The drying process takes 36
hours and requires 138 kJ/kg. The tunnel dryer is
powered by heat recovery from the kiln.
In the following firing process (kiln lenght 92.4 m) the
bricks are fired for 24 hours at 950C. The heating
elements which are fixed to the ceiling are fired with
natural gas 1,600 kJ/kg energy are used.
A thermal post-firing kiln burns off the gaseous sulphur
produced almost without residue. A filter before the
chimney keeps the emission levels low.
The transport process is also environmentally friendly
at Rietberg. In co-operation with nine other brick
manufacturers a reusable pallet system has been intro-
duced. This allows 22,500 m of wood to be saved each
year.
Fig. 12 - The moulded bricks are dried in a tunnel dryer powered by
heat recovery from the kiln
Fig. 13 - Modernisation of the Wefensleben plant, eastern Germany
with similar parameters
6.5 Kleiwarenfabriek Gebr. (NL)
The company Kleiwarenfabriek in Tegelen produces
mainly ceramic roof tiles and accessories in nine models
and sixteen colours; futhermore they produce several
laths kinds and sizes.
Aim of the project was to install a newly designed
hermetically sealed tunnel kiln in which heat losses
through the walls and the kiln cover are minimised and
the leakage of cold air in the heating zone is prevented.
An important aspect of a tunnel kiln is the fact that the
wheel sets of the carts have to be cooled while going
through the kilns.
This is normally achieved by ventilating air through the
space under the carts. Although special sealing con-
structions are made for reducing the leakage of this
cooling air into the heating zone above the carts, heat
losses by air leakage are often considerable. The gaps
between the carts and the walls of the tunnel kiln are
never reduced to zero. As the flow of circulating cooling
air always causes a difference in pressure between the
spaces under and above the bottom of the carts, air
leakages can never be avoided in this type of tunnel kiln.
One of the most important features of this new design
kiln is that air leakage to the heating zone is conside
rably reduced.This is realised by using a new method
for cooling the kiln carts. The space under the carts is
divided by vertical partitions into compartments of half
a cart length.
There is no circulation of cooling air by ventilation, the
air in the compartments is cooled by water that flows
through finned tubes. The wheel sets are cooled in
directly by the thermal circulation of the air, that arises
from the cooling. The pressure difference under and
above the carts is zero, as there is no air ventilation. The
air leakage into the heating zone therefore also is zero.
This eliminates the need for special sealing construc
tion between the carts and the tunnel wall, such as sand
gutters. The heat tranferred to the cooling water, is
efficiently used in the drying compartments of the fac
tory, where the freshly formed bricks are dried before
going into the tunnel kiln.
Conventional tunnel kilns for cerami c building
products are normally constructed with a fireproof
inner wall, insulation, a brick outer wall and a concrete
floor. In order to avoid overheating of the internal steel
construction that supports the inner part of the kiln
cover, the walls and the cover of the kiln are cooled with
air. This air cooling adds to the air leakage into the kiln
that already came from the cooling of the wheel sets.
The new kiln has a capacity of 5 tons per hour and an
operating time of 8000h/year. The additional invest
ment was approximately NLG 500,000 ( 232,310 ECU)
being about 10 to 20% of the investment for a conven
tional kiln.
a
The gas consumption of the kiln is 36m /ton whereas a
conventional kiln would consume 50m /ton. The
savings therefore are 14m /ton.
With a gas price of NLG 0,20/m
3
( 0.09 ECU/m
3
) it can
be concluded that the payback period of the additional
investment is 4,5 years.
Fig. 14 The kiln loaded with tiles
6.6 Koramik Narvik B.V. (NL)
This factory annually produces about 15 million roof
tiles using a tunnel kiln, in which the most recent tech
nologies have been applied.
The project aimed to reduce energy consumption by
reducing air leakages, shortening the product passage
time through the kiln, improving the drying process and
usefully recovering heat from the flue gases.
This was achieved by replacing the old and poorly
sealed conventional kiln with a new Cerictype kiln.
Newly formed clay roof tiles are held in a drying kiln
until the moisture content is reduced to 12%. In order
to be fired in a tunnel kiln, the tiles are loaded onto a
tunnel cart.
They are stacked horizontally in ceramic racks rather
than being placed vertically, leaning or bundled with
wire, as is conventionally done.
This allows hot gases, and afterwards cooling air, to
flow easily between the tiles, resulting in better heat
tranfer by convection and radiation.
These racks have been in use since 1990 and no
durability problems have been encountered.
In addition to this method of stacking, low thermal mass
materials have been used for construction of the tunnel
carts.
These combined factors mean that preheating and
cooling times are reduced, which results in a substan
tially shorter time for the tiles to pass through the kiln
(17 hours instead of 70 hours in the original kiln).
Air leakages are reduced to practically zero by using a
water bed under the carts.
Vertical metal skirts, connected to the carts, hang in the
water thus forming a hermetic water seal between the
atmosphere within the kiln and that in the production
hall; lifts are used at either end of the kiln to manoeuvre
the carts in and out of the water bed.
Conventionally, sand or air labyrint seals have been
used which are less effective than a water seal.
The tunnel kiln is 129 m in length, 6 m wide and 2 m
high; it is divided into the following main sections:
preheating;
firing and cooling section.
Installation of the new tunnel kiln has resulted in a
saving of over 50% in the specific gas consumption of
the drying and firing processes.
By extracting exhaust gases at a single position instead
of the usual two, a 6% saving was also made on specific
electricity consumption: futher details of the energy
savings are given in the following Tab. 6:
Specific gas consumption
for drying and firing
(m /ton finished product)
Specific electric energy
consumption (kWh/ton
finished product)
Production (tiles/year)
Tile weight (kg)
Annual savings
- Gas (m /year)
- Electricity (kWh/year)
New kiln
60.1
94
Old kiln
125
100
15,000,000
2.641
2,571,014
237,690
Tab. 6
The extra investment required over the cost of a con-
ventional tunnel kiln was NLG 4,000,000 ( 1,858,483
ECU). With a gas price of 0.229 NLG/m
3
( 0.10
ECU/m ) and an electricity price of 0,12 NLG/kwh
(0.05 ECU/Kwh) the annual savings achieved are
617,285 NLG/year (286,803 ECU/Year).
This gives a simple payback period on the additional
investment of 6,5 years.
High temperature operation, made possible by the type
of agitators installed with an external motor, permits a
drastic reduction in losses of heat through moist ex-
haust air.
In fact, the higher the temperature of the drying
medium (air), the more moisture the same weight of it
can remove from the material being dried.
The energy saving shown in the following Table 6 below
is about 1298 kJ/kg of water evaporated or 293 kJ/kg of
baked output, for an annual saving of about 67,600 GJ.
Evaporation
heat
Exhaust losses
Dispersion
Storage
TOTAL
Rapid roller dryer
kYlkg
water evaporated
2448
2134
167
146
4895
Gabbro type dryer
kJIkg
water evaporated
2448
753
125
272
3598
Tab. 7
Fig. 15 - Freshly baked roof tiles on ceramic racks coming out of the
kiln
Fig. 16 - Dryer with low thermal consumption
6.7 Donati Laterizi Sri (I)
Donati Laterizi is one of the leading brick and tile
makers in Tuscany, with an output exceeding 230,000
tons per year.
The 1991-92 restructuring of the old factory covered all
the production departments.
One of the most significant actions from the point of
view of reducing energy consumption was the conver-
sion of the dryer (high speed roller type).
The new dryer is of the tunnel type with oven cars, fixed
rotary agitators, fed by high temperature air.
6.8 Cermicas Vallbona sa (E)
Cermicas Vallbona is an enterprise with 32 employees,
producing hollow bricks and blocks for the building
industry, with an output of 200 t/day.
The pieces are shaped by extrusion and then dried in
continuous tunnel dryers, of which the firm has three.
Baking is carried out in a tunnel kiln.
The fuels used for baking are coal and fuel oil. For
drying, the recovered hot air from baking, fuel oil fired
dryers were replaced in 1991 with a biomass burner,
with savings in both cost and energy consumption.
Description of the factory
Founded in 1963 with a Hoffman kiln and
remodelled in 1971 with a tunnel kiln
Products: hollow bricks and blocks
Tunnel kiln: 200 t/day
Operation: 24 hours/day, 365 days/year
Energy consumption: 2000 kg fuel oil/day + 6000 kg
coal/day
3 continuous tunnel dryers
Drying cycle: 2236 hours
Moisture content entering the dryer: 12%
Moisture content leaving the dryer: 2%
Direct heat recovery of exhaust and cooling air from
the kilns to the dryers.
Extrusion with steam: fuel oil consumption in boiler
= 80 kg/h
Initial situation: dryers
Fuel oil consumption: 1000 kg/day = 365,000
kg/year
Net heat value of fuel oil: 40,185 kJ/kg
Cost of fuel oil: 18.5 Pta/kg = 0,11 ECU
Annual cost: Pta 6,752,500/year = 42,609 ECU
Situation with biomass burner
Start of operation: July 1991
Fuel: pine bark and almond waste
Biomass consumption: 2700 kg/day = 985,500
kg/year
Net heat value: 14,651 kJ/kg
Cost of biomass: Pta 4/kg = 0,02 ECU
Annual cost: Pta 3,942,000/year = 24,875 ECU
ENERGY SAVINGS: 350 toe/year
COST SAVI NGS: 2, 810, 500Pt a/ year =
17,735/ECU year
INVESTMENT: Pta 5,800,000 = 36,599 ECU
PAYBACK PERIOD: 2.1 years
Fig. 17 Biomass kiln
6.9 Cermicas Hijos de F. Moratal sa
(Cehimosa) (E)
CEHIMOSA produces annually 110,000 tons of baked
clay building products in three production lines, with
an energy consumption of 5000 tons/year of fuel oil and
8910 MWh/year of electricity.
In April 1991 a steam boiler was installed in production
line No.3 (with a capacity of 220 tons/day) with the aim
of adding the required amount of mix water to the clay
before forming by means of a current of dry saturated
steam.
Output and consumption figures are as follows:
Output of steam
Output of extruded material
Steam consumption
Fuel consumption
Energy consumption
1500 kg/h
30t / hofcl ay
50 kg steam/ton of clay
4,813,900 kJ/h (fuel oil)
160,324 kJ/ton of clay
The advantages obtained are as follows:
shortening of the drying cycle, which was the limiting
stage in the process, as no initial slow heating is
required; this has made possible the increase of the
output of line 3 from 220 to 250 t/day.
reduction of the moisture required in the mix from
20% to 18%; this, combined with the fact that pieces
now enter the dryer hot, has resulted in a decrease
in the energy consumption of the dryer previously
estimated at 205,114 kJ/ton of clay. The energy
saving obtained is therefore:
ENERGY SAVING
L t fi 11rra I
(205114 160324) 220 x 330 *~ ,
' t d y 4,1868 Joule
10
7 toe
kcal
= 78 toe/year
This represents a cost saving of 1,600,000 Million/Pta
year = 10,096 ECU/year
Reduction of the mechanical energy used in ex-
trusion as a result of the reduced mass and its higher
temperature.
The resulting decrease in electricity consumption
has not been properly evaluated but is estimated at
approximately 1.92 kWh/t of clay, which would con-
vert to an annual electricity saving of 139,400
kWh/year. In economic terms, this would mean a
saving of
Pta 1,700,000 Million/year = 10,727 ECU/year
The pieces being dried are more uniform, with the
result that the output is better and more uniform and
the percentage of breakages has been reduced from
12% to 7%.
The investment required by the project was Pta
7,900,000 Million = 49,850 ECU/year
Taking account of only the energy saving, the payback
period for the investment is 2.4 years.
Fig. 18 - Steam injection in the clay extruder
6.10 SILS Laterizi Spa, Plant 1 (I)
A new plant for the production of facework bricks was
implemented by SILS Laterizi factory producing dry
pressed bricks, dried and fried in a three roller kiln.
The aim of adapting the firing technique which is usual-
ly used in the ceramic industry was to achieve high
flexibility in manufacturing while matching the stand-
ards for individual technical parameters and cost that
have been achieved with the old technology.
The new production line is based on a capacity of about
50,000 bricks/day and uses techniques already tested in
the production of ceramic wall an floor tiles.
The new technology comprises dry milling of the raw
material in oscillating hammermills fitted with control
screens followed by sifting on self-cleaning vibrating
screens, with the over-size material being returned to
the mill.
The powder obtained is then passed to the vertical
damping machine which raises the moisture contents to
the required level for forming (6-8%) if it is not already
at that level when dug.
The material then passes to storage and maturation
silos with a capacity of 320 tons, equivalent to over two
days output.
The capacity of the milling plant, calculated on the
basis of operation for not more than 8 hours a day at
full production, is about 20-25 tons/hour. Operation,
including loading and unloading of the storage silos, is
fully automatic.
The powder, at the right moisture level, is then con-
veyed to the loading hoppers of the presses used for
forming.
The pressing department is equipped with three auto-
matic hydraulic presses each of 500 tons. Two of these
are in continuous operation when the plant is running
at capacity, while the third is considered as reserve and
used only if one of the others is out of action. Rubber-
coated steel moulds with 5 exits are mounted on the
presses to form perforated bricks of 250 120 55 mm.
The baseboards of the presses are pierced by spikes
that create the through-holes to lighten the bricks.
The presses can achieve six strokes minute to produce
1800 bricks per press-hour. Full operation at 50,000
bricks per day requires an average of 3-4 strokes per
minute.
From the presses the material is moved automatically
by collector-conveyer belts to the roller dryer-kiln with
three baking floors about 100 m long.
The load at full operation comprises 20 pieces side by
side in a double layer on each baking floor, undergoing
first a drying process and then the proper baking.
At full operation the drying and baking process lasts 8-9
hours, divided equally between drying and baking
process.
The speed of the cycle has not thus far created any
difficulties and it can therefore be predicted that in a
not too distant future it will be possible to accelerate
the cycle further and thus increase the output (Tab. 7).
Looking at energy consumption aspects, production
potential is currently between 50,000 and 60,000
bricks/day and some measurements of consumption
have been made on this output which are shown
below:
Electricity consumption
Mix
preparation
Feeding
presses
Presses
Feed to
drying and
baking
Selection
and packing
Dedusting
TOTAL
Installed
power
(kW)
192
15
165
30
53
60
515
Absorbed
power
(kW)
64
5
90
10
13
15
197
Specific
consumption
(Wh/kg)
6.7
0.9
11.5
0.0019
2.8
2.9
26.7
Tab. 8
N.B. - electricity consumption for drying and baking is not shown
since it is comparable with traditional lines
Heat consumption
Physical-chemical reactions
Dispersion
Hot material exiting
Dryer exhaust
Kiln exhaust
Cooling area
TOTAL
Consumption in
Wlilkg baked
9.88
52.3
43.0
55.8
122.0
58.1
430.0
Tab. 9
The results achieved only a few months from the start
are already sufficient to indicate that the route taken is
a valid one and that the future cannot but confirm the
premisses on which it is based.
6.11 SILS Laterizi Spa, Plant 2 (I)
The cogeneration plant of SILS Laterizi was installed
in the existing part of the factory, the one producing
traditional alveolated bricks, with an annual capacity of
about 105.00 Ton/year. The production plant is com-
posed by a Tunnel Fournace and a continuous type
dryer. The intervention has concerned the installation
of two generator sets powered by a Natural Gas Engine
producing 347 electrical kW and 620 thermal kW each,
with heat recovery from exhaust gases and cooling
fluids and production of electric energy in parallel with
the grid.
The cogeneration system was sized to supply all the
thermal energy needed for the dryer, connecting on the
other side the produced electrical energy in parallel to
the grid. The idea of connecting the electric generator
in parallel to the grid is a very important point for the
operation of a cogeneration system, because of the
following merit points:
a) generator engine can operate continously at the
maximum efficiency point: having a cogeneration
system with unlimited electric energy output,
enables to adjust the thermal output power accord-
ing to the real plant thermal needs with no limitation;
b) when operating in parallel to the public electric
net work the quality of t he el ect ri cal energy
produced by the cogeneration system is the same as
that of the public network, (frequency and voltage);
c) the plant can use the same short-circuit power of the
network to compensate the high current peaks
needed to start big motors and to compensate the
peak current while operating.
The cogeneration is mainly designed and applied to
save energy: thus in this plant, thermal energy surplus
cannot be stored or exchanged, so the cogeneration
system is able to produce the exact amount of thermal
energy needed from the dryer at the maximum efficien-
cy. This is possible only by generating the electrical
energy in parallel to the public network.
Two generators of same ratings were selected, to work
in parallel to each other and in parallel with the public
electric network producing 1200 thermal kW and at the
same time the maximum possible electrical power.
With this two-generator system the following operating
conditions are possible:
a) to produce thermal and electrical energy even with
one engine out of service, producing the rest of
thermal energy required by the dryer with the old
gas burner;
b) to produce only one half of the thermal energy
required to the dryer during Sunday, at higher ef-
ficiency;
c) to have a higher short circuit power available while
operating disconnected from the public network
(for example, during electric black-out) so as supply
the peak motor currents of the plant;
d) on the other hand the installation of a two generator
set is not so complicated and in this case, engines
will be of smaller size making service faster and
easier.
The location of the cogeneration system in the plant
lay-out is very important for using the produced energy
with high efficiency. Mainly the thermal energy use
points have to be near the cogeneration room.
After one year of operation some operating results have
been observed and the cogeneration plant is now run
ning with optimal performances in terms of money and
energy saving.
The dryer supplied by the cogenerator thermal energy
is working properly with the same productivity and
efficiency than before the new installation. The
auxiliary burner was fired only in extreme cool weather
conditions in winter and during service time of the
generator engine. The natural gas consumption com
pared with the previous amount is now about a 10%
more when the two cogenerators are in operation.
The cogenerator system has produced 5.253.000 kWh,
of which 947.000 kWh was exchanged back to the public
electric network. 570.000 kW were drawned from the
network to compensate the higher amount of energy
needed during peaktime. The disconnection and con
nection with the electric Network was performed auto
matically from the synchronisation system about 200
times with no problem. Electrical and thermal energy
was available even during public network blackout.
A service contract every 1000 hours provides main
service to the engines, oil change and part checking.
Normal factory maintenance personnel provides week
ly light service (air filters cleaning, ....) and oil change
every 500 working hours.
The system efficiency is increasing near to the theoreti
cal values and this is made possible because the factory
maintenance personnel is becoming skilled and can
solve the various problems in a very short time.
Cogeneration saved energy using natural gas at a global
efficiency rate of about 90%.
The efficiency is mainly affected by the right connection
to the grid, because during parallel connection it is
possible to operate engine at maximum power value.
Protection of electric cabinets and power lines has been
done with high precision to eliminate damages during
extreme operations.
Installation and operation of small size systems do not
need any skilled technicians to be engaged, factory
maintenance personnel can operate it at high efficiency
after few months.
Startup time is really short and does not create any
production loss if the technical connection to public
network is well dimensioned.
Money saving in total energy costs is high (about20%)
and start from the first operating month with a consid
erable reduction of electric energy invoice.
m-EtE
"^^iBlrrir i iiii ii
'^^^^*2S
n u i l * 1 "
tttflfrill 1 Ul i
***^I Ti * ^ 1
Fig. 1 9 - Roller dryer an d kiln
BIBLIOGRAPHY
E. Facincani "I laterizi" Faenza Editrice Faenza
E. Rimpel "Heat recovery from the dryer exaust"
Ziegelindustrie January, 1990
K. Thoma "Economical drying with high temperatures"
Ziegelindustrie International May, 1980
E. Facincani "Alcuni bilanci termici di forni a tunnel"
Annotazioni tecniche Morando Imp/t
W. Kother "The current situation and future develop
ments in tunnel kiln construction" Ziegelindustrie In
ternational June 1987
G. Elmi "Cottura rapida dei laterizi: valutazioni tec
niche" Relazioni Tecnargilla 1992
K. Junge "Progettazione ed ottimizzazione dei processi
dei forni a tunnel nell'industria dei laterizi" (Protec
tierung und Optimierung vom tunnel ofen prozessen der
ziegel industrie) Dissertation Clausthal 1993
Js*^ ^ 3.?E8ilg |!!""4
European Commission
Energy saving in the brick and tile industry
Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities
1998 19 pp. 21 29,7 cm
ISBN 92-828-2353-9
RGANISATIONS FOR THE PROMOTION OF ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Within each Member State there are a number of organisations recognized by the European Commission as an Organisation for the Promotion of Energy Technology
(OPET). It is the role of these organisations to help to coordinate specific promotional activities within Member States. These include staging of promotional events
such as conferences, seminars, workshops or exhibitions as well as production of publications associated with the THERMIE programme.
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Estonian Foundation of European
Union,
4 Veski Str.,
2400 Tartu,
ESTONIA
Tel: +372 7 44 73 28
Fax: +372 7 46 57 98
Email: rene@eenet.ee
Research Center ICEMENERG
8, Energeticienilor Blvd
3, Bucharest 79619
ROMANIA
Tel: +401 322 0917
Fax: +401 322 2790
Email: crit@mail.gvci.vsat.ro
Sofia Energy Center Ltd.
51, James Boucher Blvd.
1407 Sofia
BULGARIA
Tel: +359 2 96 25158
Fax: +359 2 681 461
Email: ecencentra@enpro.bg
Black Sea Regional Energy Centre
BSREC
8, Triaditza Str.
1040 Sofia
BULGARIA
Tel: +359 2 980 6854
Fax: +359 2 980 6855
Email: ecsynkk@bsrec.bg
These data are subject to possible change. For further information please contact: OPET CU, Fax: +32 2 743 8931
'The overall objective of the Community's energy policy is to help ensure security of
energy supplies for European citizens and businesses at competitive prices and in
an environmental compatible way. DG XVII initiates, coordinates and manages
energy policy actions at European level in the fields, of solid fuels oil and gas,
electricity, nuclear energy, renewable energy sources and the rational use of energy.
The most impostant actions concern the security of energy supply and international
energy cooperation, the integration of energy markets, the promotion of sustainable
development in the energy field and finally the promotion of energy research and
technological development through demonstration projects. DG XVII manages
several programmes such as Synergy, SAVE, Altener and Thermic. More
information is available in DG XVII 's pages on Europa, the Commission's server on
the World Wide Web. '
o

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(Member of the OPET Network)
ICE - Istituto Cooperativo per l'innovazione
Via Nomentana 133
I - 00161 Roma
Tel.: (39-6) 884 58 48/854 91 41/854 34 67
Fax: (39-6) 855 02 50
Wi t h t he suppor t of :
The European Commission
Directorate-General for Energy, DG XVII
200 rue de la Loi
B-1049 Brussels
Fax: (32-2) 295 05 77
E-Mail: info@bxl.dg17.cec.be
URL: http://europa.eu.int/en/comm/dg17/dg17home.htm
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