1

FUNDAMENTALS OF
FUNDAMENTALS OF
FLUID MECHANICS
FLUID MECHANICS
Chapter 3 Fluids in Motion
Chapter 3 Fluids in Motion
-
-
The Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli Equation
2
MAIN TOPICS
MAIN TOPICS

Newton
Newton

s Second Law
s Second Law

F=ma Along a Streamline

F=ma Along a Streamline

F=ma Normal to a Streamline

F=ma Normal to a Streamline

Physical Interpretation
Physical Interpretation
of
of Bernoulli Equation

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and Total Pressure

Application of the Bernoulli Equation

Application of the Bernoulli Equation

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation

Bernoulli Equation
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli Equation
3
Newton
Newton

s Second Law
s Second Law
1/5
1/5

As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it

As a fluid particle moves from one location to another, it
experiences an acceleration or deceleration.
experiences an acceleration or deceleration.

According to
According to
Newton
Newton

s second law of motion

s second law of motion
, the net force acting
, the net force acting
on the fluid particle under consideration must equal its mass ti
on the fluid particle under consideration must equal its mass ti
mes
mes
its acceleration.
its acceleration.
F=ma
F=ma

In this chapter, we consider the motion of

In this chapter, we consider the motion of
inviscid
inviscid
fluids
fluids
. That is,
. That is,
the fluid is assumed to have
the fluid is assumed to have
zero viscosity
zero viscosity
. For such case,
. For such case,
it is
it is
possible to ignore viscous effects.
possible to ignore viscous effects.

The forces acting on the particle ? Coordinates used ?

The forces acting on the particle ? Coordinates used ?
4
Newton
Newton

s Second Law
s Second Law
2/5
2/5

The fluid motion is governed by

The fluid motion is governed by
F= Net pressure force + Net gravity force
F= Net pressure force + Net gravity force

To apply Newton
To apply Newton

s second law to a fluid,

s second law to a fluid,
an appropriate
an appropriate
coordinate system must be chosen to describe the
coordinate system must be chosen to describe the
motion
motion
. In general, the motion will be three
. In general, the motion will be three
-
-
dimensional
dimensional
and unsteady so that
and unsteady so that
three space coordinates and time
three space coordinates and time
are needed to describe it.
are needed to describe it.

The most often used coordinate systems are

The most often used coordinate systems are
rectangular
rectangular
(x,y,z) and cylindrical (r,
(x,y,z) and cylindrical (r,

,z) system.
,z) system.
5
Newton
Newton

s Second Law
s Second Law
3/5
3/5

In this chapter, the flow is confined to be

In this chapter, the flow is confined to be
two
two
-
-
dimensional
dimensional
motion.
motion.

As is done in the study of dynamics, the motion of each

As is done in the study of dynamics, the motion of each
fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector
fluid particle is described in terms of its velocity vector
V
V
.
.

As the particle moves,

As the particle moves,
it
it
follows a particular path.
follows a particular path.
The location of the particle
The location of the particle
along the path
along the path
is a function
is a function
of its initial position and
of its initial position and
velocity.
velocity.
6
Newton
Newton

s Second Law
s Second Law
4/5
4/5

For steady flows

For steady flows
, each particle slides along its path, and
, each particle slides along its path, and
its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path. The
its velocity vector is everywhere tangent to the path. The
lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the
lines that are tangent to the velocity vectors throughout the
flow field are called
flow field are called
streamlines
streamlines
.
.

For such situation, the particle motion is described in

For such situation, the particle motion is described in
terms of its distance, s=s(t), along the streamline from
terms of its distance, s=s(t), along the streamline from
some convenient origin and the local radius of curvature
some convenient origin and the local radius of curvature
of the streamline, R=R(s).
of the streamline, R=R(s).
7
Newton
Newton

s Second Law
s Second Law
5/5
5/5

The
The
distance along the streamline is related to the
distance along the streamline is related to the
particle
particle

s speed
s speed
by
by
V
V
=
=
ds
ds
/
/
dt
dt
, and the radius of curvature is
, and the radius of curvature is
related to shape of the streamline.
related to shape of the streamline.

The acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity

The acceleration is the time rate of change of the velocity
of the particle
of the particle

The
The
components of acceleration
components of acceleration
in the
in the
s and n
s and n
direction
direction
n
R
V
s
ds
dV
V n a s a
dt
V d
a
2
n s
r r r r
r
r
+ = + = =
R
V
a
ds
dV
V a
2
n s
= =
CHAPTER 04 CHAPTER 04
8
F=ma along a Streamline
F=ma along a Streamline
1/3
1/3
Consider the small
fluid particle of
fluid particle of
size of
size of

s by
s by

n
n in the plane of the
figure and y normal to the figure.
For steady flow, the component of
Newtons second law along the
streamline direction s
s
V
V V
s
V
mV ma F
S S

= =

Where represents the sum of the s components of all the

force acting on the particle.

S
F
9
F=ma along a Streamline
F=ma along a Streamline
2/3
2/3

The
The
gravity force (weight)
gravity force (weight)
on the particle in the
on the particle in the
streamline direction
streamline direction

The
The
net pressure force
net pressure force
on the particle in the streamline
on the particle in the streamline
direction
direction
= = sin V sin W W
s
( ) ( ) V
s
p
y n p 2 y n p p y n p p F
S S S ps

= = + =
V
s
p
sin F W F
ps s s

= + =
s
a
s
V
V
s
p
sin =

Equation of motion Equation of motion
along the streamline along the streamline
direction direction
10
F=ma along a Streamline
F=ma along a Streamline
3/3
3/3

A change in fluid particle speed is accomplished by the

A change in fluid particle speed is accomplished by the
appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle
appropriate combination of pressure gradient and particle
weight along the streamline.
weight along the streamline.

For fluid
For fluid
static situation
static situation
, the balance between pressure
, the balance between pressure
and gravity force is such that no change in particle speed
and gravity force is such that no change in particle speed
is produced.
is produced.
s
a
s
V
V
s
p
sin =

0
s
p
sin =

Integration
Integration

11
Integration
Integration

..
..
s
a
s
V
V
s
p
sin =

Rearranged and Integrated
Rearranged and Integrated

( )
C gz V
2
1 dp
0 dz V d
2
1
dp
ds
dV
2
1
ds
dp
ds
dz
2
2
2
= + +

>>>>
= + + >> =

along a streamline
along a streamline
Where
Where
C is a constant of integration
C is a constant of integration
to be
to be
determined by the conditions at some point on
determined by the conditions at some point on
the streamline.
the streamline.
In general it is not possible to integrate the pressure term bec In general it is not possible to integrate the pressure term because ause
the density may not be constant and, therefore, cannot be remove the density may not be constant and, therefore, cannot be removed d
from under the integral sign. from under the integral sign.
12
Example 3.1 Pressure Variation along A
Example 3.1 Pressure Variation along A
Streamline
Streamline

Consider the
Consider the
inviscid
inviscid
, incompressible, steady flow
, incompressible, steady flow
along the
along the
horizontal streamline A
horizontal streamline A
-
-
B in front of the sphere of radius a, as
B in front of the sphere of radius a, as
shown in Figure E3.1(a). From a more advanced theory of flow pas
shown in Figure E3.1(a). From a more advanced theory of flow pas
t
t
a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
a sphere, the fluid velocity along this streamline is
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from p
Determine the pressure variation along the streamline from p
oint A
oint A
far in front of the sphere (
far in front of the sphere (
x
x
A A
=
=
-
-

and V
and V
A A
= V
= V
0 0
) to point B on the
) to point B on the
sphere (
sphere (
x
x
A A
=
=
-
-
a
a
and V
and V
B B
=0)
=0)

+ =
3
3
0
x
a
1 V V
13
Example 3.1
Example 3.1
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
The equation of motion along the streamline (
The equation of motion along the streamline (
sin
sin

=0)
=0)
The acceleration term
s
V
V
s
p

(1) (1)
s
a
s
V
V
s
p
sin =

+ =

+ =

4
3
3
3
2
0
4
3
0
3
3
0
x
a
x
a
1 V 3
x
a V 3
x
a
1 V
x
V
V
s
V
V
The pressure gradient along the streamline is
( )
4
3 3
2
0
3
x
x / a 1 V a 3
s
p +
=

(2) (2)
14
Example 3.1
Example 3.1
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
The pressure gradient along the streamline
( )
4
3 3
2
0
3
x
x / a 1 V a 3
s
p +
=

(2) (2)
The pressure distribution along the streamline

=
2
) x / a (
x
a
V p
6
2
2
0
15
Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline
Bernoulli Equation Along a Streamline

For the special case of

For the special case of
incompressible flow
incompressible flow
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Incompressible flow.
Incompressible flow.
Frictionless flow.
Frictionless flow.
NO
NO

Flow along a streamline.

Flow along a streamline.
t tan cons z
2
V
p
2
= + +
BERNOULLI EQUATION
BERNOULLI EQUATION
C gz V
2
1 dp
2
= + +

16
Example 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation
Example 3.2 The Bernoulli Equation

Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still

Consider the flow of air around a bicyclist moving through still
air
air
with
with
velocity V
velocity V
0 0
, as is shown in Figure E3.2. Determine the
, as is shown in Figure E3.2. Determine the
difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
difference in the pressure between points (1) and (2).
17
Example 3.2
Example 3.2
Solution
Solution
The Bernoullis equation applied
along the streamline that passes
along the streamline that passes
through (1) and (2)
through (1) and (2)
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p + + = + +
z
1
=z
2
(1) is in the free stream
V
V
1 1
=V
=V
0 0
(2) is at the tip of the bicyclists nose V
2
=0
2
V
2
V
p p
2
0
2
1
1 2
= =
18
F=ma Normal to a Streamline
F=ma Normal to a Streamline
1/2
1/2

For steady flow, the

For steady flow, the
component of Newton
component of Newton

s
s
second law in the normal
second law in the normal
direction n
direction n
R
V V
R
mV
F
2 2
n

=

Where represents the

Where represents the
sum of the n components of all
sum of the n components of all
the force acting on the particle.
the force acting on the particle.

n
F
19
F=ma Normal to a Streamline
F=ma Normal to a Streamline
2/2
2/2

The
The
gravity force (weight)
gravity force (weight)
on the particle in the
on the particle in the
normal
normal
direction
direction

The
The
net pressure force
net pressure force
on the particle in the
on the particle in the
normal
normal
direction
direction
= = cos V cos W W
n
( ) V
n
p
y s p 2 y s ) p p ( y s p p F
n n n pn

= = + =
V
R
V
V
n
p
cos F W F
2
pn n n

= + =
R
V
n
p
cos
2

Equation of motion Equation of motion
normal to the streamline normal to the streamline
Normal direction Normal direction
20
Integration
Integration

..
..
R
V
dn
dp
dn
dz
2

=
R
V
n
p
cos
2

Rearranged
Rearranged
across the streamline across the streamline
In general it is not possible to In general it is not possible to
integrate the pressure term because integrate the pressure term because
the density may not be constant and, the density may not be constant and,
therefore, cannot be removed from therefore, cannot be removed from
under the integral sign. under the integral sign.
Integrated
Integrated

A change in the direction of flow of a fluid particle is A change in the direction of flow of a fluid particle is
accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure accomplished by the appropriate combination of pressure
gradient and particle weight normal to the streamline gradient and particle weight normal to the streamline
C gz dn
R
V dp
2
= + +

Without knowing the n dependent Without knowing the n dependent
in V=V(s,n) and R=R(s,n) this in V=V(s,n) and R=R(s,n) this
integration cannot be completed. integration cannot be completed.
21
Bernoulli Equation Normal to a Streamline
Bernoulli Equation Normal to a Streamline

For the special case of

For the special case of
incompressible flow
incompressible flow
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Incompressible flow.
Incompressible flow.
Frictionless flow.
Frictionless flow.
NO
NO

Flow normal to a streamline.

Flow normal to a streamline.
C z dn
R
V
p
2
= + +

BERNOULLI EQUATION
BERNOULLI EQUATION
C gz dn
R
V dp
2
= +

+

22
Example 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to
Example 3.3 Pressure Variation Normal to
a Streamline
a Streamline

Shown in Figure E3.3 (a) and (b) are two flow fields with circul
Shown in Figure E3.3 (a) and (b) are two flow fields with circul
ar
ar
streamlines. The
streamlines. The
velocity distributions
velocity distributions
are
are
) b (
r
C
) r ( V ) a ( r C ) r ( V
2
1
= =
Assuming the flows are steady, inviscid, and incompressible
with streamlines in the horizontal plane (dz/dn=0).
23
R
V
dn
dp
dn
dz
2

=
Example 3.3
Example 3.3
Solution
Solution
For flow in the horizontal plane (dz/dn=0).
The streamlines are circles /n=-/r
The radius of curvature R=r
r
V
r
p
2

For case (a) this gives

( )
0
2
0
2
2
1
p r r C
2
1
p + =
r C
r
p
2
1
=

For case (b) this gives

3
2
2
r
C
r
p
=

0
2 2
0
2
2
p
r
1
r
1
C
2
1
p +

=
24
Physical Interpreter
Physical Interpreter
1/2
1/2

Under the basic assumptions:

Under the basic assumptions:
the flow is steady and the fluid is
the flow is steady and the fluid is
inviscid
inviscid
and incompressible.
and incompressible.

Application of F=ma and integration of equation of motion along

Application of F=ma and integration of equation of motion along
and normal to the streamline result in
and normal to the streamline result in

To
To
produce an acceleration, there must be an unbalance of
produce an acceleration, there must be an unbalance of
the resultant force
the resultant force
,
,
of which only pressure and gravity were
of which only pressure and gravity were
considered to be important
considered to be important
. Thus, there are three process
. Thus, there are three process
involved in the flow
involved in the flow

mass times acceleration (the

mass times acceleration (the

V
V
2 2
/2 term),
/2 term),
pressure (the p term), and weight (the
pressure (the p term), and weight (the

z term).
z term).
C z dn
R
V
p
2
= +

+
C z
2
V
p
2
= + +
25
Physical Interpreter
Physical Interpreter
2/2
2/2

The Bernoulli equation is a mathematical statement of

The Bernoulli equation is a mathematical statement of

The
The
work done on a particle of all force acting on the particle is e
work done on a particle of all force acting on the particle is e
qual
qual
to the change of the kinetic energy of the particle
to the change of the kinetic energy of the particle

.
.

Work done by force : F

Work done by force : F

d.
d.

Work done by weight:

Work done by weight:

z
z

Work done by pressure force: p

Work done by pressure force: p

Kinetic energy:
Kinetic energy:

V
V
2 2
/2
/2
26
The Bernoulli Equation can be written in
The Bernoulli Equation can be written in
terms of heights called heads
Head
Head
terms of heights called heads

An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli

An alternative but equivalent form of the Bernoulli
equation is obtained by dividing each term by
equation is obtained by dividing each term by

c z
g 2
V P
2
= + +

Pressure Head
Pressure Head
Velocity Head
Velocity Head
Elevation Head
Elevation Head
27
Example 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and
Example 3.4 Kinetic, Potential, and
Pressure Energy
Pressure Energy

Consider the flow of water from the syringe

Consider the flow of water from the syringe
shown in Figure E3.4. A force applied to the
shown in Figure E3.4. A force applied to the
plunger will produce a pressure greater than
plunger will produce a pressure greater than
atmospheric at point (1) within the syringe.
atmospheric at point (1) within the syringe.
The water flows from the needle, point (2),
The water flows from the needle, point (2),
with relatively high velocity and coasts up to
with relatively high velocity and coasts up to
point (3) at the top of its trajectory. Discuss
point (3) at the top of its trajectory. Discuss
the energy of the fluid at point (1), (2), and (3)
the energy of the fluid at point (1), (2), and (3)
by using the Bernoulli equation.
by using the Bernoulli equation.
28
Example 3.4 Solution
The sum of the three types of energy (kinetic, potential, and pr
The sum of the three types of energy (kinetic, potential, and pr
essure)
essure)
or heads (velocity, elevation, and pressure) must remain constan
or heads (velocity, elevation, and pressure) must remain constan
t.
t.
streamline the along t tan cons z V
2
1
p
2
= + +
The motion results in a change in the magnitude of each type of
energy as the fluid flows from one location to another.
The pressure gradient between (1) and (2) The pressure gradient between (1) and (2)
produces an acceleration to eject the water produces an acceleration to eject the water
form the needle. form the needle.
Gravity acting on the particle between (2) and Gravity acting on the particle between (2) and
(3) produces a deceleration to cause the water (3) produces a deceleration to cause the water
to come to a momentary stop at the top of its to come to a momentary stop at the top of its
flight. flight.
29
Example 3.5 Pressure Variation in a
Example 3.5 Pressure Variation in a
Flowing Stream
Flowing Stream

Consider the
Consider the
inviscid
inviscid
, incompressible, steady flow shown in Figure
, incompressible, steady flow shown in Figure
E3.5. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while fr
E3.5. From section A to B the streamlines are straight, while fr
om C
om C
to D they follow circular paths.
to D they follow circular paths.
Describe the pressure variation
Describe the pressure variation
between points (1) and (2)and points(3) and (4)
between points (1) and (2)and points(3) and (4)
30
Example 3.5
Example 3.5
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
R=

,
,
for the portion from
for the portion from
A to B
A to B
t tan cons rz p = +
Point (1)~(2)
Using p
2
=0,z
1
=0,and z
2
=h
2-1
1
2 2 1 2 2 1
rh p ) z z ( r p p

+ = + =
Since the radius of curvature of the streamline is infinite, the pressure
variation in the vertical direction is the same as if the fluids were
stationary.
31
Example 3.5
Example 3.5
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
For the portion from
For the portion from
C to D
C to D

=

4
3
z
z
2
3 4 3
dz
R
V
rh p
With
p
p
4 4
=0 and z
=0 and z
4 4
-
-
z
z
3 3
=h
=h
4 4- -3 3
,this becomes
3 3 4
z
z
2
4
rz p rz ) dz (
R
V
p
4
3
+ = + +

Point (3)~(4)
32
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure
Total Pressure
1/5
1/5

Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a

Each term in the Bernoulli equation can be interpreted as a
form of pressure.
form of pressure.

p
p
is the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it
is the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid as it
flows. To measure this pressure, one must move along
flows. To measure this pressure, one must move along
with the fluid, thus being
with the fluid, thus being

static
static

relative to the moving

relative to the moving
fluid. Hence, it is termed the
fluid. Hence, it is termed the
static pressure
static pressure

seen by the
seen by the
fluid particle as it moves
fluid particle as it moves
.
.
C z
2
V
p
2
= + +
Each term can be interpreted
as a form of pressure
33
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure
Total Pressure
2/5
2/5

The static pressure

The static pressure
is measured in a flowing fluid using a
is measured in a flowing fluid using a
wall pressure
wall pressure

tap
tap

, or a static pressure probe.

, or a static pressure probe.
h h h p h p
3 4 1 3 3 1 3 1
= + = + =
The static pressure
The static pressure

z
z
is termed the
is termed the
hydrostatic
hydrostatic
pressure
pressure
. It is not actually a
. It is not actually a
pressure but does represent the
pressure but does represent the
change in pressure possible due
change in pressure possible due
to potential energy variations of
to potential energy variations of
the fluid as a result of elevation
the fluid as a result of elevation
changes.
changes.
34
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure
Total Pressure
3/5
3/5

V
V
2 2
/2
/2
is termed the
is termed the
dynamic pressure
dynamic pressure
. It can be interpreted
. It can be interpreted
as the pressure at the end of a small tube inserted into the
as the pressure at the end of a small tube inserted into the
flow and pointing upstream.
flow and pointing upstream.
After the initial transient
After the initial transient
motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a height
motion has died out, the liquid will fill the tube to a height
of H.
of H.

The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip (2), will be
The fluid in the tube, including that at its tip (2), will be
stationary. That is, V
stationary. That is, V
2 2
=0, or point (2) is a stagnation point.
=0, or point (2) is a stagnation point.
2
1
1 2
V
2
1
p p + =
Stagnation pressure
Static pressure
Dynamic pressure
Dynamic pressure
35
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure
Total Pressure
4/5
4/5

There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is

There is a stagnation point on any stationary body that is
placed into a flowing fluid. Some of the fluid flows
placed into a flowing fluid. Some of the fluid flows

over
over

and some
and some

under
under

the object.
the object.

The dividing line is termed the

The dividing line is termed the
stagnation streamline
stagnation streamline
and
and
terminates at the stagnation point on the body.
terminates at the stagnation point on the body.

Neglecting the elevation

Neglecting the elevation
effects,
effects,
the stagnation
the stagnation
pressure is the largest
pressure is the largest
pressure obtainable along a
pressure obtainable along a
given streamline
given streamline
.
.
stagnation point stagnation point
36
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Static, Stagnation, Dynamic, and
Total Pressure
Total Pressure
5/5
5/5

The
The
sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure, and
sum of the static pressure, dynamic pressure, and
hydrostatic pressure is termed the total pressure
hydrostatic pressure is termed the total pressure
.
.

The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total

The Bernoulli equation is a statement that the total
pressure remains constant along a streamline.
pressure remains constant along a streamline.
t tan cons p z
2
V
p
T
2
= = + +
Constant along a streamline
37
The
The
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static Tube
static Tube
1/5
1/5
= >>
=
= =

+ = =
/ ) p p ( 2 V
2 / V p p
p p p
z z
2 / V p p p
4 3
2
4 3
1 4
4 1
2
3 2

Knowledge of the values of the static and

Knowledge of the values of the static and
stagnation pressure in a fluid implies that the
stagnation pressure in a fluid implies that the
fluid speed can be calculated.
fluid speed can be calculated.

This is
This is
the principle on which the
the principle on which the
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static tube is based.
static tube is based.
Static pressure Static pressure
Stagnation pressure Stagnation pressure
Pitot Pitot- -static static stubes stubes measure measure
fluid velocity by converting fluid velocity by converting
velocity into pressure. velocity into pressure.
38
The
The
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static Tube
static Tube
2/5
2/5
39
The
The
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static Tube
static Tube
3/5
3/5

The use of
The use of
pitot
pitot
-
-
static tube depends on the ability to
static tube depends on the ability to
measure the static and stagnation pressure.
measure the static and stagnation pressure.

An accurate measurement of static pressure requires that

An accurate measurement of static pressure requires that
none of the fluid
none of the fluid

s kinetic energy be converted into a

s kinetic energy be converted into a
pressure rise at the point of measurement.
pressure rise at the point of measurement.

This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections.

This requires a smooth hole with no burrs or imperfections.
Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps.
Incorrect and correct design of static pressure taps.
40
The
The
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static Tube
static Tube
4/5
4/5
Typical pressure distribution along a Typical pressure distribution along a Pitot Pitot- -static tube. static tube.

The pressure along the surface of an object varies from the

The pressure along the surface of an object varies from the
stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to value that
stagnation pressure at its stagnation point to value that
may be less than free stream static pressure.
may be less than free stream static pressure.

It is important that the pressure tapes be properly located

It is important that the pressure tapes be properly located
to ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static
to ensure that the pressure measured is actually the static
pressure.
pressure.
41
The
The
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static Tube
static Tube
5/5
5/5

Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular

Three pressure taps are drilled into a small circular
cylinder, fitted with small tubes, and connected to three
cylinder, fitted with small tubes, and connected to three
pressure transducers.
pressure transducers.
The cylinder is rotated until the
The cylinder is rotated until the
pressures in the two side holes are equal
pressures in the two side holes are equal
, thus indicating
, thus indicating
that the center hole points directly upstream.
that the center hole points directly upstream.
If =0
( )
2
1
1 2
3 1
P P 2
V
P P

=
=
Directional-finding Pitot-static tube.
42
Example 3.6
Example 3.6
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
Static Tube
Static Tube

An airplane flies 100mi/hr at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a

An airplane flies 100mi/hr at an elevation of 10,000 ft in a
standard atmosphere as shown in Figure E3.6. Determine
standard atmosphere as shown in Figure E3.6. Determine
the pressure at point (1) far ahead of the airplane, point (2),
the pressure at point (1) far ahead of the airplane, point (2),
and the pressure difference indicated by a
and the pressure difference indicated by a
Pitot
Pitot
-
-
static
static
probe attached to the fuselage.
probe attached to the fuselage.
43
Example 3.6
Example 3.6
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
2
V
p p
2
1
1 2

+ =
psia 11 . 10 ) abs ( ft / lb 1456 p
2
1
= =
The static pressure and density at the altitude
If the flow is steady, inviscid, and incompressible and elevation
changes are neglected. The Bernoulli equation
3
ft / slug 001756 . 0 =
With V
1
=100mi/hr=146.6ft/s and V
2
=0
) abs ( ft / lb ) 9 . 18 1456 (
2 / ) s / ft 7 . 146 )( ft / slugs 001756 . 0 ( ft / lb 1456 p
2
2 2 2 3 2
2
+ =
+ =
44
Example 3.6
Example 3.6
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
In terms of gage pressure
psi 1313 . 0 ft / lb 9 . 18 p
2
2
= =
The pressure difference indicated by the Pitot-static tube
psi 1313 . 0
2
V
p p
2
1
1 2
=

=
45
Application of Bernoulli Equation
Application of Bernoulli Equation
1/2
1/2

The Bernoulli equation can be applied

The Bernoulli equation can be applied
between any two
between any two
points on a streamline provided
points on a streamline provided
that the other
that the other
three
three
restrictions
restrictions
are satisfied. The result is
are satisfied. The result is
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p +

+ = +

+
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Restrictions : Steady flow.
Incompressible flow.
Incompressible flow.
Frictionless flow.
Frictionless flow.
Flow along a streamline.
Flow along a streamline.
46
Application of Bernoulli Equation
Application of Bernoulli Equation
2/2
2/2

Free jet.
Free jet.

Confined flow.
Confined flow.

Flowrate
Flowrate
measurement
measurement
47
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p +

+ = +

+
Free Jets
Free Jets
1/3
1/3

Application of the Bernoulli equation between points (1)

Application of the Bernoulli equation between points (1)
and (2) on the streamline
and (2) on the streamline
gh 2
h 2
V
2
V
h
2
=

=
At point (5)
) H h ( g 2 V + =
48
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p +

+ = +

+
Free Jets
Free Jets
2/3
2/3

For a sharp
For a sharp
-
-
edged orifice,
edged orifice,
a
a
vena
vena
contracta
contracta
effect
effect
occurs.
occurs.

The effect is the result of the

The effect is the result of the
inability of the fluid to turn the
inability of the fluid to turn the
sharp 90
sharp 90

corner.
corner.

For the horizontal nozzle, the

For the horizontal nozzle, the
velocity at the centerline, V
velocity at the centerline, V2 2
,
,
will be greater than that at the
will be greater than that at the
top V
top V1 1
.
.

In general, d<<h and use the V

In general, d<<h and use the V2 2
as average velocity.
as average velocity.
Vena Vena contracta contracta effects effects
for sharp for sharp- -edged edged
orifice. orifice.
49
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p +

+ = +

+
Free Jets
Free Jets
3/3
3/3

Typical
Typical
flow patterns and
flow patterns and
contraction coefficients
contraction coefficients
for
for
various round exit
various round exit
configuration.
configuration.

The diameter of a fluid jet is

The diameter of a fluid jet is
often smaller than that of the
often smaller than that of the
hole from which it flows.
hole from which it flows.
Define Cc=contraction coefficient Define Cc=contraction coefficient
h
j
c
A
A
C =
Aj Aj=area of the jet at the vena =area of the jet at the vena contracta contracta
Ah=area of the hole Ah=area of the hole
50
Example 3.7 Flow From a Tank
Example 3.7 Flow From a Tank
Gravity
Gravity

A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1m flows steadily from a tan

A stream of water of diameter d = 0.1m flows steadily from a tan
k
k
of Diameter D = 1.0m as shown in Figure E3.7 (a).
of Diameter D = 1.0m as shown in Figure E3.7 (a).
Determine the
Determine the
flowrate
flowrate
, Q,
, Q,
needed from the inflow pipe if
needed from the inflow pipe if
the water depth remains
the water depth remains
constant
constant
, h = 2.0m.
, h = 2.0m.
51
Example 3.7
Example 3.7
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
z V
2
1
p z V
2
1
p + + = + +
The Bernoulli equation applied between points
The Bernoulli equation applied between points
(1) and (2)
(1) and (2)
is
is
2
2
2
2 1
2
1
1
z
2
V
p z
2
V
p +

+ = +

+
(1) (1)
With
With
p
p
1 1
= p
= p
2 2
= 0, z
= 0, z
1 1
= h, and z
= h, and z
2 2
= 0
= 0
2
2
2
1
V
2
1
gh V
2
1
= +
(2) (2)
For steady and incompressible flow,
For steady and incompressible flow,
conservation of mass requires
conservation of mass requires
Q
Q
1 1
= Q
= Q
2 2
, where Q = AV. Thus, A
, where Q = AV. Thus, A
1 1
V
V
1 1
=A
=A
2 2
V
V
2 2
, or
, or
2
2
1
2
V d
4
V D
4

=

2
2
1
V )
D
d
( V =
(3)
52
Example 3.7
Example 3.7
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
Combining Equation 1 and 3
s / m 26 . 6
) m 1 / m 1 . 0 ( 1
) m 0 . 2 )( s / m 81 . 9 ( 2
) D / d ( 1
gh 2
V
4
2
4
2
=

=
Thus,
s / m 0492 . 0 ) s / m 26 . 6 ( ) m 1 . 0 (
4
V A V A Q
3 2
2 2 1 1
=

= = =
V
V
1 1

0 (Q) vs. V
0 (Q) vs. V
1 1
0 (Q
0 (Q
0 0
)
)
4
4
2
2
0
) / ( 1
1
2
] ) / ( 1 /[ 2
D d
gh
D d gh
V
V
Q
Q
D

=

= =
=
53
Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank
Example 3.8 Flow from a Tank
-
-
Pressure
Pressure

Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter

Air flows steadily from a tank, through a hose of diameter
D=0.03m and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of
D=0.03m and exits to the atmosphere from a nozzle of
diameter d=0.01m as shown in Figure E3.8.
diameter d=0.01m as shown in Figure E3.8.
The pressure
The pressure
in the tank remains constant at 3.0kPa (gage)
in the tank remains constant at 3.0kPa (gage)
and the
and the
atmospheric conditions are standard temperature and
atmospheric conditions are standard temperature and
pressure.
pressure.
Determine the
Determine the
flowrate
flowrate
and the pressure in
and the pressure in
the hose.
the hose.
54
Example 3.8
Example 3.8
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
For steady,
For steady,
inviscid
inviscid
, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation
, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation
along the streamline
along the streamline
3
2
3 3 2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
z V
2
1
p z V
2
1
p z V
2
1
p + + = + + = + +
With z
With z
1 1
=z
=z
2 2
= z
= z
3 3
, V
, V
1 1
= 0, and p
= 0, and p
3 3
=0
=0
2
2 1 2
1
3
V
2
1
p p and
p 2
V =

= (1) (1)
The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the perfect
The density of the air in the tank is obtained from the perfect
gas law
gas law
3
3
2
1
m / kg 26 . 1
K ) 273 15 )( K kg / m N 9 . 286 (
kN / N 10
] m / kN ) 101 0 . 3 [(
RT
p
=
+
+ = =
55
Example 3.8
Example 3.8
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
Thus,
Thus,
s / m 0 . 69
m / kg 26 . 1
) m / N 10 0 . 3 ( 2 p 2
V
3
2 3
1
3
=

= s / m 00542 . 0 V d
4
V A Q
3
3
2
3 3
=

= = or or
The pressure within the hose can be obtained from
The pressure within the hose can be obtained from
Eq
Eq
. 1
. 1
and the continuity equation
and the continuity equation
s / m 67 . 7 A / V A V , Hence V A V A
2 3 3 2 3 3 2 2
= = =
2 2
2 3 2 3 2
2 1 2
m / N 2963 m / N ) 1 . 37 3000 (
) s / m 67 . 7 )( m / kg 26 . 1 (
2
1
m / N 10 0 . 3 V
2
1
p p
= =
= =
56
Example 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe
Example 3.9 Flow in a Variable Area Pipe

Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Figure E3.9. T

Water flows through a pipe reducer as is shown in Figure E3.9. T
he
he
static pressures at (1) and (2) are measured by the inverted U
static pressures at (1) and (2) are measured by the inverted U
-
-
tube
tube
manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.
manometer containing oil of specific gravity, SG, less than one.
Determine the manometer reading, h.
Determine the manometer reading, h.
57
Example 3.9
Example 3.9
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
For steady,
For steady,
inviscid
inviscid
, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along
, incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation along
the streamline
the streamline
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
z pV
2
1
p z pV
2
1
p + + = + +
The continuity equation
The continuity equation
2 2 1 1
V A V A Q = =
Combining these two equations
Combining these two equations
] ) A / A ( 1 [ pV
2
1
) z z ( p p
2
1 2
2
2 1 2 2 1
+ =
(1) (1)
58
Example 3.9
Example 3.9
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and determ
This pressure difference is measured by the manometer and determ
ine
ine
by using the pressure
by using the pressure
-
-
depth ideas developed in
depth ideas developed in
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
.
.
- +
h ) SG 1 ( ) z z ( p p
1 2 2 1
+ =
2 1 2 1
p h SG h ) z z ( p = + + l l
or or
(2) (2)

=
2
1
2
2
2
A
A
1 pV
2
1
h ) SG 1 (
( )
( ) SG 1 g 2
) A / A ( 1
A / Q h
2
1 2
2
2

=
Since V Since V
2 2
=Q/A =Q/A
2 2
be independent of be independent of
59
Confined Flows
Confined Flows
1/4
1/4

When the fluid is physically constrained within a device,

When the fluid is physically constrained within a device,
its pressure cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for
its pressure cannot be prescribed a priori as was done for
the free jet.
the free jet.

Such cases
Such cases
include
include
nozzle and pipes
nozzle and pipes
of
of
various diameter
various diameter
for which the fluid velocity changes because the flow area
for which the fluid velocity changes because the flow area
is different from one section to another.
is different from one section to another.

For such situations, it is necessary to use the concept of

For such situations, it is necessary to use the concept of
conservation of mass (the continuity equation) along with
conservation of mass (the continuity equation) along with
the Bernoulli equation.
the Bernoulli equation.
Tools:Bernoulli equation + Continuity equation
60
Confined Flows
Confined Flows
2/4
2/4

Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume that has

Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume that has
one inlet and one outlet.
one inlet and one outlet.

Conservation of mass requires

Conservation of mass requires

For
For
incompressible flow
incompressible flow
, the continuity equation is
, the continuity equation is
2 2 2 1 1 1
V A V A =
2 1 2 2 1 1
Q Q V A V A = =
61
Confined Flows
Confined Flows
3/4
3/4

If the fluid velocity is increased,

If the fluid velocity is increased,
the pressure will decrease.
the pressure will decrease.

This pressure decrease can be

This pressure decrease can be
large enough so that the
large enough so that the
pressure in the liquid is reduced
pressure in the liquid is reduced
to its
to its
vapor pressure.
vapor pressure.
Pressure variation and cavitation
in a variable area pipe.
62
Confined Flows
Confined Flows
4/4 example of
4/4 example of
cavitation
cavitation

A example of
A example of
cavitation
cavitation
can be demonstrated with a
can be demonstrated with a
garden hose.
garden hose.
If
If
the hose is
the hose is

kinked,
kinked,

a restriction in the flow area will result.

a restriction in the flow area will result.

The water
The water
velocity
velocity
through the restriction will be
through the restriction will be
relatively large.
relatively large.

With a sufficient amount of restriction the sound of the flowing

With a sufficient amount of restriction the sound of the flowing
water will change
water will change

a definite
a definite

hissing
hissing

sound will be produced.

sound will be produced.

The sound is a result of

The sound is a result of
cavitation
cavitation
.
.
63
Damage from
Damage from
Cavitation
Cavitation
Cavitation from propeller
64
Example 3.10 Siphon and
Example 3.10 Siphon and
Cavitation
Cavitation

Water at 60
Water at 60
is siphoned from a large tank through a constant
is siphoned from a large tank through a constant
diameter hose as shown in Figure E3.10. Determine the maximum
diameter hose as shown in Figure E3.10. Determine the maximum
height of the hill, H, over which the water can be siphoned with
height of the hill, H, over which the water can be siphoned with
out
out
cavitation
cavitation
occurring. The end of the siphon is 5 ft below the bottom
occurring. The end of the siphon is 5 ft below the bottom
of the tank. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7
of the tank. Atmospheric pressure is 14.7
psia
psia
.
.
The value of H is a function of both the The value of H is a function of both the
specific weight of the fluid, specific weight of the fluid, , and its , and its
vapor pressure, vapor pressure, p p
v v
. .
65
Example 3.10
Example 3.10
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
For ready,
For ready,
inviscid
inviscid
, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation
, and incompressible flow, the Bernoulli equation
along the streamline from (1) to (2) to (3)
along the streamline from (1) to (2) to (3)
3
2
3 3 2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
z V
2
1
p z V
2
1
p z V
2
1
p + + = + + = + +
(1) (1)
With
With
z
z
1 1
= 15 ft, z
= 15 ft, z
2 2
= H, and z
= H, and z
3 3
=
=
-
-
5 ft. Also, V
5 ft. Also, V
1 1
= 0 (large tank), p
= 0 (large tank), p
1 1
= 0
= 0
(open tank), p
(open tank), p
3 3
= 0 (free jet), and from the continuity equation A
= 0 (free jet), and from the continuity equation A
2 2
V
V
2 2
=
=
A
A
3 3
V
V
3 3
, or because the hose is constant diameter V
, or because the hose is constant diameter V
2 2
= V
= V
3 3
.
.
The speed of
The speed of
the fluid in the hose is determined from
the fluid in the hose is determined from
Eq
Eq
. 1 to be
. 1 to be
2
2
3 1 3
V s / ft 9 . 35 ft )] 5 ( 15 )[ s / ft 2 . 32 ( 2 ) z z ( g 2 V = = = =
V V
2 2
=V =V
3 3
66
Example 3.10
Example 3.10
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
2
2 2 1 2
2
2 1
2
1 1 2
V
2
1
) z z ( z V
2
1
z V
2
1
p p = + + =
Use of
Use of
Eq
Eq
. 1
. 1
between point (1) and (2) then gives the pressure p
between point (1) and (2) then gives the pressure p
2 2
at the
at the
top
top
of the hill as
of the hill as
(2) (2)
The
The
vapor pressure of water at 60
vapor pressure of water at 60
is 0.256
is 0.256
psia
psia
.
.
Hence, for incipient
Hence, for incipient
cavitation
cavitation
the lowest pressure in the system will be p = 0.256
the lowest pressure in the system will be p = 0.256
psia
psia
.
.
U
U
sing gage pressure:
sing gage pressure:
p
p
1 1
= 0,
= 0,
p
p
2 2
=0.256
=0.256

14.7 =
14.7 =
-
-
14.4
14.4
psi
psi
2 3 3 2 2 2
) s / ft 9 . 35 )( ft / slugs 94 . 1 (
2
1
ft ) H 15 )( ft / lb 4 . 62 ( ) ft / . in 144 )( . in / lb 4 . 14 ( =
ft H 2 . 28 =
67
Flowrate
Flowrate
Measurement
Measurement
in
in
pipes 1/5
pipes 1/5

Various flow meters are

Various flow meters are
governed by the
governed by the
Bernoulli
Bernoulli
and continuity equations
and continuity equations
.
.
2 2 1 1
2
2 2
2
1 1
V A V A Q
V
2
1
p V
2
1
p
= =
+ = +
The theoretical
The theoretical
flowrate
flowrate
( )
[ ]
2
1 2
2 1
2
) A / A ( 1
p p 2
A Q

Typical devices for measuring Typical devices for measuring flowrate flowrate in pipes in pipes
68
Example 3.11
Example 3.11
Venturi
Venturi
Meter
Meter

Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the

Kerosene (SG = 0.85) flows through the
Venturi
Venturi
meter shown in
meter shown in
Figure E3.11 with
Figure E3.11 with
flowrates
flowrates
between 0.005 and 0.050 m
between 0.005 and 0.050 m
3 3
/s.
/s.
Determine the range in pressure difference,
Determine the range in pressure difference,
p
p
1 1

p
p
2 2
, needed to
, needed to
measure these
measure these
flowrates
flowrates
.
.
Known Q, Determine p
Known Q, Determine p
1 1
-
-
p
p
2 2
69
Example 3.11
Example 3.11
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
2
2
2
A 2
] ) A / A ( 1 [ Q
p p
2
1 2
2 1

=
For steady,
For steady,
inviscid
inviscid
, and incompressible flow, the relationship between
, and incompressible flow, the relationship between
flowrate
flowrate
and pressure
and pressure
( )
[ ]
2
1 2
2 1
2
) A / A ( 1
p p 2
A Q


=
Eq Eq. 3.20 . 3.20
The density of the flowing fluid
The density of the flowing fluid
3 3
O 2 H
kg/m 850 ) kg/m 1000 ( 85 . 0 SG = = =
The area ratio
The area ratio
36 . 0 ) m 10 . 0 / m 006 . 0 ( ) D / D ( /A A
2 2
1 2 1 2
= = =
70
Example 3.11
Example 3.11
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
The pressure difference for the The pressure difference for the
smallest
smallest
flowrate
flowrate is is
kPa 16 . 1 N/m 1160
] ) m 06 . 0 )( 4 / [( 2
) 36 . 0 1 (
) kg/m 850 ( ) /s m 005 . 0 ( p p
2
2 2
2
3 2 3
2 1
= =


=
The pressure difference for the The pressure difference for the
largest
largest
flowrate
flowrate is is
2 2
2
2
2 1
] ) m 06 . 0 )( 4 / [( 2
) 36 . 0 1 (
) 850 )( 05 . 0 ( p p

=
kPa 116 N/m 10 16 . 1
2 5
= =
kPa 116 -p p kPa 16 . 1
2 1

71
Flowrate
Flowrate
Measurement
Measurement
sluice gate 2/5
sluice gate 2/5

The sluice gate is often used to regulate and measure the

The sluice gate is often used to regulate and measure the
flowrate
flowrate
in
in
an open channel.
an open channel.

The
The
flowrate
flowrate
, Q,
, Q,
is function of the water depth upstream, z
is function of the water depth upstream, z
1 1
, the
, the
width of the gate, b, and the gate opening, a.
width of the gate, b, and the gate opening, a.
( )
2
1 2
2 1
2
) / ( 1
2
z z
z z g
b z Q

=
With p
With p
1 1
=p
=p
2 2
=0, the
=0, the
flowrate
flowrate
2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1
2
2
2 2 1
2
1 1
z bV V A z bV V A Q
z V
2
1
p z V
2
1
p
= = = =
+ + = + +
72
Flowrate
Flowrate
Measurement
Measurement
sluice gate 3/5
sluice gate 3/5

In the limit of
In the limit of
z
z
1 1
>>z
>>z
2 2
, this result simply becomes
, this result simply becomes

This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio
This limiting result represents the fact that if the depth ratio
, z
, z
1 1
/z
/z
2 2
, is
, is
large,
large,
the kinetic energy of the fluid upstream of the gate is
the kinetic energy of the fluid upstream of the gate is
negligible
negligible
and the fluid velocity after it has fallen a distance (z
and the fluid velocity after it has fallen a distance (z
1 1
-
-
z
z
2 2
)~z
)~z
1 1
is approximately
is approximately

Z
Z
2 2
??
??
<a Z
<a Z
2 2
=
=
C
C
c c
a
a
C
C
c c

1 2
gz 2 b z Q =
1 2
gz 2 V =
73
Flowrate
Flowrate
Measurement
Measurement
sluice gate 4/5
sluice gate 4/5

As we discussed relative to flow from an orifice,

As we discussed relative to flow from an orifice,
the fluid
the fluid
cannot turn a sharp 90
cannot turn a sharp 90

corner. A vena
corner. A vena
contracta
contracta
results
results
with a contraction coefficient, C
with a contraction coefficient, C
c c
=z
=z
2 2
/a, less than 1.
/a, less than 1.

Typically C
Typically C
c c
~0.61 over the depth ratio range of 0<a/z
~0.61 over the depth ratio range of 0<a/z
1 1
<0.2.
<0.2.

For
For
large value of a/z
large value of a/z
1 1
, the value of C
, the value of C
c c
increase rapidly.
increase rapidly.
74
Example 3.12 Sluice Gate

Water flows under the sluice gate in Figure E3.12 (a).

Water flows under the sluice gate in Figure E3.12 (a).
Dertermine
Dertermine
the approximate
the approximate
flowrate
flowrate
per unit width of the channel.
per unit width of the channel.
75
Example 3.12
Example 3.12
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
For steady,
For steady,
inviscid
inviscid
,
,
incompreesible
incompreesible
flow, the
flow, the
flowerate
flowerate
per unit width
per unit width
( )
2
1 2
2 1
2
) / ( 1
2
z z
z z g
b z Q

=
( )
( )
2
1 2
2 1
2
/ 1
2
z z
z z g
z
b
Q

= Eq Eq.3.21 .3.21
With z
With z
1 1
=5.0m and a=0.80m, so the ratio a/z
=5.0m and a=0.80m, so the ratio a/z
1 1
=0.16<0.20.
=0.16<0.20.
Assuming contraction coefficient is approximately C
Assuming contraction coefficient is approximately C
c c
=0.61.
=0.61.
z
z
2 2
=
=
C
C
c c
a
a
=0.61(0.80m)=0.488m.
=0.61(0.80m)=0.488m.
The
The
flowrate
flowrate
( )
( )( )
( )
s / m 61 . 4
m 0 . 5 / m 488 . 0 1
m 488 . 0 m 0 . 5 s / m 81 . 9 2
m 488 . 0
b
Q
2
2
2
=

=
76
Example 3.12
Example 3.12
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
If we consider z
If we consider z
1 1
>>z
>>z
2 2
and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream
and neglect the kinetic energy of the upstream
fluid
fluid
, we would have
, we would have
( )( ) s m m s m m gz z
b
Q
/ 83 . 4 0 . 5 / 81 . 9 2 488 . 0 2
2 2
1 2
= = =
77
Flowrate
Flowrate
Measurement
Measurement
weir
weir
5/5
5/5

For a typical rectangular, sharp

For a typical rectangular, sharp
-
-
crested, the
crested, the
flowrate
flowrate
over the top of
over the top of
the weir plate is dependent on
the weir plate is dependent on
the weir height,
the weir height,
P
P
w w
, the width of the
, the width of the
channel, b, and the head, H,
channel, b, and the head, H,
of the water above the top of the weir.
of the water above the top of the weir.
2 / 3
1 1 1
H g 2 b C gH 2 Hb C AV C Q = = =
The
The
flowrate
flowrate
Where C Where C
1 1
is a constant to be determined. is a constant to be determined.
78
Example 3.13 Weir
Example 3.13 Weir

Water flows over a triangular weir, as is shown in Figure E3.13.

Water flows over a triangular weir, as is shown in Figure E3.13.
Based on a simple analysis using the Bernoulli equation, determi
Based on a simple analysis using the Bernoulli equation, determi
ne
ne
the dependence of
the dependence of
flowrate
flowrate
on the depth H.
on the depth H.
If the
If the
flowrate
flowrate
is Q
is Q
0 0
when H=H
when H=H
0 0
, estimate the
, estimate the
flowrate
flowrate
when the depth is increased to
when the depth is increased to
H=3H
H=3H
0 0
.
.
79
Example 3.13
Example 3.13
Solution
Solution
gH 2
For steady ,
For steady ,
inviscid
inviscid
, and incompressible flow, the average speed
, and incompressible flow, the average speed
of the fluid over the triangular notch in the weir plate is
of the fluid over the triangular notch in the weir plate is
proportional to
proportional to
The flow area for a depth of H is H[H tan(
The flow area for a depth of H is H[H tan(

/2)]
/2)]
The
The
flowrate
flowrate
where C
where C
2 2
is an unknown constant to be determined experimentally.
is an unknown constant to be determined experimentally.
( )
2 / 5
2 2
2
H g 2
2
tan C gH 2 C
2
tan H V A Q

=

= =
An increase in the depth by a factor of the three ( from H
An increase in the depth by a factor of the three ( from H
0 0
to 3H
to 3H
0 0
)
)
results in an increase of the
results in an increase of the
flowrate
flowrate
by a factor of
by a factor of
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
6 . 15
H g 2 2 / tan C
H 3 g 2 2 / tan C
Q
Q
2 / 5
0 2
2 / 5
0 2
H
H 3
0
0
=

=
80
EL & HGL
EL & HGL
1/4
1/4

For
For
steady,
steady,
inviscid
inviscid
, incompressible flow
, incompressible flow
, the total energy
, the total energy
remains constant along a streamline.
remains constant along a streamline.
H t tan cons z
g 2
V P
2
= = + +

g / p
The head due to local static pressure (pressure energy)
The head due to local static pressure (pressure energy)
The head due to local dynamic pressure (kinetic energy)
The head due to local dynamic pressure (kinetic energy)
g 2 / V
2
z The elevation head ( potential energy )
The elevation head ( potential energy )
The total head for the flow
The total head for the flow H
81
EL & HGL
EL & HGL
2/4
2/4

Energy Line (EL) : represents the total head height.

Energy Line (EL) : represents the total head height.

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) height:

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) height:
represents the sum of the
represents the sum of the
elevation and static pressure heads.
elevation and static pressure heads.

The difference in heights between the

The difference in heights between the
EL and the HGL
EL and the HGL
represents
represents
the dynamic ( velocity ) head
the dynamic ( velocity ) head
z
g 2
V P
2
+ +

z
P
+

g 2 / V
2
82
EL & HGL
EL & HGL
3/4
3/4
H t tan cons z
g 2
V P
2
= = + +

83
EL & HGL
EL & HGL
4/4
4/4
H t tan cons z
g 2
V P
2
= = + +

H t tan cons z
g 2
V P
2
= = + +

84
Example 3.14
Example 3.14
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line
Energy Line and Hydraulic Grade Line

Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Figure E3.14 through a

Water is siphoned from the tank shown in Figure E3.14 through a
hose of constant diameter. A small hole is found in the hose at
hose of constant diameter. A small hole is found in the hose at
location (1) as indicate. When the siphon is used, will water le
location (1) as indicate. When the siphon is used, will water le
ak out
ak out
of the hose, or will air leak into the hose, thereby possibly ca
of the hose, or will air leak into the hose, thereby possibly ca
using
using
the siphon to malfunction?
the siphon to malfunction?
85
Example 3.14
Example 3.14
Solution
Solution
1/2
1/2
Whether air will leak into or water will leak out of the hose d
Whether air will leak into or water will leak out of the hose d
epends
epends
on
on
whether the pressure within the hose at (1) is less than or
whether the pressure within the hose at (1) is less than or
greater than atmospheric
greater than atmospheric
. Which happens can be easily determined
. Which happens can be easily determined
by using the energy line and hydraulic grade line concepts. With
by using the energy line and hydraulic grade line concepts. With
the
the
assumption of steady, incompressible,
assumption of steady, incompressible,
inviscid
inviscid
flow it follows that the
flow it follows that the
total head is constant
total head is constant
-
-
thus, the energy line is horizontal.
thus, the energy line is horizontal.
Since the hose diameter is constant, it follows from the continu
Since the hose diameter is constant, it follows from the continu
ity
ity
equation (AV=constant) that the water velocity in the hose is co
equation (AV=constant) that the water velocity in the hose is co
nstant
nstant
throughout. Thus
throughout. Thus
the hydraulic grade line is constant distance, V
the hydraulic grade line is constant distance, V
2 2
/2g,
/2g,
below the energy line
below the energy line
as shown in Figure E3.14.
as shown in Figure E3.14.
86
Example 3.14
Example 3.14
Solution
Solution
2/2
2/2
Since the pressure at the end of the hose is atmospheric, it fol
Since the pressure at the end of the hose is atmospheric, it fol
lows that
lows that
the hydraulic grade line is at the same elevation as the end of
the hydraulic grade line is at the same elevation as the end of
the hose
the hose
outlet.
outlet.
The fluid within the hose at any point above the hydraulic grade
The fluid within the hose at any point above the hydraulic grade
line will be at less than atmospheric pressure.
line will be at less than atmospheric pressure.
Thus,
Thus,
air will leak into the hose through the hole at point (1).
air will leak into the hose through the hole at point (1).
87
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Equation
Equation
compressibility effects 1/4
compressibility effects 1/4

The assumption of incompressibility is reasonable for

The assumption of incompressibility is reasonable for
most liquid flows.
most liquid flows.

In certain instances, the assumption introduce considerable

In certain instances, the assumption introduce considerable
errors for gases.
errors for gases.

To account for compressibility effects

To account for compressibility effects
C gz V
2
1 dp
2
= + +

88
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Equation
Equation
compressibility effects 2/4
compressibility effects 2/4
For isothermal flow of perfect gas

For isentropic flow of perfect gas the density and pressure

For isentropic flow of perfect gas the density and pressure
are related by
are related by
P /
P /

k k
=Ct, where k = Specific heat ratio
=Ct, where k = Specific heat ratio
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
z
g 2
V
P
P
ln
g
RT
z
g 2
V
+ =

+ +
t tan cons gz V
2
1
dP P C
2
k
1
k
1
= + +

t tan cons gz V
2
1 dp
RT
2
= + +

2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
gz
2
V P
1 k
k
gz
2
V P
1 k
k
+ +

= + +

89
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Equation
Equation
compressibility effects 3/4
compressibility effects 3/4
To find the pressure ratio as a function of Mach
number
1 1 1 1 a1
kRT / V c / V M = =
The upstream Mach number
Speed of sound

+
+ =

1 M
2
1 k
1
p
p p
1 k
k
2
1 a
1
1 2
Compressible flow
Incompressible flow
2
1 a
1
1 2
M
2
k
p
p p
=

90
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Equation
Equation
compressibility effects 4/4
compressibility effects 4/4
2
1 a
1
1 2
M
2
k
p
p p
=

+
+ =

1 M
2
1 k
1
p
p p
1 k
k
2
1 a
1
1 2
91
Example 3.15 Compressible Flow
Example 3.15 Compressible Flow

Mach
Mach
Number
Number

A Boeing 777 flies at Mach 0.82 at an altitude of 10 km in a

A Boeing 777 flies at Mach 0.82 at an altitude of 10 km in a
standard atmosphere. Determine the stagnation pressure on the
standard atmosphere. Determine the stagnation pressure on the
leading edge of its wing if the flow is incompressible; and if t
leading edge of its wing if the flow is incompressible; and if t
he
he
flow is incompressible isentropic.
flow is incompressible isentropic.
For incompressible flow
For compressible isentropic flow
kPa 7 . 14 .... p p
55 . 0 ... 1 M
2
1 k
1
p
p p
1 2
1 k
k
2
1 a
1
1 2
= =
= =

+
+ =

kPa 5 . 12 ... p p
471 . 0 ... M
2
k
p
p p
1 2
2
1 a
1
1 2
=
= = =

92
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Restrictions on Use of the Bernoulli
Equation
Equation
unsteady effects
unsteady effects

For unsteady flow V = V ( s , t )

For unsteady flow V = V ( s , t )

To account for unsteady effects

To account for unsteady effects
s
V
V
t
V
a
S

=
( ) 0 dz V d
2
1
dp ds
t
V
2
= + + +

Along a streamline
+ Incompressible condition + Incompressible condition
2
2
2 2
S
S
1
2
1 1
z V
2
1
p ds
t
V
z V
2
1
p
2
1
+ + +

= + +

93
Example 3.16 Unsteady Flow
Example 3.16 Unsteady Flow

U
U
-
-
Tube
Tube

An incompressible,
An incompressible,
inviscid
inviscid
liquid
liquid
is placed in a vertical, constant
is placed in a vertical, constant
diameter U
diameter U
-
-
tube as indicated in
tube as indicated in
Figure E3.16. When released from
Figure E3.16. When released from
the
the
nonequilibrium
nonequilibrium
position shown,
position shown,
the liquid column will
the liquid column will
oscilate
oscilate
at a
at a
specific frequency. Determine this
specific frequency. Determine this
frequence
frequence
.
.
94
Example 3.16
Example 3.16
Solution
Solution
Let points (1) and (2) be at the air-water interface of the two columns
of the tube and z=0 correspond to the equilibrium position of the
interface.
Hence z = 0 , p
1
=p
2
= 0, z
1
= 0, z
2
= - z , V
1
= V
2
= V z = z ( t )
dt
dV
ds
dt
dV
ds
t
V 2
1
2
1
S
S
S
S
l = =

The total length of the liquid colum
( )
l
l
l
/ g 2 0 z
g 2
dt
z d
g
dt
dz
V
z
dt
dV
z
2
2
= = +
= =
+ =
Liquid oscillation
Liquid oscillation