ZAGATOWKA

UNIT I COMPUTER
Lesson 1 Computer
I Reading
1.1. Read, translate and make the summary of the text below.
COMPUTER
A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
The first devices that resemble modern computers date to the mid-20th century (around 1940 -
194!" although the computer concept and various machines similar to computers e#isted earlier.
$arly electronic computers %ere the si&e of a large room" consuming as much po%er as several
hundred modern personal computers. 'odern computers are based on tiny integrated circuits and
are millions to billions of times more capable %hile occupying a fraction of the space. Today"
simple computers may be made small enough to fit into a %rist%atch and be po%ered from a
%atch battery. (ersonal computers in various forms are icons of the )nformation Age and are
%hat most people thin* of as +a computer+, ho%ever" the most common form of computer in use
today is the embedded computer. $mbedded computers are small" simple devices that are used to
control other devices - for e#ample" they may be found in machines ranging from fighter
aircraft to industrial robots" digital cameras" and children.s toys.
The ability to store and e#ecute lists of instructions called programs ma*es computers e#tremely
versatile and distinguishes them from calculators. The /hurch0Turing thesis is a mathematical
statement of this versatility1 any computer %ith a certain minimum capability is" in principle"
capable of performing the same tas*s that any other computer can perform. Therefore" computers
%ith capability and comple#ity ranging from that of a personal digital assistant to a
supercomputer are all able to perform the same computational tas*s given enough time and
storage capacity.
History of computing
)t is difficult to identify any one device as the earliest computer" partly because the term
+computer+ has been sub2ect to varying interpretations over time. 3riginally" the term
+computer+ referred to a person %ho performed numerical calculations (a human computer!"
often %ith the aid of a mechanical calculating device. $#amples of early mechanical calculating
devices included the abacus" the slide rule and arguably the astrolabe and the Anti*ythera
mechanism (%hich dates from about 10-100 4/!. The end of the 'iddle Ages sa% a re-
invigoration of $uropean mathematics and engineering" and 5ilhelm 6chic*ard.s 1728 device
%as the first of a number of mechanical calculators constructed by $uropean engineers.
9o%ever" none of those devices fit the modern definition of a computer because they could not
be programmed. A succession of steadily more po%erful and fle#ible computing devices %ere
constructed in the 1980s and 1940s" gradually adding the *ey features that are seen in modern
computers. The use of digital electronics (largely invented by /laude 6hannon in 198:! and
more fle#ible programmability %ere vitally important steps" but defining one point along this
road as +the first digital electronic computer+ is difficult (6hannon 1940!.
How computers wor
A general purpose computer has four main sections1 the arithmetic and logic unit (A;<!" the
control unit" the memory" and the input and output devices (collectively termed )=3!. These parts
are interconnected by busses" often made of groups of %ires.
The control unit" A;<" registers" and basic )=3 (and often other hard%are closely lin*ed %ith
these! are collectively *no%n as a central processing unit (/(<!. $arly /(<s %ere composed of
1
many separate components but since the mid-19:0s /(<s have typically been constructed on a
single integrated circuit called a microprocessor.
Contro! unit
The control unit (often called a control system or central controller! directs the various
components of a computer. )t reads and interprets (decodes! instructions in the program one by
one. The control system decodes each instruction and turns it into a series of control signals that
operate the other parts of the computer. /ontrol systems in advanced computers may change the
order of some instructions so as to improve performance.
A *ey component common to all /(<s is the program counter, a special memory cell (a register!
that *eeps trac* of %hich location in memory the ne#t instruction is to be read from. The control
system.s function is as follo%s-note that this is a simplified description" and some of these steps
may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of /(<1
1. >ead the code for the ne#t instruction from the cell indicated by the program counter.
2. ?ecode the numerical code for the instruction into a set of commands or signals for each of
the other systems.
8. )ncrement the program counter so it points to the ne#t instruction.
4. >ead %hatever data the instruction re@uires from cells in memory (or perhaps from an input
device!. The location of this re@uired data is typically stored %ithin the instruction code.
. (rovide the necessary data to an A;< or register.
7. )f the instruction re@uires an A;< or speciali&ed hard%are to complete" instruct the
hard%are to perform the re@uested operation.
:. 5rite the result from the A;< bac* to a memory location or to a register or perhaps an
output device.
A. Bump bac* to step (1!.
6ince the program counter is (conceptually! 2ust another set of memory cells" it can be changed
by calculations done in the A;<. Adding 100 to the program counter %ould cause the ne#t
instruction to be read from a place 100 locations further do%n the program. )nstructions that
modify the program counter are often *no%n as +2umps+ and allo% for loops (instructions that
are repeated by the computer! and often conditional instruction e#ecution (both e#amples of
control flo%!. )t is noticeable that the se@uence of operations that the control unit goes through to
process an instruction is in itself li*e a short computer program - and indeed" in some more
comple# /(< designs" there is another yet smaller computer called a microse@uencer that runs a
microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.
"rit#metic$!ogic unit %"LU&
The A;< is capable of performing t%o classes of operations1 arithmetic and logic. The set of
arithmetic operations that a particular A;< supports may be limited to adding and subtracting or
might include multiplying or dividing" trigonometry functions (sine" cosine" etc! and s@uare
roots. 6ome can only operate on %hole numbers (integers! %hilst others use floating point to
represent real numbers-albeit %ith limited precision. 9o%ever" any computer that is capable of
performing 2ust the simplest operations can be programmed to brea* do%n the more comple#
operations into simple steps that it can perform. Therefore" any computer can be programmed to
perform any arithmetic operation-although it %ill ta*e more time to do so if its A;< does not
directly support the operation. An A;< may also compare numbers and return boolean truth
values (true or false! depending on %hether one is e@ual to" greater than or less than the other (+is
74 greater than 7C+!.
Memory
A computer.s memory can be vie%ed as a list of cells into %hich numbers can be placed or read.
$ach cell has a numbered +address+ and can store a single number. The computer can be
instructed to +put the number 128 into the cell numbered 18:+ or to +add the number that is in
2
cell 18: to the number that is in cell 247A and put the ans%er into cell 19+. The information
stored in memory may represent practically anything. ;etters" numbers" even computer
instructions can be placed into memory %ith e@ual ease. 6ince the /(< does not differentiate
bet%een different types of information" it is up to the soft%are to give significance to %hat the
memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.
)n almost all modern computers" each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of
eight bits (called a byte!. $ach byte is able to represent 27 different numbers, either from 0 to
2 or -12A to D12:. To store larger numbers" several consecutive bytes may be used (typically"
t%o" four or eight!. 5hen negative numbers are re@uired" they are usually stored in t%o.s
complement notation. 3ther arrangements are possible" but are usually not seen outside of
speciali&ed applications or historical conte#ts. A computer can store any *ind of information in
memory as long as it can be someho% represented in numerical form. 'odern computers have
billions or even trillions of bytes of memory.
The /(< contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and %ritten to
much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically bet%een t%o and one
hundred registers depending on the type of /(<. >egisters are used for the most fre@uently
needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. 6ince data
is constantly being %or*ed on" reducing the need to access main memory (%hich is often slo%
compared to the A;< and control units! greatly increases the computer.s speed.
/omputer main memory comes in t%o principal varieties1 random access memory or >A' and
read-only memory or >3'. >A' can be read and %ritten to anytime the /(< commands it" but
>3' is pre-loaded %ith data and soft%are that never changes" so the /(< can only read from it.
>3' is typically used to store the computer.s initial start-up instructions. )n general" the contents
of >A' is erased %hen the po%er to the computer is turned off %hile >3' retains its data
indefinitely. )n a (/" the >3' contains a speciali&ed program called the 4)36 that orchestrates
loading the computer.s operating system from the hard dis* drive into >A' %henever the
computer is turned on or reset. )n embedded computers" %hich fre@uently do not have dis*
drives" all of the soft%are re@uired to perform the tas* may be stored in >3'. 6oft%are that is
stored in >3' is often called firm%are because it is notionally more li*e hard%are than
soft%are. Elash memory blurs the distinction bet%een >3' and >A' by retaining data %hen
turned off but being re%ritable li*e >A'. 9o%ever" flash memory is typically much slo%er than
conventional >3' and >A' so its use is restricted to applications %here high speeds are not
re@uired.
)n more sophisticated computers there may be one or more >A' cache memories %hich are
slo%er than registers but faster than main memory. Fenerally computers %ith this sort of cache
are designed to move fre@uently needed data into the cache automatically" often %ithout the need
for any intervention on the programmer.s part.
Mu!titasing
5hile a computer may be vie%ed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory" in
some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.
This is achieved by having the computer s%itch rapidly bet%een running each program in turn.
3ne means by %hich this is done is %ith a special signal called an interrupt %hich can
periodically cause the computer to stop e#ecuting instructions %here it %as and do something
else instead. 4y remembering %here it %as e#ecuting prior to the interrupt" the computer can
return to that tas* later. )f several programs are running +at the same time+" then the interrupt
generator might be causing several hundred interrupts per second" causing a program s%itch each
time. 6ince modern computers typically e#ecute instructions several orders of magnitude faster
than human perception" it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even
8
though only one is ever e#ecuting in any given instant. This method of multitas*ing is sometimes
termed +time-sharing+ since each program is allocated a +slice+ of time in turn.
4efore the era of cheap computers" the principle use for multitas*ing %as to allo% many people
to share the same computer.
6eemingly" multitas*ing %ould cause a computer that is s%itching bet%een several programs to
run more slo%ly - in direct proportion to the number of programs it is running. 9o%ever" most
programs spend much of their time %aiting for slo% input=output devices to complete their tas*s.
)f a program is %aiting for the user to clic* on the mouse or press a *ey on the *eyboard" then it
%ill not ta*e a +time slice+ until the event it is %aiting for has occurred. This frees up time for
other programs to e#ecute so that many programs may be run at the same time %ithout
unacceptable speed loss.
1.2 Answer the following comprehension questions:
1. 9o% can the computer memory be vie%edC
2. 5hat does The /hurch0Turing thesis representC
8. 9o% are the lists of instructions calledC
4. 9o% many numbers can a byte representC
. 5hat is the function of 4)36 programC
7. 5hat %as multitas*ing aimed forC
:. 5hich are the boolean truth valuesC
A. 5hat %as originally GcomputerH referred toC
9. 5hat is the function of the control unitC
10. 5hen did one attest the first devices resembling modern computersC
1. !tate "#rue$ or "%alse$
1. Today" simple computers may be made big enough to fit into a %rist%atch.
2. A computer.s memory can be vie%ed as a list of cells into %hich numbers can be placed or
read.
8. A general purpose computer has five main sections1 the arithmetic and logic unit (A;<!" the
control unit" the memory" the input and output devices" and the /(<.
4. $#amples of early mechanical calculating devices included the abacus" the slide rule and
arguably the astrolabe and the Anti*ythera mechanism (%hich dates from about 100-1000
4/!.
. The /(< contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and %ritten
to much more rapidly than the main memory area.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1 &i'e definitions to the following words.
1. >3' 7./(<
2. >A' :.'emory cell
8. A;< A.?evice
4. 'ultitas*ing 9.6oft%are
. /omputer 10.9ard%are
2.2 (ake)up sentences with the terms from 2.1
2. (atch the words with their definitions
1. 4yte a!memory used %hen the computer is on
2. (rogrammer b!a group of A binary digits
8. ?ata c!digital information
4. >A' d! to do many things at the same time
. 'ultitas*ing e!a person %riting computer programs
4
2.* %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the words from 2.1 and 2.
1. /?s are used to store different types of interesting IIIIIIIII . 2.'odern IIIIIIIIII
represent an efficient means to do calculations and %rite documents. 8. IIIIIIIIII is one of the
indispensable features of computers allo%ing to perform different operations simultaneously by
the computer. 4. IIIII is the base of calculation function of the processor. . IIII stands for
>andom Access 'emory. 7. 3perating systems" applications" programs are e#amples of
IIIIIIIIII. :. The physical part of the computer is called IIIIIIIIII. A. /omputer is an
electronic IIIIIIIII %hich allo%s performing different calculations. $ 9. The IIIIIIIIIII is
a special program counter. 10. IIIIIIIIIII is used to store computerJs start-up instructions.
2., Retain these expressions and try to use them more frequently
)to (e su(*ect to 0 ad2. 1 (foll. by to! conditional upon (sub2ect to your approval!. 2 (foll. by to!
liable or e#posed to (sub2ect to infection!. 8 (often foll. by to! o%ing obedience to a government
etc.
)to fit 0 to match smth.
)since 0 because
)concurrent!y - (often foll. by %ith! e#isting or in operation at the same time or together
)prior to - before
)so t#at 0 in order that=to
2.- %ill in the blank spaces with the correspondent word. .hoose words from 2.,
1. ) had seen 9elen IIIIIIII the events that happened that night. 2. The %or* must be done
IIIIIIIIIIIII in order to arrive at the same time. 8. ) havenJt seen him IIIIIIIIIII he hangs
some%here. 4. These features perfectly IIIIIIII our criteria. . 9elen must do her %or* faster
IIIIIIIIII she finishes earlier. 7. Eiber optic is not IIIIIIIIIII electromagnetic interference.
III +riting

,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /Computers in our 0ai!y Life1
N-2- )$nglish sentence has got a strict %ord-order 6ub2ectDpredicateDob2ect1 e.g. Mary (subject)
goes (predicate) to school (object)
-sometimes %e can encounter comple# nouns such as1 low orbit satellite, new advanced
techniques, my pretty girlfriend" etc.
e.g. /ew ad'anced techniques were developed by the Moldovan scientists.
,-3- Here are some ru!es of 2usiness !etter writing-
The basics of good business letter %riting are easy to learn. The follo%ing guide provides the
phrases that are usually found in any standard business letter. These phrases are used as a *ind of
frame and introduction to the content of business letters.
T#e 4tart
-?ear (ersonnel ?irector"
-?ear 6ir or 'adam1 (use if you don.t *no% %ho you are %riting to!
-?ear ?r" 'r" 'rs" 'iss or 's 6mith1 (use if you *no% %ho you are %riting to" and have a
formal relationship %ith - 'ER5 IMPORT"NT use 's for %omen unless as*ed to use 'rs or
'iss!
-?ear Eran*1 (use if the person is a close business contact or friend!
T#e Reference
-5ith reference to your advertisement in the Times, your letter of 28
rd
'arch"
your phone call today"
-Than* you for your letter of 'arch
th
.
T#e Reason for +riting
-) am %riting to in@uire about=apologi&e for=confirm

Re6uesting
-/ould you possiblyC =) %ould be grateful if you couldK
"greeing to Re6uests
-) %ould be delighted to
7i8ing 2ad News
-<nfortunately=) am afraid that
Enc!osing 0ocuments
-) am enclosing=(lease find enclosed=$nclosed you %ill find
C!osing Remars
-Than* you for your help. (lease contact us again if %e can help in any %ay=there are any
problems=you have any @uestions.
Reference to 9uture Contact
-) loo* for%ard to ...=hearing from you soon=meeting you ne#t Tuesday=seeing you ne#t
Thursday.
T#e 9inis#
-Lours faithfully" ()f you don.t *no% the name of the person you.re %riting to!
-Lours sincerely" ()f you *no% the name of the person you.re %riting to!
-4est %ishes"
-4est regards" ()f the person is a close business contact or friend!
,-, +rite a !etter of comp!aint a(out a (roen down computer to a computer se!!er
company- Here is a samp!e !etter (e!ow
4amp!e Letter
Men.s /heese 9ouse
84 /hatley Avenue
6eattle" 5A 9A:7
Tel1
Ea#1
$mail1 *ennyNcheese.com

3ctober 28" 2007
Ered Elintstone
6ales 'anager
/heese 6pecialists )nc.
47 >ubble >oad
>oc*ville" );
?ear 'r. Elintstone1
5ith reference to our telephone conversation today" ) am %riting to confirm your order for1 120
# /heddar ?elu#e >ef. Oo. A7
The order %ill be shipped %ithin three days via <(6 and should arrive at your store in about 10
days.
(lease contact us again if %e can help in any %ay.
Lours sincerely"
Menneth 4eare
?irector of Men.s /heese 9ouse
7
Lesson 3 E!ectronic +aste
I Reading
1.1 Read, translate and make the summary of the text below
ELECTRONIC +"4TE
E!ectronic waste" +e)waste+ or ++aste E!ectrica! and E!ectronic E6uipment+ (++EEE+! is a
%aste type consisting of any bro*en or un%anted electrical or electronic appliance. >ecyclable
electronic %aste is sometimes further categori&ed as a +commodity+ %hile e-%aste %hich cannot
be reused is distinguished as +%aste+. 4oth types of e-%aste have raised concern considering that
many components of such e@uipment are considered to#ic and are not biodegradable.
>esponding to these concerns" many $uropean countries banned e-%aste from landfills in the
1990s.
The $uropean <nion %ould further advance e-%aste policy in $urope by implementing the
5aste $lectrical and $lectronic $@uipment ?irective in 2002 %hich holds manufacturers
responsible for e-%aste disposal at end-of-life. 6imilar legislation has been enacted in Asia" %ith
e-%aste legislation in the <nited 6tates limited to the state level due to stalled efforts in the
<nited 6tates /ongress regarding multiple e-%aste legislation bills.
?ue to the difficulty and cost of recycling used electronics as %ell as lac*lustre enforcement of
legislation regarding e-%aste e#ports" large amounts of used electronics have been sent to
countries such as /hina" )ndia" and Menya" %here lo%er environmental standards and %or*ing
conditions ma*e processing e-%aste more profitable.
Pro(!ems
)f treated properly" electronic %aste is a valuable source for secondary ra% materials. 9o%ever"
if not treated properly" it is a ma2or source of to#ins and carcinogens. >apid technology change"
lo% initial cost and even planned obsolescence have resulted in a fast gro%ing problem around
the globe. Technical solutions are available but in most cases a legal frame%or*" a collection
system" logistics and other services need to be implemented before a technical solution can be
applied. $lectronic %aste represents 2 percent of America.s trash in landfills" but it e@uals :0
percent of overall to#ic %aste.
?ue to lo%er environmental standards and %or*ing conditions in /hina" )ndia" Menya" and
else%here" electronic %aste is being sent to these countries for processing 0 in most cases
illegally. Fuiyu in 6hantou region of /hina" and ?elhi and 4angalore in )ndia" all have
electronic %aste processing areas. <ncontrolled burning" disassembly" and disposal are causing
environmental and health problems" including occupational safety and health effects among
those directly involved" due to the methods of processing the %aste. Trade in electronic %aste is
controlled by the 4asel /onvention.
$lectronic %aste is of concern largely due to the to#icity and carcinogenicity of some of the
substances if processed improperly. To#ic substances in electronic %aste may include lead"
mercury" cadmium. /arcinogenic substances in electronic %aste may include polychlorinated
biphenyls ((/4s!. A typical computer monitor may contain more than 7P lead by %eight" much
of %hich is in the lead glass of the />T. /apacitors" transformers" (Q/ insulated %ires" (Q/
coated components that %ere manufactured before 19:: often contain dangerous amounts of
polychlorinated biphenyls. <p to thirty-eight separate chemical elements are incorporated into
electronic %aste items. The unsustainability of discarding electronics and computer technology is
another reason for the need to recycle 0 or perhaps more practically" reuse 0 electronic %aste.
$lectronic %aste processing systems have matured in recent years follo%ing increased
regulatory" public" and commercial scrutiny" and a commensurate increase in entrepreneurial
interest. (art of this evolution has involved greater diversion of electronic %aste from energy
:
intensive" do%n-cycling processes (eg. conventional recycling! %here e@uipment is reverted to a
ra% material form. This diversion is achieved through reuse and refurbishing. The environmental
and social benefits of reuse are several1 diminished demand for ne% products and their
commensurate re@uirement for virgin ra% materials (%ith their o%n environmental e#ternalities
not factored into the cost of the ra% materials! and larger @uantities of pure %ater and electricity
for associated manufacturing" less pac*aging per unit" availability of technology to %ider s%aths
of society due to greater affordability of products" and diminished use of landfills.
/hallenges remain" %hen materials cannot or %ill not be reused" conventional recycling or
disposal via landfill often follo%. 6tandards for both approaches vary %idely by 2urisdiction"
%hether in developed or developing countries. The comple#ity of the various items to be
disposed of" cost of environmentally sound recycling systems" and the need for concerned and
concerted action to collect and systematically process e@uipment are the resources most lac*ed --
though this is changing. 'any of the plastics used in electronic e@uipment contain flame
retardants. These are generally halogens added to the plastic resin" ma*ing the plastics difficult
to recycle.
1.2 Answer the following comprehension questions
1. 9o% is recyclable e-%aste categori&edC
2. 5hich are the environmental and social benefits of e-%aste reuseC
8. 9o% can electronic %aste become source of to#ins and carcinogensC
4. 5hat did $< implement in 2002C
. 5hat to#ic substances can e-%aste includeC
7. 5here usually e-%aste is sentC
:. 5hat are the carcinogenic substances in e-%asteC
A. 5hat are the challenges of the e-%aste recyclingC
9. 5hat is conventional recyclingC
10. 5hat ma*es the plastic difficult to recycleC
1. !tate "true$ or "false$
1. ?ue to lo%er environmental standards and %or*ing conditions in 'oldova" Freece" Erance
and else%here" electronic %aste is being sent to these countries.
2. >esponding to the e-%aste concerns" many $uropean countries accepted e-%aste from
landfills in the 1990s.
8. The e-%aste recycling is very e#pensive in 5estern countries.
4. A legal frame%or* should be applied before the technical is put into practice.
. )f treated properly" e-%aste can a valuable source of ra% material.
7. 4asel /onvention regulates the trade of e-%aste
:. A typical computer monitor may contain more than 1P lead by %eight.
A. 'any of the plastics used in electronic e@uipment contain flame retardants.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1 &i'e definitions to the following words
$-%aste (n!" reuse (n!" do%n-cycling processes (n!" biodegradable (ad2.!" to#ic substance (n!" e-
%aste end-of-life (n!" developing countries (n!" disassembly (n!.
1.$@uipment (n!, 2.;ac*lustre (ad2.!, 8. >a% material (n!, 4. refurbishing (n!, . />T,
A
a! lac*ing in vitality etc., b! cathode-ray tube, c! in the natural state, not processed or
manufactured, d! necessary articles" clothing" etc. e! restoration and redecoration of an appliance"
etc.
2.* %ill in the blanks with the appropriate terms. +se the words from 2.1 and 2..
1. IIIIIIIII do not usually have a strict control over e-%aste and a severe ecologic legislation.
2. )n order to recycle the electronic %aste there is a need toIIIIIIIII the bro*en-do%n
electronic devices. 8. Elat screens don not useIIIIIII in order to pro2ect the image on the
monitor. 4. (lastic" iron" copper and other computer-%aste components are notIIIIIIIIIII. .
$-%aste contains much IIIIIIIIII" and therefore it should be recycled under specific
conditions not to harm the environment.
2.,. Retain these expressions and use them more frequently.
0emand 1n2 0 the need to supply %ith the necessary goods a segment of the mar*et, due to )
1ad'.2 because of, as well as 0 in addition to, regarding 1prep.2 0 concerning" about.
.arcinogenic substance 1n2 - a substance producing cancer.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on negati'e impact of electronic waste on the en'ironment. +se the
expressions that you ha'e studied during this lesson-
Lesson , 'irtua!i:ation
I Reading

'IRTU"LI;"TION
)n computing" 8irtua!i:ation is a broad term that refers to the abstraction of computer resources.
Qirtuali&ation hides the physical characteristics of computing resources from their users" be they
applications" or end users.

This includes ma*ing a single physical resource (such as a server" an
operating system" an application" or storage device! appear to function as multiple virtual
resources, it can also include ma*ing multiple physical resources (such as storage devices or
servers! appear as a single virtual resource,
The term has been %idely used since the 1970s" and has been applied to many different aspects
and scopes of computing-from entire net%or*s to individual capabilities or components. The
common theme of all virtuali&ation technologies is the hiding of technical detail" through
encapsulation. Qirtuali&ation creates an e#ternal interface that hides an underlying
implementation (e.g." by multiple#ing access" by combining resources at different physical
locations" or by simplifying a control system!. >ecent development of ne% virtuali&ation
platforms and technologies has refocused attention on this mature concept.
Qirtuali&ation is used in many different conte#ts" %hich can be grouped into t%o main types1
platform virtuali&ation" involving the simulation of %hole computers" and resource virtuali&ation"
involving the simulation of combined" fragmented" or simplified resources.
" design pattern
'ost forms of virtuali&ation involve a computing design pattern that relate a consumer and
provider. A consumer and provider interact using some interface. Qirtuali&ation places an
intermediary bet%een consumer and provider that acts on both sides of the interface" providing
the interface for the actual consumer and consuming the interface of the actual provider. <sually
this is done either to allo% a multiplicity of consumers to interact %ith one provider" or one
9
consumer to interact %ith a multiplicity of providers" or both" %ith only the intermediary being
a%are of multiplicities.
)deally" consumers and providers that %or* together directly" in an unvirtuali&ed environment"
should %or* %ithout modification in a virtuali&ed conte#t. An e#ample is virtual address spaces"
in %hich an intermediary (the virtual memory manager or address space manager! is inserted
bet%een a real address space and its consumer. The intermediary provides a multiplicity of
virtual address spaces to support multiple consumers, the consumers and the provider (the real
memory! generally remain una%are of these multiplicities.
Processing 8irtua!i:ation
The original sense of the term virtualiation" dating from the 1970s" is in the creation of a virtual
machine using a combination of hard%are and soft%are. Eor convenience" %e %ill call this
p!atform 8irtua!i:ation. The term virtual machine apparently dates from the e#perimental )4'
'44=44R system. The creation and management of virtual machines has also been referred to as
creating pseudo machines" in the early /(-40 days" and server virtualiation more recently. The
terms virtualiation and virtual machine have both also ac@uired additional meanings through
the years.
(latform virtuali&ation is performed on a given hard%are platform by host soft%are (a control
program!" %hich creates a simulated computer environment" a virtual machine" for its guest
soft%are. The guest soft%are" %hich is often itself a complete operating system" runs 2ust as if it
%ere installed on a stand-alone hard%are platform. Typically" many such virtual machines are
simulated on a single physical machine" their number limited only by the hostJs hard%are
resources. Typically there is no re@uirement for a guest 36 to be the same as the host one. The
guest system often re@uires access to specific peripheral devices to function" so the simulation
must support the guest.s interfaces to those devices. Trivial e#amples of such devices are hard
dis* drive or net%or* interface card.
1. 5hat is virtualisationC
2. 5hen %as the term virtualisation used firstC
8. )n %hat conte#ts is the term virtualisation usedC
4. 5hat does a computing design pattern relate toC
. 5hat is the aim of the interfaceC
7. 5hen does the term virtual machine date fromC
:. 5hat is the guest soft%areC
A. 5hat is the host soft%areC
9. 9o% should consumers and providers %or* in virtualised environmentC
1. Qirtualisation ma*es the server appear as a multiple resource.
2. A computing design pattern relates the consumer and the customer.
8. Typically there isnJt any re@uirement for a guest 36 to be the same as the host one.
4. The term Gcomputing design patternH has been %idely used since the 1970s.
. (latform virtualisation involves the simulation of combined" fragmented" or simplified
resources.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1. &i'e definitions to the following words
1 Qirtualisation, 2. 3perating 6ystem, 8. Application, 4. 9ost soft%are, . )nterface, 7. 6torage
devises, :. Fuest 36.
10
2. %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms
1! '6 5ord is the IIIIIIII that permits to edit and create te#ts. 2! This ne% program has got a
ne% co&y IIIIIIIIIIIII to %or* %ith" you donJt need to remember and type a lot of
instructions. 8! 'any IIIIIIIIIIIII refer to as 5indo%s family. 4! The intermediary
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII a multiplicity of virtual address spaces to support multiple consumers. !
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII creates an e#ternal interface that hides an underlying implementation. 7!
Trivial e#amples of such devices are hard dis* IIIIIIIIIIIII or net%or* interface card. :!
>ecent IIIIIIIIIII of ne% virtuali&ation platforms and technologies has refocused attention on
this mature concept. A! )nternet stands for )nterconnected IIIIIIIIIIIIIII.
2.* Retain these expressions and try to use them more frequently
4ncapsulate 5 1 '2. (-ting! 1 enclose in or as in a capsule. 2 e#press briefly" summari&e, to focus
1on21'2 5 to concentrate=be concentrated on, to date 1from, back2 1'2 0 to have oneJs origins
from, as if ! subject ! vb. in past simple - as %ould be the case if (acts as if he %ere in charge!,
consumer 1n2 ) 1 person %ho consumes" esp. one %ho uses a product. 2 purchaser of goods or
services, pro'ider 1n2 - S;atin provideo -vis- foreseeT the person or organisation %ho=%hich
supplies or sells goods or services U consumer.
2., (ake)up sentences with the expressions from 2.*

III 4peaing
.1 Retell the text of the lesson
I' +riting
<-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /'irtua! wor!d as a way to escape from t#e rea!
wor!d1
N-2- 5e say G6 consider, 6 belie'eH etc. %hen %e e#press our vie%point" %hen %e %ant to state
a general truth %e use Git is consideredH.
11
UNIT II C52ERNETIC4
Lesson 1 Cy(ernetics
I Reading
C52ERNETIC4
Cy(ernetics is the study of communication and control" typically involving regulatory feedbac*
in living organisms" machines and organisations" as %ell as their combinations. Eor e#ample" in
socio-technical systems" it includes the study of computer controlled machines such as automata
and robots. )t is an earlier but still-used generic term for many of the sub2ect matters that are
increasingly sub2ect to speciali&ation under the headings of adaptive systems" artificial
intelligence" comple# systems" comple#ity theory" control systems" decision support systems"
dynamical systems" information theory" learning organi&ations" mathematical systems theory"
operations research" simulation" and systems engineering.
A more philosophical definition" suggested in 197 by ;ouis /ouffignal" one of the pioneers of
cybernetics" characteri&es cybernetics as +the art of ensuring the efficacy of action+.
/ontemporary cybernetics began as an interdisciplinary study connecting the fields of control
systems" electrical net%or* theory" logic modeling" and neuroscience in the 1940s. The name
cybernetics %as coined by Oorbert 5iener to denote the study of +teleological mechanisms+ and
%as populari&ed through his boo* "ybernetics, or "ontrol and "ommunication in the #nimal
and Machine (194A!.
The study of teleological mechanisms (from the Free* VWXYZ or telos for end" goal" or purpose!
in machines %ith corrective feedbac* dates from as far bac* as the late 1:00s %hen Bames 5att.s
steam engine %as e@uipped %ith a governor" a centrifugal feedbac* valve for controlling the
speed of the engine. )n 1A7A Bames /ler* 'a#%ell published a theoretical article on governors.
)n 198 >ussian physiologist (.M. Ano*hin published a boo* in %hich the concept of feedbac*
(+bac* afferentation+! %as studied. The >omanian scientist [tefan 3doble2a published
$sychologie consonantiste ((aris" 198A!" describing many cybernetic principles. /ybernetics as a
discipline %as firmly established by 5iener" 'c/ulloch and others" such as 5. >oss Ashby and
5. Frey 5alter. 5alter %as one of the first to build autonomous robots as an aid to the study of
animal behaviour. Together %ith the <6 and <M" an important geographical locus of early
cybernetics %as Erance" %here 5iener.s boo* %as first published.
)n the spring of 194:" 5iener %as invited to a congress on harmonic analysis" held in Oancy"
Erance" and organi&ed by mathematician" 6&olem 'andelbro2t (1A99-19A8!" uncle of the %orld-
famous mathematician 4eno\t 'andelbrot.
?uring this stay in Erance" 5iener received the offer to %rite a manuscript on the unifying
character of this part of applied mathematics" %hich is found in the study of 4ro%nian motion
and in telecommunication engineering. The follo%ing summer" bac* in the <nited 6tates" 5iener
decided to introduce the neologism cybernetics into his scientific theory. )n the <M this became
the focus for the >atio /lub.
5iener populari&ed the social implications of cybernetics" dra%ing analogies bet%een automatic
systems (such as a regulated steam engine! and human institutions in his best-selling The %uman
&se of %uman 'eings( "ybernetics and )ociety (9oughton-'ifflin" 190!.
5hile not the only instance of a research organi&ation focused on cybernetics" the 4iological
/omputer ;ab at the <niversity of )llinois" <rbana=/hampaign" under the direction of 9ein& von
Eoerster" %as a ma2or center of cybernetic research for almost 20 years" beginning in 19A.
12
1. 5ho %rote The %uman &se of %uman 'eings( "ybernetics and )ociety*
2. 5hat %as the focus of >atio /lubC
8. 5hat is cyberneticsC
4. 5ho %as 5einerC
. 5hat congress %as held in OancyC
7. 5ho said that the cybernetics is the art of ensuring the efficacy of actionC
:. )n %hat sciences is the contemporary cybernetics involved inC
A. 5hat %as the title of 3doble2aJs articleC
9. 5hat %as Bames 5attJs machine e@uipped %ithC
10. )n %hat year did Ano*hin publish his boo*C
1. ?uring this stay in Erance" 5iener received the offer to %rite a manuscript.
2. Together %ith the <6 and <M" an important geographical locus of early cybernetics %as
Erance.
8. A more philosophical definition %as suggested in 199 by ;ouis /ouffignal.
4. 197A Bames /ler* 'a#%ell published a theoretical article on governors.
. 5einer published his article $sychologie consonantiste.
7. 6&olem 'andelbro2t %as the brother of the %orld-famous mathematician 4eno\t
'andelbrot.
:. 5alter %as one of the first to build autonomous robots.
A. The follo%ing summer" bac* in the <6" 'andelbro2t decided to introduce the neologism
cybernetics into his scientific theory.
9. ;ouis /ouffignal %as one of the pioneers of cybernetics.
10. 'T) %as one of the pioneers of cybernetic research.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. cybernetics, 2. teleological mechanisms, 8. neuroscience, 4. applied mathematics, . steam
engine, 7. automatic system, :. governor, A. robot, 9. machine.
1. governor, 2. engineering, 8. autonomous,. 4. scientist, . theory, 7. 4ro%nian motion.
a! a person %ho deals %ith research in a specific field of science, b! chaotic movement of small
particles of the matter under the condition of heat, c! supposition or system of ideas e#plaining
something" esp. one based on general principles independent of the particular things to be
e#plained, d! a system" organism or mechanism functioning %ith no outer implication or help, e!
automatic regulator controlling the speed of an engine etc., f! application of science to the
design" building" and use of machines etc.
2.* %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the terms from 2.1 and 2.
1. The speed of the engine is controlled by the IIII. 2. IIII can perform tas*s that people are
not able to do. 8. The chaotic movement of the molecules is referred to as IIIIIIIIIII. 4. The
first cars %ere driven by IIIIIIII IIIIIIII. . IIIIIIIIIIIII is a field of mathematics
dealing %ith specific purposes. 7. (eople %ho develop theories" methods of research" and lead
practical research are called IIIIIIIIIIIII . :. Any mechanism helping people in performing
some tas*s are called IIIIIIIII. A. A IIIIIIIIIIIIII is a set of assertions in a specific field
of science.
18
2., Retain these expressions and try to use them more frequently.
to in'ol'e 1'2 - cause (a person or thing! to share the e#perience or effect (of a situation" activity"
etc.!. 2 imply" entail" ma*e necessary. 8 (often foll. by in! implicate (a person! in a charge" crime"
etc, such as 1ad7.2 - 1 (often foll. by as! of the *ind or degree indicated (such people, people such
as these!, automatum 1n. sing.2 0 automata (n. plur.!, feedback 1n2 - 1 public response to an
event" e#periment" etc. 2 electronics a return of a fraction of an output signal to the input. b
signal so returned, 'al'e 1n2 - 1 device controlling flo% through a pipe etc." esp. allo%ing
movement in one direction only. 2 structure in an organ etc. allo%ing a flo% of blood etc. in one
direction only. 8 ] ^thermionic valve. 4 device to vary the effective length of the tube in a
trumpet etc. half-shell of an oyster" mussel" etc. valvular ad2. S;atin valva leaf of a folding
doorT, to draw 1'2 a conclusion, analogy 0 to ma*e a conclusion" analogy, best)selling 1ad7.2 0
characteri&es especially boo*s %hich are very popular among the readers.
2.- (ake)up sentences with the words from 2.,.

2.8 &i'e the term for the definition.
1. The science that studies the communications and control systems. 2. A return of a fraction of
an output signal to the input. 8. A machine %hich combines mechanics" electronics and soft%are
aimed to help people. 4. A boo* %hich is sold very %ell. . A system %hich does not need any
e#ternal factors for its functioning. 7. )nvestigation in science.
III 4peaing

.1 Answer the questions:
1. ?o you share the fear that robots could once con@uer the %orld of humansC 2. )f you %ere a
roboticist" %hat *ind of robots %ould you developC 8. 5hy are robots useful for usC 4. 5here
can %e use robotsC . 5hat *ind of robots can you categori&eC 7. 5hat fields of science should
roboticists *no%C
I' +riting
*.1 3rite an essay on the following topic "Robots in our daily life$, then make the oral
summary of your essay.
Lesson 3 "rtificia! Inte!!igence
I Reading
"RTI9ICI"L INTELLI7ENCE
"rtificia! Inte!!igence ("I! can be defined as the study of methods by %hich a computer can
simulate aspects of human intelligence. 3ne aim of this study is to design a computer that might
be able to reason for itself. A more +attainable+ ob2ective of %or* on A) is the development of
systems that can %or* %ith natural language" meaning the language that %e spea* and %rite as
distinct from any programmed computer language. Another aspect of A) is the ability of the
computer to search *no%ledge in a database for the best possible reply to a @uestion" because this
has strong parallels %ith the %ay that %e solve problems ourselves. A) divides roughly into t%o
schools of thought1 /onventional A) and /omputational )ntelligence (/)!
14
Con8entiona! "I mostly involves methods no% classified as machine learning" characteri&ed by
formalism and statistical analysis. This is also *no%n as symbolic A)" logical A)" neat A) and
Food 3ld Eashioned Artificial )ntelligence (F3EA)!.
Computationa! Inte!!igence involves iterative development or learning (e.g. parameter tuning
e.g. in connectionist systems!. ;earning is based on empirical data and is associated %ith non-
symbolic A)" and soft computing.
$arly in the 1:th century" >en_ ?escartes envisioned the bodies of animals as comple# but
reducible machines" thus formulating the mechanistic theory" also *no%n as the +cloc*%or*
paradigm+. 5ilhelm 6chic*ard created the first mechanical digital calculating machine in 1728"
follo%ed by machines of 4laise (ascal (1748! and Fottfried 5ilhelm von ;eibni& (17:1!" %ho
also invented the binary system. )n the 19th century" /harles 4abbage and Ada ;ovelace %or*ed
on programmable mechanical calculating machines.
The 190s %ere a period of active efforts in A). )n 190" Alan Turing introduced the +Turing
test+ as a %ay of operationalising a test of intelligent behavior. The first %or*ing A) programs
%ere %ritten in 191 to run on the Eerranti 'ar* ) machine of the <niversity of 'anchester1 a
draughts-playing program %ritten by /hristopher 6trachey and a chess-playing program %ritten
by ?ietrich (rin&.
?uring the 1970s and 19:0s" Boel 'oses demonstrated the po%er of symbolic reasoning for
integration problems in the 'acsyma program" the first successful *no%ledge-based program in
mathematics. Ted 6hortliffe demonstrated the po%er of rule-based systems for *no%ledge
representation and inference in medical diagnosis and therapy in %hat is sometimes called the
first e#pert system. 9ans 'oravec developed the first computer-controlled vehicle to
autonomously negotiate cluttered obstacle courses.
)n the 19A0s" neural net%or*s became %idely used due to the bac*propagation algorithm" first
described by (aul 5erbos in 19:4. The team of $rnst ?ic*manns built the first robot cars"
driving up to mph on empty streets.
The 1990s mar*ed ma2or achievements in many areas of A) and demonstrations of various
applications. )n 199" one of ?ic*manns. robot cars drove more than 1000 miles in traffic at up
to 110 mph. ?eep 4lue. ?A>(A stated that the costs saved by implementing A) methods for
scheduling units in the first (ersian Fulf 5ar have repaid the <6 government.s entire investment
in A) research since the 190s. 9onda built the first prototypes of humanoid robots li*e the one
depicted above.
?uring the 1990s and 2000s A) has become very influenced by probability theory and statistics.
4ayesian net%or*s are the focus of this movement" providing lin*s to more rigorous topics in
statistics and engineering such as 'ar*ov models and Malman filters" and bridging the divide
bet%een `neat. and `scruffy. approaches. The last fe% years have also seen a big interest in game
theory applied to A) decision ma*ing. This ne% school of A) is sometimes called `machine
learning.. After the 6eptember 11" 2001 attac*s there has been much rene%ed interest and
funding for threat-detection A) systems" including machine vision research and data-mining.
9o%ever despite the hype" e#citement about 4ayesian A) is perhaps no% fading again as
successful 4ayesian models have only appeared for tiny statistical tas*s (such as finding
principal components probabilistically! and appear to be intractable for general perception and
decision ma*ing.
1
1. 5hat can the artificial intelligence be defined asC
2. 5hat does conventional artificial intelligence involveC
8. 5hat %as the artificial intelligence influenced by at the end of the RR-th centuryC
4. After %hat event more attention had been dra%n to%ards A)C
. 5hat algorithm that used neural net%or*s became more usedC
7. 5hat %as the first successful *no%ledge-based program in mathematicsC
:. 5hat does computational intelligence involveC
A. 5hat did 'oravec developC
9. 5hat does 4ayesian A) deal %ithC
10. 5hat %ere the 190Js mar*ed byC
1. ?uring the 1990s and 2000s A) has become very influenced by 4ayesian Theory
2. Ted 6hortliffe demonstrated the po%er of rule-based systems for *no%ledge representation.
8. The team of $rnst ?ic*manns built the first robot cars" driving up to mph.
4. A) divides into 8 schools /onventional A)" /omputational )ntelligence and 6elf-learning )ntelligence.
. The 190s %ere a period of %ea* efforts in A).
7. $arly in the 19-th century" >en_ ?escartes envisioned the bodies of animals.
:. 4abbage and ;ovelace %or*ed on programmable mechanical calculating machines.
A. F3EA) stands for Food 3bviously Eashioned Artificial )ntelligence.
9. A chess-playing program %as %ritten by ?ietrich (rin&.
10. The aim of A) is to develop a computer that could reason for itself.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. Artificial )ntelligence, 2. /omputational )ntelligence, 8. F3EA), 4. $mpirical, , /alculating
machine, 7. 9umanoid, :. 6cheduling, A. 4inary system, 9. >obot, 10. Autonomously.
2.. (atch the words with their definitions
1. to reason, 2. a reason, 8. machine, 4. iterative, . algorithm, 7. research, :. data-mining, A.
approach, 9. program, 10. diagnosis, 11. therapy.

A. a set of %ell defined instructions to be follo%ed in accomplishing a certain tas*, 4. a motive
in doing something, /. a specific method in solving a problem, ?. to thin*, $. identification of a
disease" or of a mechanical=computational fault, E. sorting through data to identify patterns and
establish relationships, F. a device designed to help humans in performing specific tas*s, 9.
series of coded instructions for a computer, ). characteri&ed by or involving repetition"
recurrence" reiteration" or repetitiousness, B. non-surgical treatment of disease or disability, M.
systematic investigation and study of materials" sources" etc." in order to establish facts and reach
conclusions.
2.* %ill in the gaps with the most corresponding words. +se the words from 2.1 and 2..
1. The IIIIIIIIIIIII can %or* IIIIIIIIIIIII because it is provided a high-level A) system.
2. 5hat is the IIIIIIIIIIIIII of your misbehaviourC 8. The program can not be e#ecuted
because the instructions of the IIIIIIIIIIIIII are not in the correct se@uence. . The patient
needs an intensive IIIIIIIIIII in order to be healed. 7. The program should IIIIIIIIIIIII
the system in order to identify the faults. :. The aim of IIIIIIIIIIIIII is to provide machines
%ith reasoning. A. The IIIIIIIIIIIII is made up of 0s and 1s. 9. The field of a physicistJs
17
IIIIIIIIIIIII is physics. 10. Lou have used a %rong IIIIIIIIIIIII in solving the problem"
try another one. 11. Theories need IIIIIIIIIIIIII data in order to be proven.
2., Retain these words and expressions and try to use them more frequently.
1- roughly (adv.) ] appro#imately, 3. neat (adj.) ] brief" clear" and pointed, ,- pattern (n) ]
repeated decorative design on %allpaper" cloth" etc. 2 regular or logical form" order" etc.
(behaviour pattern!. 8 model" design" or instructions for ma*ing something (*nitting pattern!. 4
e#cellent e#ample" model (pattern of elegance!. <- prototype (n) - 1 original as a pattern for
imitations" improved forms" representations" etc. 2 trial model or preliminary version of a
vehicle" machine" etc.
2.- %ill in the blank spaces with the corresponding word. .hoose from 2.,.
1. The lessons of this teacher are IIIIIIIIIII the same" he uses the same lessonIIIIIIIIII.
2. /lara has sho%n us a IIIIIIIIIII e#ample of good behaviour. 8. IIIIIIIIIIII ) can say
that the draft is ready. 4. The device is not in mass production it is a IIIIIIIIIIIIIII.
2.8 &i'e the term for the definition.
1. The ability of reasoning that does not belong to a living being. 2. A system of calculation
based on t%o digits. 8. A scientific assertion that needs to be proven. 4. ?irection of ho% the
things %or* or should %or*. . 6oft%are that is used for specific purposes. 7. A machine or
living being that loo* li*e humans. :. >elated to practical research or e#perience.
III 4peaing

.2 0iscuss with your partners the prospecti'e of artificial intelligence.
I' +riting
*.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: .an artificial intelligence o'ercome the human
intelligence9
Lesson , Ro(ots
I Reading
1.1 Read and translate the text below
RO2OT
A ro(ot is an electro-mechanical or bio-mechanical device or group of devices that can perform
autonomous or preprogrammed tas*s. A telerobot may act under the direct control of a human"
such as the robotic arm on a space shuttle" or autonomously under the control of a programmed
computer. >obots may be used to perform tas*s that are too dangerous or difficult for humans"
such as radioactive %aste clean-up" or may be used to automate mindless repetitive tas*s that
should be performed %ith more precision by a robot than by a human" such as automobile
production.
>obots may be controlled directly by a human" such as remotely-controlled bomb-disposal
robots and robotic arms, or may act according to their o%n decision ma*ing ability" provided by
artificial intelligence. 9o%ever" the ma2ority of robots fall in-bet%een these e#tremes" being
controlled by pre-programmed computers.
The %ord +robot+ is also used in a general sense to mean any machine that mimics the actions of
a human (biomimicry!" in the physical sense or in the mental sense. )t comes from the 6lavic
1:
%ord robota" labour or %or*. The %ord robot first appeared in /&ech %riter Marel aape*.s
science fiction play >.<.>. (>ossum.s <niversal >obots! in 1921" and according to aape*" %as
coined by the author.s brother" painter Bosef aape*. The %ord %as brought into popular 5estern
use by famous science fiction %riter )saac Asimov.
Contemporary uses
>obots are gro%ing in comple#ity and their use in industry is becoming more %idespread. The
main use of robots has so far been in the automation of mass production industries" %here the
same" definable tas*s must be performed repeatedly in e#actly the same fashion. /ar production
is the primary e#ample of the employment of large and comple# robots for producing goods.
>obots are used in that process for the painting" and assembly of the cars. >obots are good for
such tas*s because the tas*s can be accurately defined and must be performed the same every
time" %ith little need for feedbac* to control the e#act process being performed. )ndustrial robots
can be manufactured in a %ide range of si&es and so can handle more tas*s re@uiring heavy
lifting than a human could.
They are also useful in environments %hich are unpleasant or dangerous for humans to %or* in"
for e#ample bomb disposal" %or* in space (eg. /anadarm2! or under%ater" in mining" and for the
cleaning of to#ic %aste. >obots are also used for patrolling these to#ic areas" robots e@uipped for
this 2ob are e.g. the >obo%atch 3E>3" and >obo%atch '36>3.
3ften this is referred to as the +Three ?.s1 ?ull" ?irty and ?angerous+ %or*. 9undreds of bomb
disposal robots such as the i>obot (ac*bot and the Eoster-'iller TA;3O are being used in )ra@
and Afghanistan by the <.6. military to defuse roadside bombs" or improvised e#plosive devices
()$?s! in an activity *no%n as $#plosive 3rdinance ?isposal ($3?!.
Automated Fuided Qehicles (AFQs! are movable robots that are used in large facilities such as
%arehouses hospitals and container ports" for the movement of goods" or even for safety and
security patrols. 6uch vehicles follo% %ires" mar*ers or laser-guidance to navigate around the
location and can be programmed to move bet%een places to deliver goods or patrol a certain
area. Top manufacturers include $gemin" Transbotics" E'/ and Bervis 4 5ebb ma*es AFQ
+brains+ used in freely moving autonomous vehicles that do not re@uire fi#ed paths as earlier
AFQs have done.
3ne robot being used in the <nited 6tates is the Tug robot by Aethon )nc" an automated delivery
system for hospitals. This robot travels around hospitals to deliver medical supplies" medication"
food trays" or 2ust about anything to nursing stations. 3nce it is finished it goes bac* to its
charging station and %aits for its ne#t tas*.
?omestic robots are no% available that perform simple tas*s such as vacuum cleaning and grass
cutting. 4y the end of 2004 over 1"000"000 vacuum cleaner units had been sold. $#amples of
these domestic robots are the 6cooba and >oomba robots from i>obot /orporation" Eriendly
>obotics. >obomo%er" $lectrolu#.s Automo%er" and 6amsung.
1. 5hatJs the tas* of Tug robotC
2. 5hat do 8 ?s refer toC
8. 4y %hom %as the %ord GrobotH brought into %estern usageC
4. 9o% many vacuum cleaners had been sold by 2004C
. 5hat does the abbreviation AFQ stand forC
7. 5hat are robots useful forC
:. 9o% are robots controlledC
1A
A. 5hat is biomimicryC
9. 5ho invented the %ord robotC
10. Five e#amples of domestic robots.
1. ?omestic robots are no% available that perform simple tas*s such as deep mining.
2. A telerobot may act under the self control.
8. >obots are useful in environments %hich are unpleasant or dangerous for humans to %or* in.
4. >obots are gro%ing in comple#ity and their use in industry is becoming more e#pensive.
. +>obot+ is also used to mean any machine that mimics the actions of another robot.
7. /anadarm2 %or*s in space.
:. i>obot corporation produces chemicals.
A. Aethon )nc. issued the Tug robot.
9. )saac Asimov is a science-fiction %riter.
10. >obo%atch 3E>3 is a space robot.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. >obot. 2. 'imicry. 8. 4iomimicry. 4. Telerobot. . 'achine. 7. /harging station. :. ;aser-
guidance. A. >emote control. 9. Autonomous. 10. >obotic arms.
2.2 (ake)up sentences with theterms from 2.1
2. (atch the words with their definition
1. $mployment. 2. To patrol. 8. To deliver. 4. Qacuum cleaner. . 'ining. 7. Qehicle. :. 5aste.
A. Eeedbac*. 9. Tas*. 10. 5ire.
A. A metal dra%n out into a thread or thin fle#ible rod. 4. A distribute (letters" goods" etc.! to
their destination(s!. /. $mploying or being employed. 2 (erson.s trade or profession. ?. (iece of
%or* to be done. $. Act of %al*ing or travelling around an area" esp. regularly" for security or
supervision. E. 1 (ublic response to an event" e#periment" etc. 2 $lectronics a return of a fraction
of an output signal to the input. b signal so returned. F. 'achine for removing dust by suction 9.
conveyance used on land or in space. ). 6uperfluous, no longer needed. B. ?igging into the
$arthJs surface in order to find minerals.

19
UNIT III Computer 4torage
Lesson 1 Computer 4torage
I Reading
COMPUTER 4TOR"7E
Computer storage" computer memory" and often casually memory refer to computer
components" devices and recording media that retain data for some interval of time. /omputer
storage provides one of the core functions of the modern computer" that of information retention.
)t is one of the fundamental components of all modern computers" and coupled %ith a central
processing unit (/(<!" implements the basic Qon Oeumann computer model used since the
1940s.
)n contemporary usage" memory usually refers to a form of solid state storage *no%n as random
access memory (>A'! and sometimes other forms of fast but temporary storage. 6imilarly"
storage more commonly refers to mass storage - optical discs" forms of magnetic storage li*e
hard dis*s" and other types of storage %hich are slo%er than >A'" but of a more permanent
nature. These contemporary distinctions are helpful" because they are also fundamental to the
architecture of computers in general. As %ell" they reflect an important and significant technical
difference bet%een memory and mass storage devices" %hich has been blurred by the historical
usage of the terms +main storage+ (and sometimes +primary storage+! for random access
memory" and +secondary storage+ for mass storage devices. This is e#plained in the follo%ing
sections" in %hich the traditional +storage+ terms are used as sub-headings for convenience.
Primary storage
Primary storage is directly connected to the central processing unit of the computer. )t must be
present for the /(< to function correctly" 2ust as in a biological analogy the lungs must be
present (for o#ygen storage! for the heart to function (to pump and o#ygenate the blood!. As
sho%n in the diagram" primary storage typically consists of three *inds of storage1
Cac#e memory is a special type of internal memory used by many central processing units to
increase their performance or +throughput+. 6ome of the information in the main memory is
duplicated in the cache memory" %hich is slightly slo%er but of much greater capacity than the
processor registers" and faster but much smaller than main memory. 'ulti-level cache memory is
also commonly used - +primary cache+ being smallest" fastest and closest to the processing
device, +secondary cache+ being larger and slo%er" but still faster and much smaller than main
memory.
Main memory contains the programs that are currently being run and the data the programs are
operating on. )n modern computers" the main memory is the electronic solid-state random access
memory. )t is directly connected to the /(< via a +memory bus+ (sho%n in the diagram! and a
+data bus+. The arithmetic and logic unit can very @uic*ly transfer information bet%een a
processor register and locations in main storage" also *no%n as a +memory addresses+. The
memory bus is also called an address bus or front side bus and both busses are high-speed digital
+superhigh%ays+. Access methods and speed are t%o of the fundamental technical differences
bet%een memory and mass storage devices. (Oote that all memory si&es and storage capacities
sho%n in the diagram %ill inevitably be e#ceeded %ith advances in technology over time.!
4econdary and off)!ine storage
4econdary storage re@uires the computer to use its input=output channels to access the
information" and is used for long-term storage of persistent information. 9o%ever most computer
operating systems also use secondary storage devices as virtual memory - to artificially increase
20
the apparent amount of main memory in the computer. 6econdary storage is also *no%n as +mass
storage+" as sho%n in the diagram above. 6econdary or mass storage is typically of much greater
capacity than primary storage (main memory!" but it is also much slo%er. )n modern computers"
hard dis*s are usually used for mass storage. The time ta*en to access a given byte of
information stored on a hard dis* is typically a fe% thousandths of a second" or milliseconds. 4y
contrast" the time ta*en to access a given byte of information stored in random access memory is
measured in thousand-millionths of a second" or nanoseconds. This illustrates the very
significant speed difference %hich distinguishes solid-state memory from rotating magnetic
storage devices1 hard dis*s are typically about a million times slo%er than memory. >otating
optical storage devices (such as /? and ?Q? drives! are typically even slo%er than hard dis*s"
although their access speeds are li*ely to improve %ith advances in technology. Therefore" the
use of virtual memory" %hich is millions of times slo%er than +real+ memory" significantly
degrades the performance of any computer. Qirtual memory is implemented by many operating
systems using terms li*e +cache file+. The main historical advantage of virtual memory %as that
it %as much less e#pensive than real memory. That advantage is less relevant today" yet
surprisingly most operating systems continue to implement it" despite the significant
performance penalties.
Off)!ine storage is a system %here the storage medium can be easily removed from the storage
device. 3ff-line storage is used for data transfer and archival purposes. )n modern computers"
compact discs" ?Q?s" memory cards" flash memory devices including +<64 drives+" floppy
dis*s" bip dis*s and magnetic tapes are commonly used for off-line mass storage purposes. +9ot-
pluggable+ <64 hard dis*s are also available.
1.2 Answer the following questions.
1. 5hat is the main function of the computer storageC
2. 5hat is the contemporary form of solid state storageC
8. 5hat are the differences bet%een memory and mass storage devicesC
4. 9o% can the primary storage be categori&edC
. 5hat is the main function of /ache memoryC
7. 5hat is the special type of internal memory used by central processing to increase its
performanceC
:. 5hat does the main memory containC
A. 5hat is the difference bet%een primary and secondary storageC
9. 5hy are the hard discs million times slo%er than memoryC
10. 5ith %hat purpose is off-line storage usedC
1. !tate "true$ or "false$.
1. 'emory and mass storage devices are identical.
2. 9ard discs are usually for mass storage.
8. /(< can function %ithout primary storage.
4. (rimary storage is directly connected to the central processing.
. 6econdary storage is used for a long-term storage.
2.1 &i'e definitions to the words
/(<" >A'" 6econdary 6torage" 3ff-line 6torage" (rimary 'emory" /ache 'emory" 'ain
'emory" Access" 9ard disc" 3ptical disc" <64
Qirtual
2.2 (ake up sentences with terms from 2.1
21
1- 4torage= 3- 0e8ice= ,- Memory= <- "rc#itecture= >- t#roug#put-
a! /omputer hard%are that is designed for a specific function
b! Also called R"M main store. a part of a computer in %hich information is stored for
immediate use by the central processing unit
c! the act or process of storing information in a computer memory or on a magnetic tape" dis*"
etc.
d! The overall design or structure of a computer system" including the hard%are and the soft%are
re@uired to run it" especially the internal structure of the microprocessor.
e! The @uantity of ra% material or information processed or communicated in a given period" esp
by a computer
2.* Remember and use
To increase (v! - To become greater or larger" to multiply.
To provide(v! - To ma*e available, afford
>andom access - another name for direct access
memory address - an identifier for a memory location" at %hich a computer program or a
hard%are device can store a piece of data for later retrieval.
Lesson 3 C0 ROM
I Reading
C0 ROM
C0)ROM (an abbreviation +/ompact ?isc read-only memory+ or +/ompact ?isc read-only
media+! is a /ompact ?isc that contains data accessible by a computer. +#i!e the /ompact ?isc
format %as originally designed for music storage and playbac*" the format %as later adapted to
hold any form of binary data. /?->3's are popularly used to distribute computer soft%are"
including games and multimedia applications" t#oug# any data can be stored (up to the capacity
limit of a disc!. 6ome /?s hold both computer data and audio %ith the latter capable of being
played on a /? player" %hilst data (such as soft%are or digital video! is only usable on a
computer.
/?->3' discs are identical in appearance to audio /?s" and data is stored and retrieved in a
very similar manner (only differing from audio /?s in the standards used to store the data!.
?iscs are made from a 1.2 mm thic* disc of polycarbonate plastic" %ith a thin layer of aluminium
to ma*e a reflective surface. The most common si&e of /?->3' disc is 120 mm in diameter"
though the smaller 'ini /? standard %ith an A0 mm diameter" as %ell as numerous non-
standard si&es and shapes (e.g. business card-si&ed media! are also available.
?ata is stored on the disc as a series of microscopic indentations (+pits+" %ith the gaps bet%een
them referred to as +lands+!. A laser is shone onto the reflective surface of the disc to read the
pattern of pits and !ands. 4ecause the depth of the pits is appro#imately one-@uarter to one-si#th
of the %avelength of the laser light used to read the disc" the reflected beam.s phase is shifted in
relation to the incoming beam" causing destructive interference and reducing the reflected beam.s
intensity. This pattern of changing intensity of the reflected beam is converted into binary data.
(re-pressed /?->3's are mass-produced by a process of stamping" %here a glass master disc is
created and used to ma*e +stampers+" %hich in turn are used to manufacture multiple copies of
the final disc %ith the pits already present. Recorda(!e (/?->! and rewrita(!e (/?->5! discs
22
are manufactured by a similar method" but the data is recorded on them by a laser changing the
properties of a dye or phase change material in a process that is often referred to as +burning+.
A standard 120 mm 20g /?->3' holds 70 or :00 '4 of data. To put this storage capacity
into conte#t" the average novel contains 70"000 %ords. Assume that average %ord length is 10
letters and that each letter occupies one byte. A novel therefore might occupy 700"000 bytes (700
*4" %ithout layout information!. 3ne /? can therefore contain over 1"000 novels. )f each novel
occupies at least one centimeter of boo*shelf space" then one /? can contain the e@uivalent of
over ten meters of boo*shelf. 9o%ever" te#tual data can be compressed by more than a factor of
ten" using compression algorithms" so a /?->3' can accommodate at least 100 meters of
boo*shelf space. )n comparison a single layer ?Q? contains 4.4 F4 of data" nearly : times the
amount of a /?->3'. /? capacities are al%ays given in binary units" although decimal 6
prefi#es are usually used1 A +:00 '4+ /? has a nominal capacity of about :00 '4. A ?Q?
capacities on the other hand are given in decimal units1 A +4.: F4+ ?Q? has a nominal capacity
of about 4.8A F4.
1.2 Answer the following questions
1. 5hat is the /?->3'C
2. 5hat does the /?->3' containC
8. 5hat are the discs made ofC
4. 5hy is the aluminum used in /? productionC
. 5hat is the common si&e of /?->3' disc ('ini /?!C
7. 5hat happens %hen a laser is shone onto the reflective surface of the discC
:. 9o% many '4 of data does a standard /?->3' holdC
A. 5hat is a difference bet%een /?-> and /?->5C
1. !tate true or false
1. All /?s can hold both computer data and audio %ith the latter capable of being played on
a /? player
2. ?ata (such as soft%are or digital video! is usable on /?-player
8. /?->3' discs are identical in appearance to audio /?s
4. >ecordable (/?->! and re%ritable (/?->5! discs are manufactured by different
methods.
. 3ne letter occupies 2 bytes.
/?->3'" ?Q?" /?->" /?->5" data" stampers" byte (*4" '4" F4!" soft%are.
2.2 (ake up sentences with the terms from 2.1
2.%ill in: on, onto, with, for, from, to, of.
1. /? format %as designed III music storage.
2. /?->3's are used III distribute computer soft%are.
8. ?iscs are made III a polycarbonate plastic III a thin layer of aluminum.
4. ?ata is stored III the disc.
. A laser is shone III the reflective surface of the disc.
7. ?ata on the disc is stored as a series III microscopic indentations.
2.* retain these expressions and try to use them more often
1.)n comparison - The act of comparing or the process of being compared. 2. )n turn - in proper
order or se@uence, +tal*ed to each child in turn+, +the stable became in turn a chapel and then a
28
movie theater+" successively. 8. The latter - 4eing the second of t%o persons or things
mentioned. 4. To put into conte#t 0 to compare %ith. . As %ell as 0 prep. in addition to
Lesson , 9!oppy 0is
I Reading
9!oppy 0is
A floppy dis* is a data storage device that is composed of a dis* of thin" fle#ible (+floppy+!
magnetic storage medium encased in a s@uare or rectangular plastic shell. Eloppy dis*s are read
and %ritten by a f!oppy dis dri8e or 900" the latter initialism not to be confused %ith +fi#ed
dis* drive+" %hich is an old )4' term for a hard dis* drive.
Eloppy dis*s" also *no%n as f!oppies or disettes (a name chosen in order to be similar to the
%ord +cassette+!" %ere ubi@uitous in the 19A0s and 1990s" being used on home and personal
computer (+(/+! platforms such as the Apple ))" 'acintosh" and )4' (/ to distribute soft%are"
transfer data bet%een computers" etc. 4efore the populari&ation of the hard drive for (/s" floppy
dis*s %ere typically used to store a computer.s operating system (36!" application soft%are" and
other data. 'any home computers had their primary 36 *ernels stored permanently in on-board
>3' chips" but stored the dis* operating system on a floppy" %hether it be a proprietary system"
/(='" or" later" ?36. 6ince the floppy drive %as the primary means of storing programs" it %as
typically designated as the .A1. drive. The second floppy drive %as the .41. drive. And those %ith
the lu#ury of a hard drive %ere designated the ./1. drive" a convention that remains %ith us today
long after the decline of the floppy dis*.s utility.
4y the early 1990s" the increasing si&e of soft%are meant that many programs %ere distributed
on sets of floppies. To%ard the end of the 1990s" soft%are distribution gradually s%itched to /?-
>3'" and higher-density bac*up formats %ere introduced (e.g. the )omega bip dis*!. 5ith the
arrival of mass )nternet access" cheap $thernet and <64 flash drive" the floppy %as no longer
necessary for data transfer either" and the floppy dis* %as essentially superseded. 'ass bac*ups
%ere no% made to high capacity tape drives such as ?AT or streamers" or %ritten to /?s or
?Q?s. 3ne financially unsuccessful attempt in the late 1990s to continue the floppy %as the
6uper?is* (;6-120!" %ith a capacity of 120 '4 (actually 120.8: '4!" %hile the drive %as
bac*%ard compatible %ith standard 8c-inch floppies.
Oonetheless" manufacturers %ere reluctant to remove the floppy drive from their (/s" for
bac*%ard compatibility" and because many companies. )T departments appreciated a built-in file
transfer mechanism that al%ays %or*ed and re@uired no device driver to operate properly. Apple
)nc. %as the first mass-mar*et computer manufacturer to drop the floppy drive from a computer
model altogether %ith the release of their i'ac model in 199A" and ?el made the floppy drive
optional in some models starting in 2008. To date" ho%ever" these moves have still not mar*ed
the end of the floppy dis* as a mainstream means of data storage and e#change.
$#ternal <64-based floppy dis* drives are available for computers %ithout floppy drives" and
they %or* on any machine that supports <64.
Eloppy dis* si&es are almost universally referred to in imperial measurements" even in countries
%here metric is the standard" and even %hen the si&e is in fact defined in metric (for instance the
8c-inch floppy %hich is actually 9 cm!. Eormatted capacities are generally set in terms of binary
*ilobytes (as 1 sector is generally 12 bytes!. 9o%ever" recent si&es of floppy are often referred
24
to in a strange hybrid unit" i.e. a +1.44 megabyte+ floppy is in fact 1.44d1000d1024 bytes (%hich
is 1.41 '4 or 1.4: million bytes!" not 1.44 '4 (1.44d1024d1024 bytes!" nor 1.44 million bytes
(1.44d1000d1000 bytes!.
1. 5hat is a floppy dis*C
2. 5hy %as the floppy dis* essentially supersededC
8. 9o% are generally capacitates set formattedC
4. Eor 5hat %ere the floppy dis*s" also *no%n as floppies or dis*ettes usedC
. 5hen did the soft%are distribution gradually s%itch to /?->3'C
7. )n spite of %hat local facts the floppy dis* si&es are almost universally referred to in
imperial measurementsC
:. 5hy %as the floppy drive typically designated as the .A1. driveC
A. 5hat %as the one financially unsuccessful attempt in the late 1990s to continue the
floppyC
9. 5hy %ere the manufacturers reluctant to remove the floppy drive from their (/sC
10. Tell the teacher about the specificity of the e#ternal <64-based floppy dis* drives.
1. Eloppy dis*s are read and %ritten by a H00.
2. 3ne financially the most successful attempt in the late 1990s to continue the floppy %as
the 6uper?is* (;6-120!" %ith a capacity of 120 '4 (actually 120.8: '4!.
8. 'any home computers had their primary 36 *ernels stored permanently in on-board
>3' chips" but stored the dis* operating system on a floppy" %hether it be a proprietary
system" /(='" or" later" ?36.
4. The second floppy drive %as the .$1. drive.
. $#ternal <64-based floppy dis* drives are available for computers %ithout floppy drives"
and they %or* on any machine that supports <64.
II 'oca(u!ary
1.Milobyte 2.Eloppy 8./?->3' 4. E?? .(/ 7.36 :.?36 A.$thernet 9.<64
2.2(ake)up sentences with the terms from 2.1
1& Mega(yte
3& 4oftware
,& Uti!ity software
<& "pp!ication software
>& Computing p!atform
A! a *ind of system soft%are designed to
help analy&e" configure" optimi&e and
maintain the computer
4! a frame%or* on %hich applications may
be run
/! /omputer soft%are designed to help the
user to perform singular or multiple related
specific tas*s
2
?! a multiple of the unit byte for digital
information storage or transmission %ith
t%o different values depending on conte#t
$! a general term primarily used for digitally
stored data such as computer programs and
other *inds of information read and %ritten
by computers
1! IIIIII is also sometimes used in a more narro% sense" meaning application soft%are
only.
2! ?epending on the %or* for %hich it %as designed" an IIIIII can manipulate te#t"
numbers" graphics" or a combination of these elements.
8! IIIIII %as originally based on the idea of computers communicating over a shared
coa#ial cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium.
4! 3ne of the chief usability problems of the IIIIII dis* is its vulnerability.
! ?ue to this focus" IIIIII are often rather technical and targeted at people %ith an
advanced level of computer *no%ledge.
7! A IIIIII might be simply defined as .a place to launch soft%are..
:! IIIIII are popularly used to distribute computer soft%are" including games and
multimedia applications" though any data can be stored (up to the capacity limit of a disc!.
A! The term IIIIII is commonly used to mean either 10002 bytes or 10242 bytes.
"ttempt ) the action of trying at something.
"8ai!a(!e ) capable of being used for the accomplishment of a purpose" valid" having sufficient
po%er" force" or efficacy to achieve the purpose, availing" effective.
In order to ) as a means of achieving the specified aim, to.
Re!uctant - Oot %anting to ta*e some action, hesitant, uncertain.
Nonet#e!ess ) not comparable" despite that" ho%ever.
Essentia!!y ) in a fundamental or basic %ay, in essence.
1! 9is analysis is IIIIII correct.
2! 5e have an IIIII candidate.
8! 6he stood IIIIII see over the cro%d.
4! IIIIII she %as very far advanced in life" and her relations %ith Beffrey Aspern had occurred
in her early %omanhood.
! The revolutionaries made several IIIIII on the monarch.s life.
7! 6he %as IIIIII to lend him the money.
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /T#e progress can not (e stopped?1
Lesson < U42
I Reading
UNI'ER4"L 4ERI"L 2U4
Uni8ersa! 4eria! 2us (U42! is a serial bus standard to interface devices. )t %as originally
designed for computers" but its popularity has prompted it to also become commonplace on
video game consoles" (?As" portable ?Q? and media players" cell phones, and even devices
such as televisions" home stereo e@uipment (e.g." digital audio players!" car stereos and portable
memory devices.
27
The <niversal 6erial 4us (<64! %as devised as a ma2or component in the transition to%ards a
legacy-free (/. The intention %as to let go of all older serial and parallel ports on personal
computers since these %ere not properly standardi&ed and re@uired a multitude of device drivers
to be developed and maintained.
<64 %as designed to allo% peripherals to be connected %ithout the need to plug e#pansion cards
into the computer.s )6A" $)6A" or (/) bus" and to improve plug-and-play capabilities by
allo%ing devices to be hot-s%apped (connected or disconnected %ithout po%ering do%n or
rebooting the computer!. 5hen a device is first connected" the host enumerates and recogni&es it"
and loads the device driver it needs.
<64 can connect peripherals such as mouse devices" *eyboards" game pads and 2oystic*s"
scanners" digital cameras" printers" e#ternal storage" net%or*ing components" etc. Eor many
devices such as scanners and digital cameras" <64 has become the standard connection method.
<64 is also used e#tensively to connect non-net%or*ed printers" replacing the parallel ports that
had previously been in %ide use, <64 simplifies connecting several printers to one computer. As
of 2004 there %ere about 1 billion <64 devices in the %orld. As of 200" the only large classes
of peripherals that cannot use <64 are high data rate devices such as displays and monitors" and
high-@uality digital video components. <64 cannot provide the data rates necessary for these
devices.
<64 implements connections to storage devices using a set of standards called the &)' mass+
storage device class (referred to as '6/ or <'6!. This %as initially intended for traditional
magnetic and optical drives" but has been e#tended to support a %ide variety of devices. <64 is
not intended to be a primary bus for a computer.s internal storage1 buses such as ATA ()?$!"
6erial ATA (6ATA!" and 6/6) fulfill that role.
9o%ever" <64 has one important advantage in ma*ing it possible to install and remove devices
%ithout opening the computer case" ma*ing it useful for e#ternal drives. Today a number of
manufacturers offer e#ternal portable <64 hard drives" or empty enclosures for drives" that offer
performance comparable to internal drives. These e#ternal drives usually contain a translating
device that interfaces a drive of conventional technology ()?$" ATA" 6ATA" ATA()" or even
6/6)! to a <64 port. Eunctionally" the drive appears to the user 2ust li*e another internal drive.
3ther competing standards that allo% for e#ternal connectivity are e6ATA and Eire%ire.
1. 5hat *ind of peripherals can <64 connectC
2. 5hat *ind of advantage ma*es <64 useful for e#ternal drivesC
8. Oame some competing standards that allo% for e#ternal connectivity.
4. 5hat %as the reason to let go of all older serial and parallel ports on personal computers
%ith help of <64C
. 5hat happens %ith a device after it is first connectedC
7. 5hat does the <64 use to implement connections to storage devicesC
:. 5hat is also e#tensively used to connect non-net%or*ed printers" replacing the parallel
ports that had previously been in %ide useC
A. 9o% many %ere the <64 devices of 2004 there in the %orldC
9. /an the <64 provide the data rates necessary for displays and monitors" and high-@uality
digital video componentsC
10. 5hat %as devised as a ma2or component in the transition to%ards a legacy-free (/C
1. Eor many devices such as scanners and digital cameras" <64 has become the standard
connection method.
2. The E?? %as devised as a ma2or component in the transition to%ards a legacy-free (/.
8. <64 implements connections to delete devices using a set of standards called the &)'
mass+storage device class.
2:
4. <64 %asnJt designed to allo% peripherals to be connected %ithout the need to plug
e#pansion cards into the computer.s )6A" $)6A" or (/) bus.
. 5hen a device is first connected" the host enumerates and recogni&es it" and loads the
device driver it needs.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1&i'e definitions to the following words.
1. <64 2.Meyboard 8.(rinter 4.?Q? .Boystic* 7.(eripheral :.(ort A./onsole 9.)nterface
10.(?A
2.(atch the words with their definitions
1& 4torage de8ice
3& Capa(i!ity
,& Networ
<& Tec#no!ogy
>& Optica! dri8e
A! the ability to e#ecute a specified course of
action.
4! device for recording (storing! information
(data!.
/! a dis* drive that uses laser light or
electromagnetic %aves.
?! collection of computers and devices
connected by communications channels.
$! the usage and *no%ledge of tools"
techni@ues" and crafts" or is systems or
methods of organi&ation
1! A computer IIIIII allo%s sharing of resources and information among devices connected to
it.
2! )n 1997" Oo*ia introduced the first mobile phone %ith full IIIIII functionality.
8! A physical IIIIII is the interconnection bet%een t%o items of hard%are.
4! IIIIII e#pands the host.s capabilities" but does not form part of the core computer
architecture.
! IIIII are an integral part of stand-alone consumer appliances such as /? players" ?Q?
players and ?Q? recorders.
7! )n normal usage" the IIIIII is used to type te#t and numbers into a %ord processor" te#t
editor or other program.
:! A IIIIII IIIIII may hold information" process information" or both.
A! The basic types of IIIIII (12 cm diameter" single-sided or homogeneous double-sided! are
referred to by a rough appro#imation of their capacity in gigabytes.
9! ;arge midrange systems" e.g. those from 6un 'icrosystems" 9e%lett-(ac*ard and )4'" still
use serial IIIIII.
10! The IIIIII has been the principal flight control in the coc*pit of many aircraft" particularly
military fast 2ets" %here center stic* or side-stic* location may be employed.
Howe8er ) nevertheless" nonetheless" even so" that said" in spite of this.
To impro8e ) to ma*e (something! better, to increase the value or productivity (of something!"
to become better.
To intend - to strain, ma*e tense, to be intent upon, mean, design, plan, purpose.
To enumerate ) To specify each member of a se@uence individually in incrementing order"
to determine the amount of.
To a!!ow ) to allot, to assign, to besto%, to concede, to admit, to permit, to suffer, to tolerate.
2A
Origina!!y ) as it %as in the beginning" in an independent or ne% %ay" initially.
1! IIIIIIIIIII the device %as designed for e#ternal use, after%ards it has become an internal
component.
2! (ainting the %ood%or* %ill IIIIIIIIII this house.
8! 9e IIIIIIIIII my faults 0 la&iness" vanity etc.
4! 5e IIIIIIIIII to leave in a month.
! 6mo*ing is IIIIIIIIIIII only in designated areas.
7! 9e told me not to s%im in cold %ater, IIIIIIIIII" ) did it.
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /T#e future inno8ations in computing
UNIT I' H"C@ER4
Lesson 1 Hacer Cu!ture
I Reading
H"C@ER CULTURE
The #acer cu!ture is the voluntary subculture established bet%een and around hac*ers. There
are t%o mainstream subcultures %ithin the larger hac*er subculture. $arly hac*er culture %as
highlighted in the boo* %ac,ers( %eroes of the "omputer -evolution by 6teven ;evy.
There e#ist t%o subcultures of hac*er culture1 The academic hac*er subculture developed in the
1970s among hac*ers %or*ing on early minicomputers in academic computer science
environments" especially at ')T. After 1979 it fused %ith the technical culture of the pioneers of
the )nternet" after 19A0 %ith the culture of <ni#" and after 19A: %ith elements of the early
microcomputer hobbyists. 6ince the mid-1990s" it has been largely coincident %ith %hat is no%
called the free soft%are movement.
"cademic #acing
These sorts of subcultures %ere commonly found at academic settings such as college campuses.
The ')T Artificial )ntelligence ;aboratory" the <niversity of /alifornia" 4er*eley and /arnegie
'ellon <niversity %ere particularly %ell-*no%n hotbeds of early hac*er culture. They evolved
in parallel" and largely unconsciously" until the )nternet and other developments such as the rise
of the free soft%are movement dre% together a critically large population and encouraged the
spread of a conscious" common" and systematic ethos. 6ymptomatic of this evolution %as an
increasing adoption of common slang and a shared vie% of history" similar to the %ay in %hich
other occupational groups have professionali&ed themselves but %ithout the formal
credentialling process characteristic of most professional groups.
The academic hac*er subculture is defined by shared %or* and play focused around central
artifacts. 6ome of these artifacts are very large, the )nternet itself" the 5orld 5ide 5eb" the
FO< pro2ect" and the ;inu# operating system are all hac*er creations" %or*s of %hich the
subculture considers itself primary custodian.
Ho((y and networ #acing
/ontrary to the academic hac*er subculture" hobby and net%or*ing hac*ers have no inherently
close connection to the academic %orld. They have a tendency to %or* anonymously and in
private. )t is common among them to use aliases for the purpose of concealing identity" rather
than revealing their real names. This practice is uncommon %ithin and even fro%ned upon by the
academic hac*er subculture. 'embers of the hobby and net%or* hac*ing scene are often being
stereotypically described as crac*ers by the academic hac*er subculture" yet see themselves as
hac*ers and even try include academic hac*ers in %hat they see as one %ider hac*er culture" a
vie% harshly re2ected by the academic hac*er subculture itself. )nstead of a hac*er0crac*er
29
dichotomy" they give more emphasis to a spectrum of different categories" such as %hite hat"
grey hat" blac* hat and script *iddie. )n contrast to the academic hac*ers" they usually reserve the
term crac*er to refer to blac* hat hac*ers" or more generally hac*ers %ith unla%ful intentions.
9ac*ers %ill stress good $nglish" and despite popular belief %on.t spea* in leet spea*
The subculture has given birth to %hat its members consider to be novel forms of art" most
notably A6/)) art. )t has also produced its o%n slang and various forms of unusual alphabet use"
for e#ample leetspea*. 4oth things are usually seen as an especially silly aspect by the academic
hac*er subculture. )n part due to this" the slangs of the t%o subcultures differ substantially.
(olitical attitude usually includes vie%s for freedom of information" freedom of speech" a right
for anonymity and most have a strong opposition against copyright" especially digital rights
management. 5riting programs and performing other activities to support these vie%s is referred
to as hac*tivism by the subculture. 6ome go as far as seeing illegal computer crac*ing ethically
2ustified for this goal, the most common form is %ebsite defacement.
1. 9o% and %hen %as the hac*er culture developedC
2. 9o% is the academic hac*er subculture definedC
8. 5ho are net%or* hac*ers and ho% do they %or*C
4. 5hy members of the hobby and net%or* hac*ing scene are often being stereotypically
described as crac*ersC
. 9o% are hac*ers categori&edC
7. 5ho has given birth to A6/)) artC
:. 9o% do you thin* %hy have subcultures created slangsC
A. 5hat is the difference bet%een academic and net%or* subcultureC
9. 5hich factors influenced the hac*tivismC
1. The net%or*ing hac*er subculture developed in the 1970s among hac*ers %or*ing on early
minicomputers in academic computer science environments
2. <;)' %as the first hotbeds of early hac*er culture.
8. The academic hac*er subculture is defined by shared %or* and play focused around central
artifacts.
4. 'embers of the hobby and net%or* hac*ing scene are often being stereotypically
described as academic hac*ing by the crac*ers .
. The subculture has given birth to %hat its members consider to be novel forms of art" most
notably (ascal art.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. 9ac*er
2. 9ac*er culture
8. Academic hac*ing
4. Oet%or* hac*ing
. subculture
7. )nternet
:. 5orld 5ide 5eb
A. slang
9. %ebsite
1- minicomputer

3- hac*tivism
,- culture
<- A6/))
80
>- hac*er0crac*er
a! art a graphic design
techni@ue that utili&es
computers for
presentation and
consists of pictures
pieced
b! person %ho ma*es unauthori&ed use of a computer" especially to
tamper %ith data on programs
c!the predominating attitudes and behavior that characteri&e the
functioning of a group or organi&ation
d!a digital computer of medium si&e that represents information by
numerical digits
e! the nonviolent use of illegal or legally ambiguous digital tools
1. 3ne of the more notorious e#amples of IIIIIIIIIIIII %as the modification of )ndonesian
%eb sites %ith appeals to +Eree $ast Timor+ in 199A by (ortuguese hac*ers. 2. IIIIIIIIII
terms are often only *no%n %ithin an ingroup. 8. IIIIIIIIIIIIIhas been called +the %ay of life
for an entire society.+ 4. A IIIIIIIIIIis a useful %ay to e#pand on traditional forms of
business. . 9eroes of the computer revolution. author 6tephen ;evy %rites about a group of
university student IIIIIIIIIIIII %hich use their o%n terms to conceal their %or*s. 7. 6ince
1990" the IIIIIIIIIIIIIIhas developed a rich range of symbols that serve as recognition
symbols and reinforce its group identity. :. 4efore communications bet%een computers and
computer users %as as net%or*ed as it is no%" there %ere multiple independent and parallel
hac*er IIIIIIIIIIII . A ;i*e other character representation computer codes"
IIIIIIIIIIIspecifies a correspondence bet%een digital bit patterns and the glyphs (i.e."
symbols! of a %ritten language. 9. ?igital $@uipment /orporation %as the leading
IIIIIIIIIIIIIImanufacturer" at one time the 2nd largest computer company after )4'. 10.
IIIIIIIIIIIII is allo%ing greater fle#ibility in %or*ing hours and location" especially %ith the
spread of unmetered high-speed connections and 5eb applications.
9a*tivism slang culture %ebsite ha*ers academic ha*er subculture ascii minicomputer internet
1. primary ) adj of first ran* or importance or value, not derived from or reducible to
something else, most important element
2. contrary to ) adj going counter to the facts Ssyn1 counterfactualT ,adv )n an opposite
direction or manner,
8. c!ose connection to ) an association or relationship ,reference or relation to something
else ,being near in relationship
4. instead of )prep.)n place of, )n substitution for" rather than.
. dic#otomy ) n." pl." -mies. ?ivision into t%o usually contradictory parts or opinions

7. as far as - conj. to the degree or e#tent that
1.6he %ore a dress IIIIIIIII slac*s. 2. )n computer science" more specifically programming
language engineering" the term IIIIIIIIII is used to denote fundamental dualities in a
language.s design.8 )t.s a good 2ob IIIIIIIIIIII it goes" but it may need more %or*. 4. There
are t%o IIIIIIIIII choices in life1 to accept conditions as they e#ist" or accept the
responsibility for changing them. . IIIIIIIIIIIII general belief" an artist is never ahead of his
time but most people are far behind theirs. 7.'y computer and yours are in IIIIIIIIIII main
server.
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic: " "omputers ma,e it easier to do a lot of things,
but most of the things they ma,e it easier to do don.t need to be done. $ "ndy Rooney
81
Lesson 3 Programmers
I Reading
PRO7R"MMER
A programmer or soft%are developer is someone %ho programs computers" that is" one %ho
%rites computer soft%are. The term computer programmer can refer to a specialist in one area of
computer programming or to a generalist %ho %rites code for many *inds of soft%are. 3ne %ho
practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be *no%n as a programmer
analyst" soft%are engineer" computer scientist" or soft%are analyst. A programmer.s primary
computer language (Bava" /DD" etc.! is often prefi#ed to the above titles" and those %ho %or* in a
%eb environment often prefi# their titles %ith web.
Those proficient in computer programming s*ills may become famous" though this regard is
normally limited to soft%are engineering circles. 'any of the most notable programmers are
often labeled hac*ers. Ada ;ovelace is popularly credited as history.s first programmer. 6he %as
the first to e#press an algorithm intended for implementation on a computer" /harles 4abbage.s
analytical engine" in 3ctober 1A42.
/omputer programmers %rite" test" and maintain the detailed instructions" called computer
programs" that computers must follo% to perform their functions. (rogrammers also conceive"
design" and test logical structures for solving problems by computer. 'any technical innovations
in programming - advanced computing technologies and sophisticated ne% languages and
programming tools - have redefined the role of a programmer and elevated much of the
programming %or* done today. Bob titles and descriptions may vary" depending on the
organi&ation.
(rogrammers %or* in many settings" including corporate )T departments" big soft%are
companies" and small service firms. 'any professional programmers also %or* for consulting
companies at client. sites as contractors. ;icensing is not typically re@uired to %or* as a
programmer" although professional certifications are commonly held by programmers.
(rogramming is %idely considered a profession (although some authorities disagree on the
grounds that only careers %ith legal licensing re@uirements count as a profession!.
(rogrammers. %or* varies %idely depending on the type of business they are %riting programs
for. Eor e#ample" the instructions involved in updating financial records are very different from
those re@uired to duplicate conditions on an aircraft for pilots training in a flight simulator.
Although simple programs can be %ritten in a fe% hours" programs that use comple#
mathematical formulas %hose solutions can only be appro#imated or that dra% data from many
e#isting systems may re@uire more than a year of %or*. )n most cases" several programmers
%or* together as a team under a senior programmerJs supervision.
(rogrammers %rite programs according to the specifications determined primarily by more
senior programmers and by systems analysts. After the design process is complete" it is the 2ob of
the programmer to convert that design into a logical series of instructions that the computer can
follo%. The programmer codes these instructions in one of many programming languages.
?ifferent programming languages are used depending on the purpose of the program. /343;"
for e#ample" is commonly used for business applications %hich are run on mainframe and
midrange computers" %hereas E3>T>AO is used in science and engineering. /DD is %idely
used for both scientific and business applications. B2$$ and (9( are popular programming
languages for 5eb programmers. (rogrammers generally *no% more than one programming
language and" because many languages are similar" they often can learn ne% languages relatively
easily.
1. 5ho is a programmerC
82
2. 9o% can %e understand that programmerJs %or* in a %eb environmentC
8. 5ho %as the first programmerC
4. 5hat *ind of %or* do programmers doC
. 5here can programmers %or*C
7. 5hy isnJt programming considered a professionC
:. 3n %hat does the programmers. %or* %idely dependC
A. 5hat programming languages are used by programmers for business" science or %ebC
9. 5hat is the difference bet%een hac*ers and programmersC
1. A programmer or soft%are developer is someone %ho produces and sells computers.
2. /omputer programmer is a specialist in one area of computer programming.
8. Ada ;ovelace is the %ife of the first programmer.
4. (rogrammers. %or* varies %idely depending on the type of business they are %riting
programs for.
. (rogrammers use 2ust one programming language.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. soft%are developer
2. %eb programmer
8. computer language
4. hac*er
. computer
7. /343;
:. E3>T>AO
A. programming tools
9. technologies
10. instructions
2.(atch the words with their definitions
1.area, 2.analyst, 8.engineer, 4.algorithm, .aplication soft%are
a!person %ho analy&es technical design and functional design for development of ne% soft%are in
computer science b! interest a se@uence of instructions to ma*e a program more
readable, a process used to ans%er a @uestion " in computers it is in binary code .
c!includes database programs" %ord processors" and spreadsheets. d!sphere of activity" e#perience"
study" e! person %ho is trained or professionally engaged in a branch
of engineering and s*illfully or shre%dly manages an enterprise.
2.*
2.: %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the words from 2.1 and 2.
1. IIIIIIIIIII conceive" design" and test logical structures for solving problems by computer.2. )
study the la% to e#tend my IIIIIIIIIIof activity . 8.'odern IIIIIIIIII are based on tiny
integrated circuits and are millions to billions of times more capable %hile occupying a fraction of
the space. 4. IIIIIIIIIIhave a tendency to %or* anonymously and in private. .6arah %as the top
accountant and IIIIIIIII at the ban*. 7.IIIIIIIIIIII %or* to develop economical and safe
solutions to practical problems" by applying mathematics and scientific *no%ledge %hile
considering technical constraints. :.Oo% %e can do more and more because %e have modern
IIIIIIIIIII. A.The IIIIIIIIIII of solving this problem is very difficult . 9. Eiguratively
spea*ing" IIIIIIIIIIIIII sits on top of systems soft%are because it is unable to run %ithout the
operating system and system utilities. 10 )f you donJt *no% to use the computer you must read the
IIIIIIIIIIIIIII .
1. to credit 0 vb. to bring honor or repute upon, to do credit to, to raise the estimation
88
2. redefined 0 vb. (tr.) to define (something! again or differently , give a ne% or different
definition to,
8. typically 0 adv. characteristic " specifically " distinctively
4. re@uired to 0 adj. to have need of, depend upon, imposed as a necessity, ma*e necessary
. %idely 0 adv. to a great degree, to or over a great e#tent or range
1.The Eederal Fovernment is e#ploiting public fear IIIIIIIIIIII the relationship bet%een the
rulers and the American people. 2. ) IIIIIIIIII you li*e a very responsible person . 8. )s
IIIIIIIIIIII for you to be late . 4.Lou are IIIIIIIIIIIII to complete a special form if you
%onJt %or* in our company . . 9er %or* is IIIIIIIIIIIII *no%n .
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. " #ll programmers are playwrights and all computers
are lousy actors. /
84
UNIT ' H"R0+"RE
Lesson 1 Computer Hardware
I Reading
COMPUTER H"R0+"RE
Computer #ardware is the physical part of a computer" including the digital circuitry" as
distinguished from the computer soft%are that e#ecutes %ithin the hard%are. The hard%are of a
computer is infre@uently changed" in comparison %ith soft%are and data" %hich are +soft+ in the sense
that they are readily created" modified or erased on the computer. Eirm%are is a special type of
soft%are that rarely" if ever" needs to be changed and so is stored on hard%are devices such as read-
only memory (>3'! %here it is not readily changed (and is therefore +firm+ rather than 2ust +soft+!.
'ost computer hard%are is not seen by normal users. )t is in embedded systems in automobiles"
micro%ave ovens" compact disc players" and other devices. (ersonal computers" the computer
hard%are familiar to most people" form only a small minority of computers (about 0.2P of all ne%
computers produced in 2008!.
Persona! computer #ardware
A typical personal computer consists of a case or chassis in des*top or to%er shape and the follo%ing
parts1 'otherboard or system board %ith slots for e#pansion cards and holding parts including1 /entral
processing unit (/(<!" >andom Access 'emory (>A'! - for program e#ecution and short term data
storage" so the computer does not have to ta*e the time to access the hard drive to find something.
'ore >A' can contribute to a faster (/. >A' is normally removable by being in slots on the
motherboard.
4asic )nput-3utput 6ystem (4)36! or $#tensible Eirm%are )nterface ($E)! in some ne%er computers
4uses1 (/)" (/)-$" <64" 9yperTransport" /6) (e#pected in 200A!" AF(.
(o%er supply - a case that holds a transformer" voltage control" and (usually! a cooling fan
6torage controllers of )?$" 6ATA" 6/6) or other type" that control hard dis*" floppy dis*" /?->3'
and other drives, the controllers sit directly on the motherboard (on-board! or on e#pansion cards
Qideo display controller that produces the output for the computer display
/omputer bus controllers (parallel" serial" <64" Eire5ire! to connect the computer to e#ternal
peripheral devices such as printers or scanners
6ome type of a removable media %riter1 /? - the most common type of removable media" cheap but
fragile (/?->3' ?rive" /? 5riter!, ?Q? (?Q?->3' ?rive" ?Q? 5riter" ?Q?->A' ?rive!,
Eloppy dis*, Tape drive - mainly for bac*up and long-term storage
)nternal storage - *eeps data inside the computer for later use.
9ard dis* - for medium-term storage of data. ?is* array controller
6ound card - translates signals from the system board into analog voltage levels" and has terminals to
plug in spea*ers.
Oet%or*ing - to connect the computer to the )nternet and=or other computers1 'odem - for dial-up
connections" Oet%or* card - for ?6;=/able internet" and=or connecting to other computers.
)n addition" hard%are can include e#ternal components of a computer system. The follo%ing are either
standard or very common.
)nput or )nput devices1 Te#t input devices - Meyboard, (ointing devices - 'ouse" Trac*ball
)mage" Qideo input devices - )mage scanner, 5ebcam, 'icrophone
3utput or 3utput devices1 )mage" Qideo output devices - (rinter (eripheral device that produces a hard
copy. ()n*2et" ;aser!" 'onitor ?evice that ta*es signals and displays them. (/>T" ;/?!
Audio output devices - 6pea*ers A device that converts analog audio signals into the e@uivalent air
vibrations in order to ma*e audible sound" 9eadset a device similar in functionality to that of a regular
telephone handset but is %orn on the head to *eep the hands free.
1. 5here is computer hard%are locatedC
2. 5hat does a typical personal computer consist ofC
8. 5hat is a po%er supplyC
8
4. 5hat does video display controller produceC
. 5hat does internal storage doC
7. 5hat can hard%are also includeC
:. 5hat can also contribute >A' toC
A. 5hy are soft%are and data named GsoftHC
9. 5hat is the function of tape driveC
10. 5hat does spea*ers A device doC
1. /omputer soft%are is the physical part of a computer.
2. The hard%are of a computer is infre@uently changed" in comparison %ith soft%are and data.
8. 'ost computer hard%are is not seen by normal users.
4. (ersonal computers form the ma2ority of computers.
. Qideo display controller produces the input for the computer display.
7. Oet%or*ing connects the computer to the )nternet and=or other computers.
:. 6pea*ers A device converts analog audio signals into the e@uivalent air vibrations.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. /omputer hard%are . net%or*ing
2. >A' 7. 9ard dis*
8. $E) :. Eloopy dis*
4. 4)36
1. /(< , 2. input (vb!, 8. output (vb!, 4. handset (n!, . motherboard (n!,
a! The main circuit board of a computer" usually containing the central processing unit and main
system memory as %ell as circuitry that controls the dis* drives" *eyboard" monitor" and other
peripheral devices., b! /entral processing unit, c! the process of transferring data from internal storage
to an e#ternal medium" as paper or microfilm. d! The handle-shaped part of a telephone" containing the
receiver and transmitter and often a dial or push buttons. e! the process of introducing data into the
internal storage of a computer.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "#he de'elopment of computer hardware through time$
Lesson 3 Computer 0isp!ay
I Reading
COMPUTER 0I4PL"5
A computer disp!ay is an interface bet%een the computer and the operator. Although there are other
interfaces (such as a printer! the main lin* to the operator is usually a />T or TET monitor. To
connect the computer.s output to the monitor" the video adapter converts the computers instructions to
a form that tells the monitor %hat to display.
Cat#ode ray tu(e
The />T or cathode ray tube" is the picture tube of a monitor. The bac* of the tube has a negatively
charged cathode" or electron gun. The electron gun shoots electrons do%n the tube and onto a
positively charged screen. The screen is coated %ith a pattern of red" green and blue phosphor dots that
%ill glo% %hen struc* by the electron stream. $ach cluster of three dots is one pi#el (picture e!ement!.
The image on the monitor screen is made up from thousands of such tiny dots glo%ing on command
from the computer
87
As %ith television" several different hard%are technologies e#ist for displaying computer-generated
output1
1. ;i@uid crystal display (;/?!. (;/?-based monitors can receive television and computer
protocols (6QFA" ?Q)" (A;" 6$/A'" OT6/!. ;/? displays are the most popular display
device for ne% computers in Oorth America.
2. /athode ray tube (/>T! 1 Qector displays" as used on the Qectre#" many scientific and radar
applications" and several early arcade machines (notably Asteroids (game! - al%ays
implemented using />T displays due to re@uirement for a deflection system" though can be
emulated on any raster-based display.
8. (lasma display
4. 6urface-conduction electron-emitter display (6$?!
. Qideo pro2ector - implemented using ;/?" />T" or other technologies. >ecent consumer-
level video pro2ectors are almost e#clusively ;/? based.
7. 3rganic light-emitting diode (3;$?! display
Pro(!ems
6creen burn-in" %here a static image left on the screen for a long time embeds the image into the
phosphor that coats the screen" used to be an issue %ith />T computer monitors and televisions.
6creensavers" using moving images" prevent this happening. This problem is no% found only at older
AT' machines.
The other issue %ith computer monitors is that some monitors may have dead pi0els" even %hen first
purchased. The dead pi#el does not glo% %hen commanded to do so.
5ith e#ceptions of ?;(" most display technologies (especially ;/?! have an inherent misregistration
of the color planes" that is" the centres of the red" green" and blue dots do not line up perfectly.
6ubpi#el rendering depends on this misalignment, technologies ma*ing use of this include the Apple ))
from 19:7" and more recently 'icrosoft (/learType" 199A! and REreeA7 (R >endering $#tension!.
$arly />T-based Q?<s (Qisual ?isplay <nits! such as the ?$/ QT0 %ithout graphics capabilities
gained the label glass teletypes" because of the functional similarity to their electromechanical
predecessors.
$arly home computers such as the Apple )) and the /ommodore 74 used composite monitors.
9o%ever" they are no% used %ith video game consoles.
$arly digital monitors are sometimes *no%n as TT;s because the voltages on the red" green" and blue
inputs are compatible %ith TT; logic chips. ;ater digital monitors support ;Q?6" or T'?6 protocols.
/FA monitors used four digital signals to control the three electron guns used in color />Ts" in a
signalling method *no%n as >F4)" or -ed 1reen and 'lue, plus 2ntensity. $ach of the three >F4
colors can be s%itched on or off independently. The intensity bit increases the brightness of all guns
that are s%itched on" or if no colors are s%itched on the intensity bit %ill s%itch on all guns at a very
lo% brightness to produce a dar* grey. A /FA monitor is only capable of rendering 17 uni@ue colors.
The /FA monitor %as not e#clusively used by (/ based hard%are. The /ommodore 12A could also
utili&e /FA monitors. 'any /FA monitors %ere capable of displaying composite video via a separate
2ac*.
$FA monitors used si# digital signals to control the three electron guns in a signalling method *no%n
as >rFg4b. <nli*e /FA" each gun is allocated its o%n intensity bit. This allo%ed each of the three
primary colors to have four different states (off" soft" medium" and bright! resulting in 74 possible
colors.
Although not supported in the original )4' specification" many vendors of clone graphics adapters
have implemented bac*%ards monitor compatibility and auto detection. Eor e#ample" $FA cards
produced by (aradise could operate as a '?A" or /FA adapter if a monochrome or /FA monitor %as
used place of an $FA monitor. 'any /FA cards %ere also capable of operating as '?A or 9ercules
card if a monochrome monitor %as used.
'ost modern computer displays can sho% thousands or millions of different colors in the >F4 color
space by varying red" green" and blue signals in continuously variable intensities.
'any monitors have analog signal relay" but some more recent models (mostly ;/? screens! support
digital input signals. )t is a common misconception that all computer monitors are digital. Eor several
8:
years" televisions" composite monitors" and computer displays have been significantly different.
9o%ever" as TQs have become more versatile" the distinction has blurred.
6ome users use more than one monitor. The displays can operate in multiple modes. 3ne of the most
common spreads the entire des*top over all of the monitors" %hich thus act as one big des*top. The R
5indo% 6ystem refers to this as 3inerama.
A monitor may also clone another monitor.
Terminology1
A. ?ualhead - <sing t%o monitors
9. Triplehead - using three monitors
'irtua! disp!ays
The R 5indo% 6ystem provides configuration mechanisms for using a single hard%are monitor for
rendering multiple virtual displays" as controlled (for e#ample! %ith the <ni# ?)6(;AL global
variable or %ith the -display command option.
. 5hat is the main lin* to the operatorC
7. 5hat does the video adapter do in order to connect the computer.s output to the monitorC
:. 9o% many hard%are technologies e#ist there for displaying computer-generated outputC
A. 5hat are the problems %ith computer monitorsC
9. Eor %hat does the R 5indo% 6ystem provide configuration mechanismsC
10. 5hat does the term triplehead meanC
11. 9o% many uni@ue colours is a /FA monitor capable of renderingC
12. 5hat %ere many /FA monitors capable of displayingC
18. To %hat does the R 5indo% 6ystem refer to as RineramaC
14. 9o% are early digital monitors sometimes *no%n asC
1. The main lin* to the operator is usually a />T or TET monitor.
2. The electron gun shoots electrons do%n the tube and onto a negatively charged screen.
8. 6everal different hard%are technologies e#ist for displaying computer-generated output.
4. $arly digital monitors are sometimes *no%n as ;Q?6s.
. $FA monitors used si# digital signals to control the si# electron guns in a signalling method
*no%n as >rFg4b.
7. A monitor may also clone another monitor.
:. 'ost modern computer displays can sho% thousands or millions of different colors in the >F4
color space.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.* &i'e definitions to the following words.
1. /omputer display, 2. /athode, 8. To stri*e, 4. (i#el, . />T, 7. 6$?, :. 'isalignment.
2., (ake)up sentences with the terms from 2.1
2.- (atch the words with their definitions
1.(hosphor, 2. ;/?, 8. 3;$?, 4. $mbed, . ;abel, 7. To render, :. 'onochrome
a! the state or condition of being painted" decorated" etc." in shades of a single color. b! A descriptive
term, an epithet. c! to incorporate or contain as an essential part or characteristic. d! To give or ma*e
available, provide. e! e#isting in someone or something as a permanent and inseparable element"
@uality" or attribute, f! 3rganic light-emitting diode, g! ;i@uid crystal display, h! any of a number of
substances that e#hibit luminescence %hen struc* by light of certain %avelengths" as by ultraviolet.
8A
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "#he problems of computer displays$
Lesson , Computer @ey(oard
I Reading
COMPUTER @E52O"R0
A computer *eyboard is a peripheral partially modeled after the type%riter *eyboard. Meyboards are
designed for the input of te#t and characters and also to control the operation of a computer.
(hysically" computer *eyboards are an arrangement of rectangular or near-rectangular buttons" or
+*eys+. Meyboards typically have characters engraved or printed on the *eys, in most cases" each press
of a *ey corresponds to a single %ritten symbol. 9o%ever" to produce some symbols re@uires pressing
and holding several *eys simultaneously or in se@uence, other *eys do not produce any symbol" but
instead affect the operation of the computer or the *eyboard itself. 6ee input method editor.
>oughly 0P of all *eyboard *eys produce letters" numbers or signs (characters!. 3ther *eys can
produce actions %hen pressed" and other actions are available by the simultaneous pressing of more
than one action *ey.
0esigns
There e#ist a large number of different arrangements of symbols on *eys. These different *eyboard
layouts arise mainly because different people need easy access to different symbols, typically" this is
because they are %riting in different languages" but speciali&ed *eyboard layouts for mathematics"
accounting" and computer programming also e#ist.
'ost of the more common *eyboard layouts (e5$>TL-based and similar! %ere designed in the era
of the mechanical type%riters" so their ergonomics had to be slightly compromised in order to tac*le
some of the technical limitations of the type%riters. 5ith the advent of modern electronics" this is no
longer necessary. The letters %ere attached to levers that needed to move freely, 2amming %ould result
if commonly-used letters %ere placed too close to one another. e5$>TL layouts and their brethren
had been a de facto standard for decades prior to the introduction of the very first computer *eyboard"
and %ere primarily adopted for electronic *eyboards for this reason. Alternative layouts do e#ist" such
as the ?vora* 6implified Meyboard, ho%ever" these layouts have yet to gain mainstream popularity.
The number of *eys on a *eyboard varies from the original standard of 101 *eys to the 104-*ey
%indo%s *eyboards and all the %ay up to 180 *eys or more" %ith many of the additional *eys being
symbol-less programmable *eys that can simulate multiple such as starting a %eb bro%ser or e-mail
client. There also %ere +)nternet *eyboards"+ sold in America in the late 1990s" that replaced the
function *eys %ith pre-programmed internet shortcuts. (ressing the shortcut *eys %ould launch a
bro%ser to go to that %ebsite.
)n principle" computer *eyboard designs are governed by the )63=)$/ 999 international standard.
)n modern computers the interpretation of *eypresses is generally left to the soft%are. 'odern
*eyboards distinguish each physical *ey from every other and report all *eypresses and releases to the
controlling soft%are. This fle#ibility is not often ta*en advantage of and it usually does not matter" for
e#ample" %hether the left or right shift *ey is held do%n in con2unction %ith another character" even
though they are coded as completely separate *eys.
Commands
A *eyboard is also used to type commands in a computer. 3ne famous e#ample on the (/ is the
/trlDAltD?el combination. 5ith current versions of 5indo%s" this brings up a menu-%indo%
including options for handling currently-running applications and shutting do%n the computer"
amongst other things. <nder ;inu#" '6-?36 and some older versions of 5indo%s" /trlDAltD?el
performs either a .cold. or .%arm. reboot.
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How it wors
The follo%ing briefly describes a +dome-s%itch+ *eyboard (sometimes incorrectly referred to as a
membrane *eyboard!" the most common type in use today1
1. 5hen a *ey is pressed" it pushes do%n on a rubber dome sitting beneath the *ey. A conductive
contact on the underside of the dome touches (and hence connects! a pair of conductive lines on
the circuit belo%.
2. This bridges the gap bet%een them and allo%s current to flo% (i.e. the circuit goes from open to
closed!" changing the signal strength.
8. A scanning signal is emitted by the chip along the pairs of lines to all the *eys. 5hen the signal
in one pair becomes different" the chip generates a +ma*e code+ corresponding to the *ey
connected to that pair of lines.
4. The code generated is sent to the computer either via a *eyboard cable (using on-off electrical
pulses to represent bits! or over a %ireless connection.
. A chip inside the computer receives the signal bits and decodes them into the appropriate
*eypress. The computer then decides %hat to do on the basis of the *ey pressed (e.g. display a
character on the screen" or perform some action!.
7. 3ther types of *eyboards function in a similar manner" the main differences being ho% the
individual *ey-s%itches %or*. Eor more on this sub2ect refer to the article on *eyboard
technology.
1. 5hy are there different *eyboard layoutsC
2. 5hen %ere most of the more common *eyboard layouts designedC
8. 9o% does the number of *eys on a *eyboard varyC
4. 5hen %ere +)nternet *eyboards"+ sold in AmericaC
. 4y %hat computer *eyboard designs are governedC
7. 5hat do modern *eyboards doC
:. 5hat does the /trlDAltD?el combination do in current versions of 5indo%sC
A. 5hat happens %hen a *ey is pressedC
9. 5hat causes a .cold. or .%arm. reboot under ;inu#" '6-?36 and some older versions of
5indo%sC
10. 5hat do modern *eyboards distinguishC
1. Meyboards typically have characters engraved or printed on the *eys.
2. >oughly 20P of all *eyboard *eys produce letters" numbers or signs (characters!.
8. There e#ist a small number of different arrangements of symbols on *eys.
4. 'odern *eyboards distinguish each physical *ey from every other.
. A *eyboard is also used to type commands in a computer.
7. 6ome *eys do not produce any symbol" but instead affect the operation of the computer or the
*eyboard itself.
:. A computer *eyboard is a peripheral completely modified after the type%riter *eyboard
II 'oca(u!ary
1. (eripheral, 2. ;ayout, 8. Bamming, 4. 4rethren, . 6hortcut,
1. 4ro%ser, 2.>eboot, 8.5ireless, 4. /hip, . <nderside,
40
a! a tiny slice of semiconducting material" generally in the shape of a s@uare a fe% millimeters long"
cut from a larger %afer of the material" on %hich a transistor or an entire integrated circuit is formed.,
b! To turn (a computer or operating system! off and then on again, restart, c! The side or surface that is
underneath, the bottom side, d! noting or pertaining to any of various devices that are operated %ith or
actuated by electromagnetic %aves, e! a soft%are program that allo%s the user to find and read
encoded documents in a form suitable for display" esp. such a program for use on the 5orld 5ide
5eb.
Instead 0 1. as a substitute or replacement, in the place or stead of someone or something1 5e ordered
tea but %ere served coffee instead. 2. in preference, as a preferred or accepted alternative1 The city has
its pleasures" but she %ished instead for the @uiet of country life. 8. instead of" in place of, in lieu of1
Lou can use mil* instead of cream in this recipe.
0e facto A a de facto situation is one %hich e#ists or is true although it has not been officially accepted
or agreed
In princip!e A as a general idea" theory" or belief
2eneat# A 1. belo%, in or to a lo%er place" position" state" or the li*e. 2. underneath1 heaven above and
the earth beneath.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: " #he history of the computer keyboard$
Lesson < Mouse %computing&
I Reading
MOU4E %COMPUTIN7&
)n the conte#t of computing a mouse (plural (generally!1 mice" also mouses! consists of a hand-held
pointing device" designed to sit under one hand of the user and to detect movement relative to its t%o-
dimensional supporting surface. )n addition" it usually features buttons and=or other devices" such as
+%heels+" %hich allo% the user to perform various system-dependent operations. $#tra buttons or
features can add more control or dimensional input.
The first computer mouse" held by inventor ?ouglas $ngelbart" sho%ing the %heels that ma*e contact
%ith the %or*ing surface.
?ouglas $ngelbart of the 6tanford >esearch )nstitute invented the mouse in 1978 after e#tensive
usability testing. $ngelbart.s team called it a +bug+ - one of several e#perimental pointing-devices
developed for $ngelbart.s oO-;ine 6ystem (O;6!. The other devices %ere designed to e#ploit other
body movements - for e#ample" head-mounted devices attached to the chin or nose - but ultimately
the mouse %on out because of its simplicity and convenience. The first mouse" a bul*y device
(pictured! used t%o gear-%heels perpendicular to each other1 the rotation of each %heel translated into
motion along one a#is. Typically %e can single out mechanical mice" optical mice and laser mice.
The computer industry often measures mouse sensitivity in terms of ?() (dots per inch!" the number of
pi#els the mouse cursor %ill move %hen the mouse is moved one inch. 9o%ever" soft%are tric*s li*e
changeable mouse sensitivity can be used to ma*e a cursor move faster or slo%er than its ?()" and the
use of cursor acceleration can ma*e the cursor accelerate %hen the mouse moves at a constant speed.
This ma*es +?()+ confusing" and Apple and several other vendors have suggested adopting a
replacement metric1 +/()+ (counts per inch!.
Trac*ball 0 the user rolls a ball mounted in a fi#ed base.
Touchpad 0 detects finger movement about a sensitive surface - the norm for modern laptop
computers. At least one physical button normally comes %ith the touchpad" but users can also
41
(configurably! generate a clic* by tapping on the pad. Advanced features include detection of finger
pressure" and scrolling by moving one.s finger along an edge.
(ointing stic* 0 a pressure sensitive nub used li*e a 2oystic* on laptops" usually found bet%een the g"
h" and b *eys on the *eyboard
/onsumer touchscreen devices e#ist that resemble monitor shields. Eramed around the monitor" they
use soft%are-calibration to match screen and cursor positions.
'ini-mouse 0 a small egg-si&ed mouse for use %ith laptop computers - usually small enough for use
on a free area of the laptop body itself.
/amera mouse 0 a camera trac*s a user.s head-movement and moves the onscreen cursor. Oatural
pointers trac* the dot on a person.s head and move the cursor accordingly. 6ee also $agle$yes
Eoot mouse 0 a mouse variant for those %ho do not %ish to or cannot use the hands (see carpal tunnel!
or the head, instead" it provides footclic*s.
$yeball-controlled 0 A mouse controlled by the user.s eyeball=retina movements" allo%ing cursor-
manipulation %ithout touch.
1. 5hen did ?ouglas $ngelbart invent the mouseC
2. 9o% did $ngelbart.s team call itC
8. 5hat %ere other devices designed forC
4. )n %hat terms does the computer industry often measure the mouse sensitivityC
. Eor %hat can soft%are tric*s li*e changeable mouse sensitivity be usedC
7. 5hat does a touchpad doC
:. 5hat is a foot mouseC
A. 9o% does a camera mouse %or*C
9. 9o% does a mini-mouse loo*C
10. 5hat do consumer touchscreen devices use in order to match screen and cursor positionsC
1. The first mouse" a bul*y device (pictured! used t%o gear-%heels parallel to each other.
2. Typically %e can single out mechanical mice" optical mice and laser mice.
8. 6oft%are tric*s li*e changeable mouse sensitivity can.t be used to ma*e a cursor move faster or
slo%er than its ?().
4. Apple and several other vendors have suggested adopting a replacement metric1 +/()+ (counts
per inch!.
. Trac*ball detects finger movement about a sensitive surface.
7. /onsumer touchscreen devices e#ist that resemble monitor shields.
:. /amera mouse is a mouse variant for those %ho do not %ish to or cannot use the hands (see
carpal tunnel! or the head.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. 'ouse, 2. ?(), 8. /(), 4. O;6, . )nput, 7. 4ul*y device, :. 5heels.
1. ?evice, 2. Trac*ball, 8. Touchpad, 4. /ursor, . a#is.
a! a movable" sometimes blin*ing" symbol that indicates the position on a />T or other type of display
%here the ne#t character entered from the *eyboard %ill appear" or %here user action is needed" as in
the correction of an erroneous character already displayed, b! A straight line about %hich a body or
geometric ob2ect rotates or may be conceived to rotate, c! a computer input device for controlling the
pointer on a display screen by rotating a ball set inside a case, d! A stationary pointing device used
mainly on laptop computers. Touchpads provide a small" flat surface that you slide your finger over
42
using the same movements as you %ould a mouse. They %ere originally developed to provide a more
natural and intuitive connection for the computer user than the mouse, e! a contrivance or an invention
serving a particular purpose" especially a machine used to perform one or more relatively simple tas*s.
In t#e conteBt of 0 in the circumstances under %hich something happens or has happened.
In addition A additionally, further, moreover, as an additional thing or person.
U!timate!y A At last, in the end, eventually.
Norma!!y A 1. in a normal or regular %ay1 The %ound is healing normally. 2. according to rule"
general custom" etc., as a rule, ordinarily, usually.
"t !east A any%ay, in spite of difficulties.
"ccording!y A 1. therefore, so, in due course. 2. in accordance, correspondingly.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "#he future of computer mouse in the era of touch
screen$
Lesson > Optica! Computer
I Reading
OPTIC"L COMPUTER
An optica! computer is a computer that uses light" instead of electricity" to perform computations.
Technically spea*ing" an optical computer uses bound electrons in isolating crystals instead of free
electrons in transistors for computation. Oo modulator or demodulator e#ists" because the base band
offers only 10 F9& band%idth %hereas the visible band offers 10 T9&. )t is similar to performing
digital computation by a radio.
3ne fundamental limit is the si&e. 3ptical fibres on an integrated optic chip are ten times %ider than
the traces on an integrated electronics circuit chip. The crystals have the same cross-section as the
fibers" but need a length of about 1 mm and so are much larger than a transistor. Therefore signal
traveling times %ill be large.
A more practical limit is the crystal. /urrent crystals need light %ith 1 F5=cmf intensity. And as a
typical die (in microelectronics! is about 1 cmf" and some absorption ta*es place" this means *ilo%atts
of po%er consumption" %hich only allo%s pulsed operation" but nanotubes may reduce this in the
future.
The biggest advantage in the near future is the synergy %ith optical telecommunication.
)t performs its computation %ith photons or polaritons as opposed to the more traditional electron-
based computation. 3ptical computing is a ma2or branch of the study of photonics and polaritonics.
$lectronics computations sometimes involve communications via photonic path%ays. (opular devices
of this class include E??) interfaces. )n order to send the information via photons" electronic signals
are converted via lasers and the light guided do%n the optical fiber.
Oo true optical computers are declassified or other%ise *no%n to e#ist. 6ome devices that are best
classified as s%itches have been tested in the laboratory. Transistors that are composed entirely of
optical components are themselves still very ne% and e#perimental.
A fully functional computer is composed of many transistors. The number of them re@uired to
constitute a computer is arguable" but probably at least 10 and more often 1"000"000 transistors are
re@uired to do general computing tas*s.
/urrently" no true optical computers yet e#ist. The problems of design seem to stem from eliminating
the conversion from photons to electrons and bac*. This conversion is necessary no% because %e don.t
48
have all optical versions of all the myriad s%itching devices re@uired by a computer" %hich %ould not
re@uire information to be converted bac* into electrical impulses.
11. An interesting property of optical computers" optical path%ays- is they can carry many
different fre@uencies of light over each path%ay and the light detector(s! can be filtered to respond to
each of those fre@uencies" depending on the fle#ibly programmed topology used. Qery ;arge arrays
(Q;A.s! (4 megapi#els and above! can be fabricated li*e large optical arrays" each passing" s%itching
or filtering each of the various fre@uency laser beams.
10. )teration can be accomplished by feedbac*" as in gate arrays" %here the output is fed into
different inputs to provide greater programmed logic combinations. ;ight path%ays can e#ist in many
layers of ad2acent silicon by total internal light guide reflection as in fiber optics" e#cept reflection of
the beams are in many parallel vertical and hori&ontal lightguide path%ays in the bul* silicon substrate"
created by Auto/A? -li*e step and repeat programmed layout %afer fabrication lightguide path%ays.
3ptical /omputing has the main advantages of small si&e=high density" high speed" lo% heating of
2unctions and substrate" dynamically reconfigurable" scalable into larger=smaller topologies=net%or*s"
%ell matched for imaging" massively parallel computing capability and artificial intelligence
applications-i.e." neural net%or*s of great comple#ity.
The future of computing is leaning to%ards large parallel arrays using photonics" rather than
electronics" but %ill probably" for all practical purposes" be opto-electronic in nature" due to the current
realm of electronic computing prevalence of using representative voltages to denote +0+ or +1+ binary
states. 3ptical computing uses a direct analogy of presence or absence of the recogni&ed signal
medium" many laser fre@uencies on a single optical path%ay.
)nterestingly" modern (normal! electronic computers are ta*ing on significant radio %ave properties by
themselves. 6ince the fre@uency of the system cloc*s on fast systems has passed the single gigahert&
range" circuit designers must consider that any electronic signal varying at such rates %ill be giving off
radio %aves at that fre@uency. This means that a %ire in a computer performs the dual function of a
conductor of electricity and a %aveguide for a gigahert& fre@uency radio %ave.
8 5hat does an optical computer use in order to perform computationsC
4 5hat is the fundamental limitC
5hat is the typical die in microelectronicsC
7 5hat is the future of computingC
: 9o% many transistors is a fully functional computer composed ofC
A 9o% can iteration be accomplishedC
9 9o% can Q;A.s be fabricatedC
10 5hat are the main advantages of optical computingC
11 5hat does optical computing useC
12 5hy is the conversion from photons to electrons and bac* necessary no%C
1. An optical computer uses free electrons in transistors for computation.
2. 3ptical fibres on an integrated optic chip are ten times %ider than the traces on an integrated
electronics circuit chip.
8. Transistors that are composed entirely of optical components are themselves very old.
4. Oo true optical computers are declassified or other%ise *no%n to e#ist.
. A fully functional computer is composed of fe% transistors.
7. A %ire in a computer performs the dual function of a conductor of electricity and a %aveguide
for a gigahert& fre@uency radio %ave.
:. The biggest disadvantage in the near future is the synergy %ith optical telecommunication.
II 'oca(u!ary
44
1. 'odulator, 2. ?emodulator, 8. Transistor, 4. (olaritons, . ;aser beams, 7. Q;A, :. ;ightguide
1. /omputation, 2. Oanotube, 8. 6ynergy, 4. (hoton, . )nterface, 7. Ere@uency, :. >ealm.
a! The number of times a specified periodic phenomenon occurs %ithin a specified interval, b! The
layout of an application.s graphic or te#tual controls in con2unction %ith the %ay the application
responds to user activity, c! the special province or field of something or someone, d! a @uantum of
electromagnetic radiation" usually considered as an elementary particle that is its o%n antiparticle and
that has &ero rest mass and charge and a spin of one, e! A hollo% cylindrical or toroidal molecule made
of one element" usually carbon, f! The interaction of t%o or more agents or forces so that their
combined effect is greater than the sum of their individual effects, g! The act of operating a computer.
Instead of A )n place of, rather than.
It is simi!ar to A )t is comparative to.
T#erefore A in conse@uence of that, as a result, conse@uently.
'ia A 1. by a route that touches or passes through, by %ay of 2. by the agency or instrumentality of.
Current!y A at the presenttime, no%
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: " ;ptical computers: ad'antages and disad'antages$
Lesson C Centra! Processing Unit
I Reading
CENTR"L PROCE44IN7 UNIT
A centra! processing unit (CPU!" or sometimes simply processorD is the component in a digital
computer that interprets computer program instructions and processes data. /(<s provide the
fundamental digital computer trait of programmability" and are one of the necessary components found
in computers of any era" along %ith primary storage and input=output facilities. A /(< that is
manufactured as a single integrated circuit is usually *no%n as a microprocessor. 4eginning in the
mid-19:0s" microprocessors of ever-increasing comple#ity and po%er gradually supplanted other
designs" and today the term +/(<+ is usually applied to some type of microprocessor.
The phrase +central processing unit+ is a description of a certain class of logic machines that can
e#ecute computer programs. This broad definition can easily be applied to many early computers that
e#isted long before the term +/(<+ ever came into %idespread usage. 9o%ever" the term itself and its
initialism have been in use in the computer industry at least since the early 1970s (5ei* 1971!. The
form" design and implementation of /(<s have changed dramatically since the earliest e#amples" but
their fundamental operation has remained much the same.
$arly /(<s %ere custom-designed as a part of a larger" usually one-of-a-*ind" computer. 9o%ever"
this costly method of designing custom /(<s for a particular application has largely given %ay to the
development of mass-produced processors that are suited for one or many purposes. This
standardi&ation trend generally began in the era of discrete transistor mainframes and minicomputers
and has rapidly accelerated %ith the populari&ation of the integrated circuit ()/!. The )/ has allo%ed
increasingly comple# /(<s to be designed and manufactured in very small spaces (on the order of
millimeters!. 4oth the miniaturi&ation and standardi&ation of /(<s have increased the presence of
these digital devices in modern life far beyond the limited application of dedicated computing
4
machines. 'odern microprocessors appear in everything from automobiles to cell phones to children.s
toys.
History
(rior to the advent of machines that resemble today.s /(<s" computers such as the $O)A/ had to be
physically re%ired in order to perform different tas*s. These machines are often referred to as +fi#ed-
program computers"+ since they had to be physically reconfigured in order to run a different program.
6ince the term +/(<+ is generally defined as a soft%are (computer program! e#ecution device" the
earliest devices that could rightly be called /(<s came %ith the advent of the stored-program
computer.
The idea of a stored-program computer %as already present during $O)A/.s design" but %as initially
omitted so the machine could be finished sooner. 3n Bune 80" 194" before $O)A/ %as even
completed" mathematician Bohn von Oeumann distributed the paper entitled +Eirst ?raft of a >eport on
the $?QA/.+ )t outlined the design of a stored-program computer that %ould eventually be completed
in August 1949. $?QA/ %as designed to perform a certain number of instructions (or operations! of
various types. These instructions could be combined to create useful programs for the $?QA/ to run.
6ignificantly" the programs %ritten for $?QA/ %ere stored in high-speed computer memory rather
than specified by the physical %iring of the computer. This overcame a severe limitation of $O)A/"
%hich %as the large amount of time and effort it too* to reconfigure the computer to perform a ne%
tas*. 5ith von Oeumann.s design" the program" or soft%are" that $?QA/ ran could be changed simply
by changing the contents of the computer.s memory.
1.2 Answer the following questions
1. 9o% can you e#plain the meaning of /(<C
2. 5hat is the importance of /(<C
8. 5hy is the initialism G/(<H usually appealed to microprocessorC
4. 5hat is the history of this termC
. 5hat is the difference bet%een early /(<s and mass-produced processorsC
7. 9o% did miniaturi&ation and standardi&ation influence the development of /(<C
:. 5here can microprocessors be found no%adaysC
A. 5hat is $O)A/C
1. !tate true or false.
1. (rocessor is a component of a digital computer.
2. /(< isnJt a necessary component in a digital computer.
8. 3perations of /(< changed dramatically since the earliest e#amples.
4. )n the 21 century a microprocessor is a rare thing.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1. &i'e the definitions to the following words
/(<" microprocessor" miniaturi&ation" standardi&ation" development" storage" custom-designed"
soft%are.
2.2 (ake up sentences with the following 'erbs:
To refer" to resemble" to reconfigure" to e#ecute" to accelerate" to increase.
2. #ry to use these expressions more frequently:
Prior to %prep!0 4efore" preceding.
One)of)a)ind %ad*-! 0 <ni@ue
4ignificant!y %ad8! 0 in a substantial statistically significant %ay.
Howe8er %ad8& - sentence connector
1. still, nevertheless
2. on the other hand, yet
adv
47
1. by %hatever means, in %hatever manner
2. (used %ith ad2ectives e#pressing or admitting of @uantity or degree! no matter ho% ho%ever long it
ta*es" finish it
8. an emphatic form of ho%
4:
UNIT 'I IT COMP"NIE4
Lesson 1 Microsoft Corp-
I Reading
MICRO4O9T CORPOR"TION
)s an American multinational computer technology corporation. )t develops" manufactures" licenses"
and supports a %ide range of soft%are products for computing devices. 'icrosoft.s best-selling
products are the 'icrosoft 5indo%s operating system and the 'icrosoft 3ffice suite of productivity
soft%are. These products have prominent positions in their respective mar*ets" %ith mar*et share
estimates as high as 90P or more for 'icrosoft 5indo%s as of 2007 and for 'icrosoft 3ffice as of
2008.3ne of 4ill Fates. *ey visions for the company is +to get a %or*station running our soft%are onto
every des* and eventually in every home+.
Eounded to develop and sell 4A6)/ interpreters for the Altair AA00" 'icrosoft rose to dominate the
home computer operating system mar*et %ith '6-?36 in the mid-19A0s. The company released an
initial public offering ()(3! in the stoc* mar*et" %hich" due to the ensuing rise of the stoc* price" has
made four billionaires and an estimated 12"000 millionaires from 'icrosoft employees. Throughout its
history the company has been the target of criticism for various reasons" including monopoly status
and anti-competitive business practices including refusal to deal and tying. The <.6. Bustice
?epartment and the $uropean /ommission" among others" have ruled against 'icrosoft for various
antitrust violations.
'icrosoft has footholds in other mar*ets besides operating systems and office suites" %ith assets such
as the '6O4/ cable television net%or*" the '6O )nternet portal" and the 'icrosoft $ncarta
multimedia encyclopedia. The company also mar*ets both computer hard%are products such as the
'icrosoft mouse and home entertainment products such as the Rbo#" Rbo# 870" bune and '6O TQ.
9ounding
Eollo%ing the launch of the Altair AA00" 4ill Fates called the creators of the ne% microcomputer"
'icro )nstrumentation and Telemetry 6ystems (')T6!" offering to demonstrate an implementation of
the 4A6)/ programming language for the system. After the demonstration" ')T6 agreed to distribute
Altair 4A6)/. Fates left 9arvard <niversity" moved to Albu@uer@ue" Oe% 'e#ico %here ')T6 %as
located" and founded 'icrosoft there. The company.s first international office %as founded on
Oovember 1" 19:A" in Bapan" entitled +A6/)) 'icrosoft+ (no% called +'icrosoft Bapan+!.3n Banuary 1"
19:9" the company moved from Albu@uer@ue to a ne% home in 4ellevue" 5ashington. 6teve 4allmer
2oined the company on Bune 11" 19A0" and later succeeded 4ill Fates as /$3.
?36 (?is* 3perating 6ystem! %as the operating system that brought the company its first real
success. 3n August 12" 19A1" after negotiations %ith ?igital >esearch failed" )4' a%arded a contract
to 'icrosoft to provide a version of the /(=' operating system" %hich %as set to be used in the
upcoming )4' (ersonal /omputer ((/!. Eor this deal" 'icrosoft purchased a /(=' clone called A7-
?36 from 6eattle /omputer (roducts" %hich )4' renamed to (/-?36. ;ater" the mar*et sa% a flood
of )4' (/ clones after /olumbia ?ata (roducts successfully cloned the )4' 4)36" and by
aggressively mar*eting '6-?36 to manufacturers of )4'-(/ clones" 'icrosoft rose from a small
player to one of the ma2or soft%are vendors in the home computer industry. The company e#panded
into ne% mar*ets %ith the release of the Microsoft Mouse in 19A8" as %ell as a publishing division
named 'icrosoft (ress.
Internet and !ega! issues
)n the mid-90s" 'icrosoft began to e#pand its product line into computer net%or*ing and the 5orld
5ide 5eb. 3n August 24" 199" it launched a ma2or online service" '6O ('icrosoft Oet%or*!" as a
direct competitor to A3;. '6O became an umbrella service for 'icrosoft.s online services. The
company continued to branch out into ne% mar*ets in 1997" starting %ith a 2oint venture %ith O4/ to
create a ne% 24=: cable ne%s station" '6O4/. 'icrosoft entered the personal digital assistant ((?A!
mar*et in Oovember %ith 5indo%s /$ 1.0" a ne% built-from-scratch version of their flagship
operating system" specifically designed to run on lo%-memory" lo%-performance machines" such as
handhelds and other small computers. ;ater in 199:" )nternet $#plorer 4.0 %as released for both 'ac
36 and 5indo%s" mar*ing the beginning of the ta*eover of the bro%ser mar*et from rival Oetscape.
4A
)n 3ctober" the Bustice ?epartment filed a motion in the Eederal ?istrict /ourt in %hich they stated
that 'icrosoft had violated an agreement signed in 1994" and as*ed the court to stop the bundling of
)nternet $#plorer %ith 5indo%s.
)n 2001" 'icrosoft released 5indo%s R(" the first version that encompassed the features of both its
business and home product lines. 4efore R( %as released" 'icrosoft had to maintain both the OT and
the 9# codebase. R( introduced a ne% graphical user interface" the first such change since 5indo%s
9. ;ater" %ith the release of the Rbo# 'icrosoft entered the multi-billion-dollar game console mar*et
dominated by 6ony and Ointendo. 'icrosoft encountered more turmoil in 'arch 2004 %hen antitrust
legal action %as brought against it by the $uropean <nion for abusing its current dominance %ith the
5indo%s operating system" eventually resulting in a 2udgement to produce ne% versions of its
5indo%s R( platform-called 5indo%s R( 9ome $dition O and 5indo%s R( (rofessional O-that
did not include its 5indo%s 'edia (layer.
3EECApresent. 'ista and ot#er transitions
)n 2007" 4ill Fates announced a t%o year transition period from his role as /hief 6oft%are Architect"
%hich %ould be ta*en by >ay 3&&ie" and planned to remain the company.s chairman" head of the
4oard of ?irectors and act as an adviser on *ey pro2ects. As of ?ecember 200:" 5indo%s Qista"
released in Banuary 200:" is 'icrosoft.s latest operating system. 'icrosoft 3ffice 200: %as released at
the same time, its +>ibbon+ user interface is a significant departure from its predecessors.
3n Eebruary 1" 200A" 'icrosoft made an unsolicited bid to purchase internet services competitor
Lahoo for up to g44.7 billion" though this offer %as re2ected on Eebruary 10. 3n 'ay 8" 200A"
'icrosoft %ithdre% their offer.
'icrosoft announced on Eebruary 21" 200A that it %ill share more information about its products and
technology in order to ma*e it easier for developers to create soft%are that %or*s %ith its products.
1. 5hat are the 'icrosoft best-selling products famous forC
2. 5here does the company have its footholdsC
8. 5hat did G)(3H do for the employees of the companyC
4. 5hat does G?36H representC
. 9o% did the 'icrosoft 'ouse contribute to the companyC
7. 5hat is 'icrosoft Oet%or* aimed forC
:. 5hat %as the personal digital assistant ((?A! mar*et designed forC
A. 5hat mar*ed the beginning of the ta*eover of the bro%ser mar*etC
9. 5hat %as the first change since 5indo%s 9 to the appearance of R(C
10. 5hat is 'icrosoft.s latest operating systemC
1. 'icrosoft /orporation is an $uropean multinational computer technology corporation.
2. Throughout its history the company has been the target of criticism for various reasons" including
monopoly status and anti-competitive business practices including refusal to deal and tying.
8. 'icrosoft has footholds in the operating systems mar*et and office suites.
4. 5indo%s R( already had a ne% graphical user interface" the third such change since 5indo%s 9.
. 3n Eebruary 1" 200A" 'icrosoft purchased internet services competitor Lahoo for g44.7 billion.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.1&i'e definitions to the following words.
1. )(3, 2. ?36, 8. '6O, 4. (?A, . 5indo%s R(, 7. 9andhelds, :. 'icrosoft /orporation, A. ')T6,
9. 9# codebase, 10. 6oft%are.
49
1. An operating system (36!
2. )nterpreter
8. (/
4. )nterface
. (?A
a! is a set of named operations that can
be invo*ed by clients.
b! is a mobile device used to organi&e a person.s
life by ta*ing notes" holding contacts" and
connecting to the )nternet.
c!. /omputer program that e#ecutes"
i.e. performs" instructions %ritten in
a programming language.
d! is an interface bet%een hard%are and user
%hich is responsible for the management
and coordination of activities and the sharing of
the resources of a computer.
e! is any general-purpose computer %hose si&e"
capabilities and original sales price ma*e it
useful for individuals" and %hich is intended to
be operated directly by an end user" %ith no
intervening computer operator.
1.IIIIIIIII can be connected to a local area net%or* (;AO! either by a cable or %irelessly.2.
TodayIIIIIII includes data that has not traditionally been associated %ith computers" such as film"
tapes and records. 8. FFFFFFFFis a line of operating systems produced by 'icrosoft for use
on personal computers" including home and business des*tops" laptops" and media centers.4. An -
IIIIIIIIII referred to simply as an +offering+ or +flotation"+ is %hen a company issues common
stoc* or shares to the public for the first time.. The IIIIIIIIIis a collection of )nternet sites and
services provided by 'icrosoft.7. The IIIIIIIIIis a multinational computer technology
corporation that develops" manufactures" licenses" and supports a %ide range of soft%are products
for computing devices.:.The IIIIIIII bet%een a human and a computer is called a user
interface. A. 'icrosoft used the IIIIIIIbrand name to promote numerous popular %eb-
based services in the late 1990s. 9.An IIIIIII performs instructions %ritten in a programming
language.10.The IIIIIIIIis a mobile device" also *no%n as a palmtop computer.
- piece of ca*e- something really easy
- fishy- a feeling that there is something %rong" though it isn.t clear %hat it is.
- as good as ne%- )f something has been used but is still in e#tremely good condition" it is as
good as ne%.
- night o%l- someone %ho goes to bed very late.
- @uic* fi#- an easy solution" especially one that %ill not last.
- game plan- strategy
1.6ince the day he became 1A he became a IIIIIII. 2. 5hen ) started %atching that thriller" )
suspected something IIIIIII about that character. 8. )f you say he is a genius" this should be
IIIIII for him. 4. 5e should have a IIIIIII in case our opponents are professionals. . The
computer that he sold me %as IIIIIIIII. 7. After reading the solution ) reali&ed that my e@uation
%as IIIIIIII.

III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /Computers in t#e future1
N-2- )$nglish sentence has got a strict %ord-order 6ub2ectDpredicateDob2ect1 e.g. Mary (subject)
goes (predicate) to school (object)
-sometimes %e can encounter comple# nouns such as1 low orbit satellite, new advanced techniques,
my pretty girlfriend" etc.
e.g. /ew ad'anced techniques were developed by the Moldovan scientists.
0
Lesson 3 I2M
I Reading
I2M
Internationa! 2usiness Mac#ines Corporation abbreviated I2M and nic*named G2ig 2!ueDG
OL6$1 )4' is a multinational computer technology and consulting corporation head@uartered in
Armon*" Oe% Lor*" <6A. The company is one of the fe% information technology companies %ith
a continuous history dating bac* to the 19th century. )4' manufactures and sells computer
hard%are and soft%are" and offers infrastructure services" hosting services" and consulting services
in areas ranging from mainframe computers to nanotechnology.
)4' has been *no%n through most of its recent history as the %orld.s largest computer company,
%ith over 8AA"000 employees %orld%ide" )4' is the largest information technology employer in
the %orld. ?espite falling behind 9e%lett-(ac*ard in total revenue since 2007" it remains the most
profitable. )4' holds more patents than any other <.6. based technology company. )t has engineers
and consultants in over 1:0 countries and )4' >esearch has eight laboratories %orld%ide. )4'
employees have earned three Oobel (ri&es" four Turing A%ards" five Oational 'edals of
Technology" and five Oational 'edals of 6cience. As a chip ma*er" )4' has been among the
5orld%ide Top 20 6emiconductor 6ales ;eaders in past years" and in 200: )4' ran*ed second in
the list of largest soft%are companies in the %orld.
History
The company %hich became )4' %as founded in 1AAA as the Tabulating 'achine /ompany by
9erman 9ollerith" in 4roome /ounty" Oe% Lor*. )t %as incorporated as /omputing Tabulating
>ecording /orporation (/T>! on Bune 17" 1911" and %as listed on the Oe% Lor* 6toc* $#change
in 1917. )4' adopted its current name in 1924" %hen it became a Eortune 00 company.
The author $d%in 4lac* has alleged that" during 5orld 5ar ))" )4' /$3 Thomas B. 5atson used
overseas subsidiaries to provide the Third >eich %ith unit record data processing machines" supplies
and services that helped the Oa&is to efficiently trac* do%n $uropean Be%s" %ith si&able profits for
the company. )4' denies that they had control over these subsidiaries after the Oa&is too* control
of them. A la%suit against )4' based on these allegations %as dismissed.
)n the 190s" )4' became the dominant vendor in the emerging computer industry %ith the release
of the )4' :01 and other models in the )4' :00=:000 series of mainframes. The company.s
dominance became even more pronounced in the 1970s and 19:0s %ith the )4' 6ystem=870 and
)4' 6ystem=8:0 mainframes" ho%ever antitrust actions by the <nited 6tates ?epartment of Bustice"
the rise of minicomputer companies li*e ?igital $@uipment /orporation and ?ata Feneral" and the
introduction of the microprocessor all contributed to dilution of )4'.s position in the industry"
eventually leading the company to diversify into other areas including personal computers"
soft%are" and services.
)n 19A1 )4' introduced the )4' (ersonal /omputer %hich is the original version and progenitor of
the )4' (/ compatible hard%are platform. ?escendants of the )4' (/ compatibles ma*e up the
ma2ority of microcomputers on the mar*et today" though )4' sold its (/ division to the /hinese
company ;enovo on 'ay 1" 200 for g7 million in cash and g700 million in ;enovo stoc*.
3n Banuary 2" 200:" >icoh announced purchase of )4' (rinting 6ystems ?ivision for g:2
million and investment in 8-year 2oint venture to form a ne% >icoh subsidiary" )nfo(rint 6olutions
/ompany, >icoh %ill o%n a 1P share" and )4' %ill o%n a 49P share in 2nfo$rint.
Current pro*ects
$clipse is a platform-independent" Bava-based soft%are frame%or*. $clipse %as originally a
proprietary product developed by )4' as a successor of the QisualAge family of tools. $clipse has
subse@uently been released as free=open source soft%are under the $clipse (ublic ;icense.
de8e!oper+ors
developer5or*s is a %ebsite run by I2M for soft%are developers and )T professionals. )t contains a
large number of ho%-to articles and tutorials" as %ell as soft%are do%nloads and code samples"
discussion forums" podcasts" blogs" %i*is" and other resources for developers and technical
1
professionals. 6ub2ects range from open" industry-standard technologies li*e Bava" ;inu#" 63A and
%eb services" %eb development" A2a#" (9(" and R'; to )4'.s products (5eb6phere" >ational"
;otus" Tivoli and ?42!. )n 200: developer5or*s %as inducted into the Bolt 9all of Eame.
4emiconductor design and manufacturing
Qirtually all modern console gaming systems use microprocessors developed by )4'. The Rbo#
870 contains the Renon tri-core processor" %hich %as designed and produced by )4' in less than
24 months. 6ony.s (lay6tation 8 features the /ell 4$ microprocessor designed 2ointly by )4'"
Toshiba" and 6ony. Ointendo.s seventh-generation console" 5ii" features an )4' chip codenamed
4road%ay. The older Ointendo Fame/ube also utili&es the Fe**o processor" designed by )4'.
)n 'ay 2002" )4' and 4utterfly.net" )nc. announced the 4utterfly Frid" a commercial grid for the
online video gaming mar*et. )n 'arch 2007" )4' announced separate agreements %ith 9oplon
)nfotainment" 3nline Fame 6ervices )ncorporated (3F6)!" and >ender>oc*et to provide on-
demand content management and blade server computing resources.
S
Interna! programs
$#treme 4lue is a company initiative that uses e#perienced )4' engineers" talented interns" and
business managers to develop high-value technology. The pro2ect is designed to analy&e emerging
business needs and the technologies that can solve them. These pro2ects mostly involve rapid-
prototyping of high-profile soft%are and hard%are pro2ects.
)n 'ay 200:" )4' unveiled (ro2ect 4ig Freen -- a re-direction of g1 billion per year across its
businesses to increase energy efficiency.
I2M 4oftware 7roup
This group is one of the ma2or divisions of )4'. The various brands include1
)nformation 'anagement 6oft%are - database servers and tools" te#t analytics" content
management" business process management and business intelligence.
;otus 6oft%are - Froup%are" collaboration and business soft%are. Ac@uired in 199.
>ational 6oft%are - 6oft%are development and application lifecycle management. Ac@uired in
2002.
Tivoli 6oft%are - 6ystems management. Ac@uired in 1997.
5eb6phere - )ntegration and application infrastructure soft%are.
1. 5hat %as )4' *no%n forC
2. 5hy does )4' remain the most profitableC
8. 5hat did )4' release in the 190sC
4. 5hen %as the )4' (ersonal /omputer introducedC
. 5hat is an G$clipseHC
7. 5hat does the Rbo# 870 containC
:. 5hat does G$#treme 4lueH representC
A. 5hy did )4' unveil the G(ro2ect 4ig FreenHC
9. Oame the soft%are that )4' brands includeC
10. 5hat is a 5ebsphereC
1. )4' is nic*named G4ig >edH.
2. )4' has been *no%n through most of its recent history as the %orld.s largest computer company.
8. )n the 19:0s" )4' became the dominant vendor in the emerging computer industry %ith the
release of the )4' :01 and other models in the )4' :00=:000 series of mainframes.
4. )n 19A1 )4' introduced the )4' (ersonal /omputer.
. Qirtually all modern console gaming systems use microprocessors developed by )4'.
7. $#treme 4lue is a company initiative that uses ine#perienced )4' engineers" untalented interns"
and business managers to develop high-value technology.
:. )n 'ay 200:" )4' unveiled (ro2ect 4ig Freen.
A. Qirtually all modern console gaming systems use microprocessors developed by )4'.
2
II 'oca(u!ary
9ard%are(n!"soft%are(n!"infrastructure(n!"services(n!"patent(n!"vendor(n!" gaming systems(n!"
microcomputer(n!.
1! )nfrastructure (n! 2! profit (n! 8! allegation (n! 4! professional (n! ! nanotechnology (n!.
a) pecuniary gain resulting from the employment of capital in any transaction
b) a person %ho belongs to one of the professions" esp. one of the learned professions.
c) is the basic physical and organi&ational structures needed for the operation of a society or
enterprise.
d) any technology on the scale of nanometers.
e) a claim of a fact by a party in a pleading" %hich the party claims to be able to prove.
`1. The types of IIIIIIIIII include %eb pages developed in languages and frame%or*s
li*e 9T';" (9(" (erl" B6(" A6(.O$T" R';" and des*top applications li*e 3pen3ffice" 'icrosoft
5ord. 2. The ne% born businessman as*ed for a IIIIIIIIII for his invention.8. This product
should bring us more IIIIIIIIIII.4. Lou should really be a IIIIIIII in your sphere if you %ant
to %or* for that company.. Fenerally IIIIIIIII deals %ith structures of the si&e
100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension.
2.,. Retain these expressions and use them more frequently.
9it the air%aves - go on radio and TQ to promote something or to tell their side of a story.
6ilver surfer - an elderly person %ho uses the internet.
Meep your eyes peeled - )f you *eep your eyes peeled" you stay alert or %atchful.
Mno% your place - A person %ho *no%s their place doesn.t try to impose themselves on others.
<p in the air - )f a matter is up in the air" no decision has been made and there is uncertainty about
it.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay about new de'elopments in electronics. +se the expressions that you ha'e
studied during this lesson-
8
Lesson , "pp!e Inc-
I Reading
"PPLE INC-
"pp!e Inc- formerly "pp!e ComputerD Inc-" is an American multinational corporation %ith a focus
on designing and manufacturing consumer electronics and closely related soft%are products.
$stablished in /upertino" /alifornia on April 1" 19:7" Apple develops" sells" and supports a series
of personal computers" portable media players" mobile phones" computer soft%are" and computer
hard%are and hard%are accessories. As of 6eptember 200:" the company operates about 200 retail
stores in five countries and an online store %here hard%are and soft%are products are sold. The
iTunes 6tore provides music" music videos" television programs" movies" podcasts" i(od games" and
audioboo*s" %hich can be do%nloaded using iTunes on 'ac or 5indo%s" and also on the i(od
touch and the i(hone. The company.s best-*no%n hard%are products include the 'acintosh line of
personal computers" the i(od line of portable media players" and the i(hone. Apple.s soft%are
products include the 'ac 36 R operating system" the i;ife suite of multimedia and creativity
soft%are" and Einal /ut 6tudio" a suite of professional audio- and film-industry soft%are products.
Apple employs over 20"000 permanent and temporary %or*ers %orld%ide and had %orld%ide
annual sales in its fiscal year 200: (ending 6eptember 29" 200:! of <6g24.01 billion.
History
The company introduced the Apple )) microcomputer in 'arch 19::. A fe% years later" in 19A8" it
introduced the ;isa" the first commercial personal computer to employ a graphical user interface
(F<)!" %hich %as influenced in part by the Rero# Alto. ;isa %as also the first personal computer to
have the mouse. )n 19A4" the 'acintosh %as introduced" %hich arguably advanced the concept of a
ne% user-friendly graphical user interface. Apple.s success %ith the 'acintosh became a ma2or
influence in the development of graphical interfaces else%here" %ith ma2or computer operating
systems" such as the /ommodore Amiga" and Atari 6T" appearing on the mar*et %ithin t%o years of
the introduction of the 'acintosh.
)n 1991" Apple introduced the (o%er4oo* line of portable computers. The 1990s also sa% Apple.s
mar*et share fall as competition from 'icrosoft 5indo%s and the comparatively ine#pensive )4'
(/ compatible computers that %ould eventually dominate the mar*et. )n the 2000s" Apple
e#panded its focus on soft%are to include professional and prosumer video" music" and photo
production solutions" %ith a vie% to promoting their products as a +digital hub+. )t also introduced
the i(od" the most popular digital music player in the %orld.
T#e ear!y years
Apple %as founded on April 1" 19:7 by 6teve Bobs" 6teve 5o&nia*" and >onald 5ayne to sell the
Apple ) personal computer *it. They %ere hand-built by 6teve 5o&nia* in the living room of Bobs.
parents. home" and the Apple ) %as first sho%n to the public at the 9omebre% /omputer /lub.
$ventually 200 computers %ere built. The Apple ) %as sold as a motherboard (%ith /(<" >A'"
and basic te#tual-video chips! - not %hat is today considered a complete personal computer. The
user %as re@uired to provide t%o different A/ input voltages (the manual recommended specific
transformers!" %ire an A6/)) *eyboard (not provided %ith the computer! to a ?)( connector
(providing logic inverter and alpha loc* chips in some cases!" and to %ire the video output pins to a
monitor or to an >E modulator if a TQ set %as used. The Apple ) %ent on sale in Buly 19:7 and %as
mar*et-priced at g777.77. 5o&nia* says he came up %ith the g777.77 price because he li*ed
repeating digits.
Bobs approached a local computer store" The 'yte )hop" %hich ordered fifty units and paid <6g00
for each unit after much persuasion. 9e then ordered components from /ramer $lectronics" a
national electronic parts distributor. <sing a variety of methods" including borro%ing space from
friends and family and selling various items including a Qol*s%agen Type 2 bus" Bobs managed to
secure the parts needed %hile 5o&nia* and >onald 5ayne assembled the Apple ).
Apple %as incorporated Banuary 8" 19:: %ithout 5ayne" %ho sold his share of the company bac* to
Bobs and 5o&nia*" and %ith 'i*e 'ar**ula" %ho provided essential business e#pertise
T#e Ggo!den ageG
4
The 'acintosh (ortable %as Apple.s first +portable+ 'acintosh computer" released in 19A9.
9aving learned several painful lessons after introducing the bul*y 'acintosh (ortable in 19A9"
Apple introduced the (o%er4oo* in 1991" %hich established the modern form and ergonomic
layout of the laptop computer.The same year" Apple introduced 6ystem :" a ma2or upgrade to the
operating system %hich added color to the interface" and introduced a number of ne% net%or*ing
capabilities. )t %ould remain the architectural basis for 'ac 36 until 2001.
The success of the (o%er4oo* and several other Apple products during this period led to increasing
revenue. Eor some time" it appeared that Apple could do no %rong" introducing fresh ne% products
and generating increasing profits in the process. The maga&ine Mac#ddict named the period
bet%een 19A9 to 1991 the +first golden age+ of the 'acintosh. 9o%ever" the continuing
development of 'icrosoft 5indo%s had given birth to an interface that %as competitive %ith
Apple.s. /ombined %ith a huge base of lo%-cost computers and peripherals and an improving
soft%are suite" an increasing number of potential customers turned to the +5intel+ standard.
Apple" relying on high profit margins to maintain their massive >h? budget" never developed a
clear response. )nstead they sued 'icrosoft for theft of intellectual property" in Apple /omputer
)nc. v. 'icrosoft /orporation.
S
The la%suit dragged on for years before finally being thro%n out of
court. A series of ma2or product flops and missed deadlines destroyed Apple.s reputation of
invincibility" and conse@uently their mar*et share dropped" particularly after the release of
5indo%s 9.
1HHI to 3EE>. New (eginnings
3n August 1" 199A" Apple introduced a ne% all-in-one 'ac computer reminiscent of the original
'acintosh 12AM1 the i'ac. The i'ac design team %as led by Bonathan )ve" %ho %ould later design
the i(od and the i(hone. 5hile not groundbrea*ing from a technological standpoint" the i'ac
featured an innovative ne% translucent plastic e#terior" originally in 4ondi 4lue" but later many
other colors. The i'ac sold close to A00"000 units in its first five months and helped return the
company to sustained profitability for the first time since 1998.
Through this time period" Apple purchased several companies in a move to create a portfolio of
professional and consumer-oriented digital production soft%are. )n 199A" Apple announced the
purchase of 'acromedia.s Einal /ut soft%are" signaling its e#pansion into the digital video editing
mar*et The follo%ing year" Apple released t%o video editing products1 i'ovie for consumers" and
Einal /ut (ro for professionals" the latter of %hich has gone on to be a significant video-editing
program" %ith A00"000 registered users in early 200:. )n 2002 Apple purchased Oothing >eal for
their advanced digital compositing application 6ha*e" as %ell as $magic for their music
productivity application ;ogic" %hich led to the development of their consumer-level Farage4and
application. 5ith i(hoto.s release in 2002" this completed Apple.s collection of consumer and
professional level creativity soft%are" %ith the consumer-level applications being collected together
into the i;ife suite.
'ac 36 R" the operating system based on OeRT.s 3($O6T$( and 46? <ni# %as released on
'arch 24" 2001 after several years of development. Aimed at consumers and professionals ali*e"
'ac 36 R aimed to marry the stability" reliability and security of the <ni# operating system %ith
the ease of use afforded by a completely overhauled user interface. To aid users in moving their
applications from 'ac 36 9" the ne% operating system allo%ed the use of 36 9 applications
through 'ac 36 R.s /lassic environment.
1. 5hat is Apple )nc. focused onC
2. 5hat does the iTunes 6tore provideC
8. 5hat do the company.s best-*no%n hard%are products includeC
4. 5hen %as the i(od introducedC
. 9o% %as the maga&ine i'acAddictJ named the period bet%een 19A9 to 1991C
7. 5hat did Apple sue 'icrosoft forC
:. 5hat is an Gi'acHC
A. 5hat release in 2002 completed Apple.s collection of consumer and professional level creativity
soft%areC
9. 5hat is G'ac 36 RH based onC

1. Apple )nc. is a Ferman multinational corporation %ith a focus on designing and manufacturing
consumer electronics.
2. The company.s best-*no%n hard%are products include the 'acintosh line of personal computers"
the i(od line of portable media players" and the i(hone.
8. The 'acintosh (ortable %as Apple.s second +portable+ 'acintosh computer" released in 19A9.
4. The i'ac design team %as led by Bonathan )ve" %ho %ould later design the (hone.
. )n 2002 Apple purchased Oothing >eal for their advanced digital compositing application 6ha*e"
as %ell as $magic for their magic tric*s.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. (F<)!, 2. (rosumer video, 8. /omputer *it, 4. /ompetitive, . i'ovie, 7. $magic, :. i(hoto.
2. %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms . +se the words from 2.1
1! IIIIIIIIIIIIIgives you more %ays to *eep trac* of your photos by organi&ing them according
to %hoJs in your pictures" %here you too* them" and %hen you too* them.
2! IIIIIIIIIIIformerly offered a line of audio interface hard%are" the Audio%er* (/) cards" as
%ell as <64 units.
8!5ith IIIIIIIIII" you can label clips - or parts of clips - as GfavoriteH or Gre2ected"H tag video
%ith preset or custom *ey%ords" then filter your entire library by rating and=or *ey%ord.
4! The inventions of the 21
st
century are not near IIIIIIII %ith the ones of 10 years ago.
! A IIIIIII uses a combination of technologies and devices to provide a platform the user can
interact %ith" for the tas*s of gathering and producing information.
7! The IIIIIIIII Tips and Tric*s are the guide to )nternet video gear and camcorders.
:! 9e bought through the )nternet a IIIIIIIII %ith all the accessories.
3ff-hand- %ithout preparation,
6eed money- money that is used to start a small business,
bero hour- The time %hen something important is to begin,
(ay your dues - have had your o%n struggles and earned your place or position.
Meep your cool- don.t get e#cessively e#cited or disturbed in a bad situation.
Mno% the ropes- 6omeone %ho is e#perienced and *no%s ho% the system %or*s *no% the ropes.
III 4peaing
.1 Retell the text of the lesson, and discuss it.
I' +riting
<-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /How t#e mac#ine can su(stitute a #uman1
7
UNIT 'II OPER"TIN7 454TEM4
Lesson 1 Operating 4ystem
I Reading
OPER"TIN7 454TEM
An operating system (O4! is a computer program that manages the hard%are and soft%are
resources of a computer. At the foundation of all system soft%are" the 36 performs basic tas*s such
as controlling and allocating memory" prioriti&ing system re@uests" controlling input and output
devices" facilitating net%or*ing" and managing files. )t also may provide a graphical user interface
for higher level functions. )t forms a platform for other soft%are. $very program running on a
computer" be it bac*ground services or applications" is a process.
'any operating systems include some level of security. 6ecurity is based on the t%o ideas that1 The
operating system provides access to a number of resources" directly or indirectly" such as files on a
local dis*" privileged system calls" personal information about users" and the services offered by the
programs running on the system, The operating system is capable of distinguishing bet%een some
re@uesters of these resources %ho are authori&ed (allo%ed! to access the resource" and others %ho
are not authori&ed (forbidden!. 5hile some systems may simply distinguish bet%een +privileged+
and +non-privileged+" systems commonly have a form of re@uester identity" such as a user name.
>e@uesters" in turn" divide into t%o categories1
Today" most modern operating systems contain Fraphical <ser )nterfaces (F<)s" pronounced goo+
ee!. A fe% older operating systems tightly integrated the F<) to the *ernel-for e#ample" the
original implementations of 5indo%s and 'ac 36. 'ore modern operating systems are modular"
separating the graphics subsystem from the *ernel (as is no% done in ;inu#" and 'ac 36 R" and to
a limited e#tent 5indo%s!.
'any operating systems allo% the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The R
5indo% 6ystem in con2unction %ith FO3'$ or M?$ is a commonly found setup on most <ni#
and <ni# derivative (46?" ;inu#" 'ini#! systems. 9o%ever" some operating systems do not give
such a fle#ible F<)" such as 5indo%s-these operating systems re@uire the use of soft%are to
modify the e#isting F<)" and more often than not" they are only able to change simple attributes
such as menu style" colours" etc.
F<)s tend to change %ith time. Eor e#ample" 5indo%s has modified its F<) every time a ne%
ma2or version of 5indo%s is released and the 'ac 36 F<) changed dramatically %ith the
introduction of 'ac 36 R.
A device driver is a specific type of computer soft%are developed to allo% interaction %ith
hard%are devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating %ith the device"
through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hard%are is connected to"
providing commands to and=or receiving data from the device" and on the other end" the re@uisite
interfaces to the operating system and soft%are applications. )t is a speciali&ed hard%are-dependent
computer program %hich is also operating system specific that enables another program" typically
an operating system or applications soft%are pac*age or computer program running under the
operating system *ernel" to interact transparently %ith a hard%are device" and usually provides the
re@uisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hard%are
interfacing needs.
The *ey design goal of device drivers is abstraction. $very model of hard%are (even %ithin the
same class of device! is different. Oe%er models also are released by manufacturers that provide
more reliable or better performance and these ne%er models are often controlled differently.
/omputers and their operating systems cannot be e#pected to *no% ho% to control every device"
both no% and in the future. To solve this problem" 36es essentially dictate ho% every type of
device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these 36
mandated function calls into device specific calls. )n theory a ne% device" %hich is controlled in a
ne% manner" should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This ne% driver %ill ensure
that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating systems. point of vie% for any person.

:
1. 5hat is the *ey design goal of device driversC
2. 5hat manages an operating system (36!C
8. 5hen are the models released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better
performance and %hen are they controlled differentlyC
4. 5hat allo%s the user to install or create any user interface they desireC
. 5hat are the conditions for a ne% device" %hich is controlled in a ne% manner" to function
correctlyC
7. 5hat *ind of interface do the most modern operating systems containC
:. 9o% can %e call any program running on a computer" be it bac*ground services or
applicationsC
A. 5hat is a device driver developed forC
9. 5hat are the ideas the computer security is based onC
10. Five the e#ample of a form of re@uester identity.
1. A device driver is a specific type of minicomputer developed to allo% interaction %ith
hard%are devices.
2. /omputers and their operating systems cannot be e#pected to *no% ho% to control every
device" both no% and in the future.
8. The 5indo% OT in con2unction %ith FO3'$ or M?$ is a commonly found setup on most
<ni# and <ni# derivative (46?" ;inu#" 'ini#! systems.
4. Today" most modern cellphones contain F<)s.
. At the foundation of all system soft%are" the 36 performs basic tas*s such as controlling and
allocating memory" prioriti&ing system re@uests" controlling input and output devices"
facilitating net%or*ing" and managing files.
II 'oca(u!ary
9ard%are" ?evice driver" F<)" 36" FO3'$" /omputer security" >e@uester" Asynchronous"
6ubsystem
2. (atch the words with their definitions.
+ords.
1. To operate
2. )nteraction
8. )nterface
4. To allocate
. Eacility
0efinitions.
a& To perform a %or* or labour, to e#ert po%er or strength" physical or mechanical, to act.
(& To set aside for a purpose" to distribute according to a plan.
c& An installation" contrivance" or other thing %hich facilitates something, a place for doing
something.
d& The connection bet%een a user and a machine" bet%een t%o systems or subsystems" a piece of
code defining a set of operations that other code must implement.
e& The act of some things interacting" or acting upon one another.
A
1. The ob2ective of IIIII includes protection of information and property from theft" corruption"
or natural disaster" %hile allo%ing the information and property to remain accessible and
productive to its intended users.
2. 5ith an analysis of urban systems dynamics" SA.5. 6teissT S4T defines five intersecting
systems" including the physical IIIIII and behavioral system-
8. The IIIIII pro2ect puts heavy emphasis on simplicity" usability" and ma*ing things G2ust
%or*H.
4. The IIIII is usually 5)'(-based" although occasionally other metaphors surface" such as
those used in 'icrosoft 4ob.
. 4e a%are of IIIIII bet%een different medications.
7. The data is sent over the air IIIIII to the remote system.
:. Transport IIIIII in 4ang*o* are not sufficient to prevent fre@uent traffic collapses during
rush hour.
A. The virtual IIIIII can send simulated processor-level events li*e interrupts into the virtual
machine.
9. 56-Eederation Active >e@uestor (rofile deals %ith +active IIIIII+ such as 63A(-enabled
applications.
To constitute - To cause to stand, to establish, to enact, to ma*e up, to compose, to form.
To manage ) to direct or be in charge of" to handle or control" to force" to succeed at an attempt.
To re!y on ) To be dependent upon" to be confident in.
To prioriti:e ) to arrange or list a group of things in order of priority or importance.
To dictate ) To order" command" control, to spea* in order for someone to %rite do%n the %ords.
To tend ) be li*ely" or probable to do something" or to have a certain characteristic.
1. )t IIIII to sno% here in %inter.
2. >e@uirements are IIIII to minimi&e ris* during development so that the most important or high
ris* re@uirements are implemented first.
8. Trademar* 3%ners %ill nevertheless try IIIII ho% their mar*s are to be represented" but
dictionary publishers %ith spine can resist such pressure.
4. Argentina is the second largest country in 6outh America " IIIII as a federation of 28 provinces
and an autonomous city.
. 9e IIIII to climb the highest to%er in the %orld %ith no alpinist e@uipmentj
7. The city IIIII the sub%ay system.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: G9o% does the internet help a (/ user to get his
computer %or*ing properlyCH
Lesson 3 History of O4
I Reading
HI4TOR5 O9 OPER"TIN7 454TEM4
The first computers did not have operating systems. 4y the early 1970s" commercial computer
vendors %ere supplying @uite e#tensive tools for streamlining the development" scheduling" and
9
e#ecution of 2obs on batch processing systems. $#amples %ere produced by <O)QA/ and /ontrol
?ata /orporation" amongst others.
Through the 1970s" several ma2or concepts %ere developed" driving the development of operating
systems. The development of the )4' 6ystem=870 produced a family of mainframe computers
available in %idely differing capacities and price points" for %hich a single operating system
36=870 %as planned (rather than developing ad-hoc programs for every individual model!. This
concept of a single 36 spanning an entire product line %as crucial for the success of 6ystem=870
and" in fact" )4'.s current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original
system, applications %ritten for the 36=870 can still be run on modern machines. 36=870 also
contained another important advance1 the development of the hard dis* permanent storage device
(%hich )4' called ?A6?!. Another *ey development %as the concept of time-sharing1 the idea of
sharing the resources of e#pensive computers amongst multiple computer users interacting in real
time %ith the system. Time sharing allo%ed all of the users to have the illusion of having e#clusive
access to the machine, the 'ultics timesharing system %as the most famous of a number of ne%
operating systems developed to ta*e advantage of the concept.
'ultics" particularly" %as an inspiration to a number of operating systems developed in the 19:0s"
notably <ni# by ?ennis >ichie and Men Thompson. Another commercially-popular minicomputer
operating system %as Q'6.
The first microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that
had been developed for mainframes and minis, minimalistic operating systems %ere developed"
often loaded from >3' and *no%n as Monitors. 3ne notable early dis*-based operating system
%as /(='" %hich %as supported on many early microcomputers and %as largely cloned in creating
'6-?36" %hich became %ildly popular as the operating system chosen for the )4' (/ ()4'.s
version of it %as called )4'-?36 or (/-?36!" its successors ma*ing 'icrosoft one of the %orld.s
most profitable companies. The ma2or alternative throughout the 19A0s in the microcomputer
mar*et %as 'ac 36" tied intimately to the Apple 'acintosh computer.
4y the 1990s" the microcomputer had evolved to the point %here" as %ell as e#tensive F<)
facilities" the robustness and fle#ibility of operating systems of larger computers became
increasingly desirable. 'icrosoft.s response to this change %as the development of 5indo%s OT"
%hich served as the basis for 'icrosoft.s entire operating system line starting in 1999. Apple rebuilt
their operating system on top of a <ni# core as 'ac 36 R" released in 2001. 9obbyist-developed
reimplementations of <ni#" assembled %ith the tools from the FO< (ro2ect" also became popular,
versions based on the ;inu# *ernel are by far the most popular" %ith the 46? derived <O)Res
holding a small portion of the server mar*et. The gro%ing comple#ity of embedded devices has led
to increasing use of embedded operating systems.
1. Five the e#amples of the corporations that used to produce the first batch processing
systems.
2. Oame the operating system" %hose development produced a family of mainframe computers
available in %idely differing capacities and price pointsC
8. Eor %hat had not first microcomputers the capacity or needC
4. 5hat %as the ma2or alternative throughout the 19A0s in the microcomputer mar*etC
. 5hat %as 'icrosoft.s response to %hat %as the development of 5indo%s OT" %hich served
as the basis for 'icrosoft.s entire operating system line starting in 1999C
7. $#plain the concept of time-sharing.
:. 9o% %as the )4'.s version of operating system calledC
A. 5hat happened %ith the Apple operating system in 2001C
9. 5hat %as an inspiration to a number of operating systems developed in the 19:0s" notably
<ni# by ?ennis >ichie and Men ThompsonC
10. 5hat has led to increasing use of embedded operating systemsC
70
1. 4y the 1990s" the microcomputer had evolved to the point %here" as %ell as e#tensive F<)
facilities.
2. 5indo%s OT" particularly" %as an inspiration to a number of operating systems developed in
the 19:0s.
8. 9obbyist-developed reimplementations of <ni#" assembled %ith the tools from the FO<
(ro2ect" didnJt became popular.
4. The first computers had a various operating systems.
. The 'ultics timesharing system %as the most famous of a number of ne% operating systems
developed to ta*e advantage of the concept.
II 'oca(u!ary
'ultics" 'onitors" (/-?36" 36=870" Q'6" 5indo%s OT" <O)QA/" Time-sharing" /(='" ?A6?
1. ?evice
2. 'ainframe
8. 'icrocomputer
4. (rogram
. Application
a! A computer program or the set of soft%are that the end user perceives as a single entity as a
tool for a %ell-defined purpose.
b! A soft%are application" or a collection of soft%are applications" designed to perform a specific
tas*.
c! A large" po%erful computer able to manage very many simultaneous tas*s and communicate
%ith very many connected terminals.
e! Any piece of e@uipment made for a particular purpose" especially a mechanical or electrical
one.
d! A computer designed around a microprocessor" smaller than a minicomputer or a mainframe.
1. The i(hone IIIIII Q>D connects to ma2or social net%or*s.
2. This IIIIII runs on both ;inu# and 'icrosoft 5indo%s.
8. Qirtually all early IIIIII %ere essentially bo#es %ith lights and s%itches, one had to read and
understand binary numbers and machine language to program and use them.
4. The IIIIII 6olid 6tate %as a 2-address" bi-@uinary coded decimal computer" %ith memory on
a rotating drum %ith 000 signed 10 digit %ords.
. 4y allo%ing a large number of users to interact concurrently %ith a single computer" IIIIII
dramatically lo%ered the cost of providing computing capability.
7. IIIIII %as one of the earliest operating systems to use <nicode internally.
:. 'odern IIIII used in mainframes only very rarely consist of single dis*-drives.
A. IIIIII implemented a single level store for data access" discarding the clear distinction
bet%een files and process memory.
9. /onse@uently" demand plummeted and ne% IIIIII installations %ere restricted mainly to
financial services and government.
10. )4' IIIIII is a ?36 system for the )4' (ersonal /omputer and compatibles"
manufactured and sold by )4' from the 19A0s to the 2000s.
"n inspiration - an unconscious burst of creativity in a literary" musical" or other artistic
endeavour.
71
" capacity - the ability to hold" receive or absorb" or a measure thereof" similar to the
concept of volume" the ability to perform some tas*.
0escendant - one %ho is the progeny of someone at any distance of time.
Nota(!e 0 %orthy of notice, remar*able, memorable, noted or distinguished.
To tae ad8antage of 0 to ma*e use of" to e#ploit.
To e8o!8e ) to move in regular procession through a system" to develop.
1. 9e %as truly IIIIII musicianj
3. The patriarch survived many IIIIII1 five children" a do&en grandchildren" even a great
grandchild.
,. Lou %ill remove the pig" place it in the car" and drive it to my house in 5iltshire. That is the
plan ) have IIIIII.
<. )t is an art to be able IIIIII the possibilities Fod sends you every day.
>. (erfect formula of a genius creation includes talent" labor and IIIIII.
C- The IIIIII of this vessel is not big enough big for this dish.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: G5hat %ould ) do %ithout computer todayCH
Lesson , LinuB
I Reading
LINUJ
LinuB is a <ni#-li*e computer operating system family that uses the ;inu# *ernel. A ;inu#
system %hich includes system utilities and libraries from the FO< (ro2ect is sometimes referred
to as 7NU$LinuB.
)nitially developed and used primarily by individual enthusiasts on personal computers" ;inu#
has since gained the support of corporations such as )4'" 6un 'icrosystems" 9e%lett-(ac*ard"
and Oovell" )nc." and has risen to prominence as an operating system for servers, Oetcraft
reported in 6eptember 2007 that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies run
;inu# on their %eb servers.
;inu# has been more %idely ported to different computing platforms than any other operating
system. )t is used in devices ranging from supercomputers to mobile phones" and has a foothold
in the personal computer and business des*top mar*ets.
;inu# is a prominent e#ample of free soft%are and of open source development. )ts underlying
source code is available for anyone to use" modify" and redistribute freely" and in some instances
the entire operating system consists of free=open source soft%are.
The history of ;inu# is closely tied to that of FO<. (lans for FO< %ere made in 19A8 and in
6eptember of that year they %ere announced publicly %hen >ichard 6tallman founded the FO<
(ro2ect. FO< %as to be a complete <ni#-li*e operating system composed entirely of free
soft%are. 6oft%are development %or* began in Banuary 19A4. 4y the beginning of the 1990s" the
pro2ect had produced or collected most of the necessary components of this system" including
libraries" compilers" te#t editors" and a <ni# shell. Thus the FO< mid-level portions of the
operating system %ere almost complete. The upper level could be supplied by the R 5indo%
6ystem" but the lo%er level" %hich consisted of a *ernel" device drivers" system-level utilities
and daemons" %as still mostly lac*ing. )n 1990" the FO< pro2ect began developing the FO<
9urd *ernel" based on the 'ach micro*ernel" but development proved une#pectedly difficult and
proceeded slo%ly" and to date has only been marginally usable.
)n 1991" %or* on the ;inu# *ernel began by ;inus Torvalds %hile attending the <niversity of
9elsin*i. Torvalds originally created the ;inu# *ernel as a replacement for the non-free 'ini#
72
*ernel. Although dependent on the 'ini# userspace at first" %or* from both ;inu# *ernel
developers and the FO< pro2ect allo%ed ;inu# to %or* %ith FO< components. Thus ;inu#
filled the last ma2or gap in running a complete" fully functional operating system built from free
soft%are.
Today" Torvalds continues to direct the development of the *ernel. 6tallman heads the Eree
6oft%are Eoundation" %hich in turn develops the FO< components. Einally" third-party non-
FO< components are developed by individuals and corporations. These third-party components
comprise a vast body of %or* and may include both *ernel modules and userland applications
and libraries. ;inu# vendors combine and distribute the *ernel" FO< components" and non-FO<
components %ith additional pac*age management soft%are in the form of ;inu# distributions.
1. 5hen did Oetcraft report that eight of the ten most reliable internet hosting companies to
run ;inu# on their %eb serversC
2. 5ho heads the Eree 6oft%are Eoundation" %hich in turn develops the FO< componentsC
8. 9as the ;inu# 36 been more %idely ported to different computing platforms than any
other operating systemC
4. 5hat *ind of 36 is considered as a prominent e#ample of free soft%are and of open source
developmentC
. 5hat comprises a vast body of %or* and may include both *ernel modules and userland
applications and librariesC
7. Oame the *ernel for %hich Torvalds originally created the ;inu# *ernel as a replacement.
:. 5hat %as FO< to be in 19A8C
A. 4y %hom are third-party non-FO< components developedC
9. 5hat had the ;inu# pro2ect produced and collected by the beginning of the 1990sC
10. 5hat is available for any ;inu# user to modify and redistribute freelyC
1. ;inu# is a prominent e#ample of free soft%are and of open source development.
2. )nitially developed and used primarily by individual enthusiasts on personal computers"
;inu# has since gained the support of corporations such as O4A" 6un /ommunication and
6F9/.
8. ;inu# vendors donJt combine and donJt distribute the *ernel" FO< components" and non-
FO< components %ith additional pac*age management soft%are.
4. ;inu# is a <ni#-li*e computer operating system family that uses the ;inu# *ernel.
. Oetcraft reported in ?ecember 2007 that nine of the ten most reliable internet hosting
companies run ;inu# on their %eb servers.
II 'oca(u!ary
FO<" Mernel" Eoothold" 'odule" )4'" 'ini#" <tility" ?aemon
+ords.
1. To proceed
2. <serland
8. /omponent
4. /omputer platform
. Qendor
7. (ac*age
:. 6erver
0efinitions.
78
a! A smaller" self-contained part of a larger entity. 3ften refers to a manufactured ob2ect that is
part of a larger device.
b! To have application or effect, to operate, to move" pass" or go for%ard or on%ard, to advance.
c! A computer or a program %hich provides services to other programs or users" either in the
same computer or over a computer net%or*.
d! 6omething %hich consists of various components" such as a piece of computer soft%are.
e! A conceptual space outside the *ernel in %hich a user.s applications can run %ithout the ris* of
damage to the operating system.
f! A particular type of operating system or environment such as a database or other specific
soft%are" and=or a particular type of computer or microprocessor" used to describe a particular
environment for running other soft%are" or for defining a specific soft%are or hard%are
environment for discussion purposes.
g! A person or a company that vends or sells.
1. ?id you test the soft%are IIIIII to ensure completenessC
2. (rocesses usually become IIIIIII by for*ing a child process and then having their parent
process immediately e#it" thus causing init to adopt the child process.
8. 3perating system tas*s are done differently by different IIIIII" depending on their design
and implementation.
4. The plan for the IIIIII operating system %as publicly announced on 6eptember 2:" 19A8" on
the net.uni#-%i&ards and net.usoft ne%sgroups by >ichard 6tallman.
. ;ight IIIIII from the sun.
7. That program runs on an R-5indo%-6ystem IIIIII.
:. A IIIIII often manufactures inventoriable items" and sells those items to a customer.
A. A /(< is a IIIIII of a computer.
9. ?istinguishing characteristics of computer memory IIIIII include voltage" capacity" speed
(i.e. Sbit rateTT!" and form factor.
10. A soft%are program specifically designed to help manage and tune the computer hard%are"
operating system or application soft%are" and perform a single tas* or a small range of tas*s, as
opposed to application IIIIII %hich tend to be soft%are suites.
Usa(!e - capable of being used.
UneBpected!y ) in an une#pected manner.
To inc!ude ) to enclose" confine, to contain" as parts of a %hole.
To refer to ) to direct the attention of, to submit to an authority figure for consideration, to
allude to" ma*e a reference or allusion to.
Entire!y ) to the full or entire e#tent" to the e#clusion of others
Prominence ) the state of being prominent1 %idely *no%n or eminent, relative importance.
Margina!!y ) in a marginal manner" or to a marginal e#tent, barely sufficiently, slightly, in
the margin of a boo*.
1. )t is IIIIIII the largest commune in the Aude d_partement" although the pr_fecture
(capital! resides in the slightly smaller commune of /arcassonne.
2. The vacation pac*age IIIIII car rental.
8. A roadside memorial is a mar*er that usually commemorates a site %here a person died
suddenly and IIIIII" a%ay from home.
4. A IIIIII is a large" bright feature e#tending out%ard from the 6un.s surface" often in a
loop shape.
. $ven if soft%are is IIIIII as per the above considerations" it may still be hard to learn to
use.
74
7. The shop assistant IIIIIII me IIIIII the help des* on ground floor.
:. All-ne%s radio is a radio format devoted IIIIII to discussion and broadcast of ne%s.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic:
4The advantages and disadvantages of non+profit operation systems./
Lesson < LinuB 8s- +indows
I Reading
COMP"RI4ON O9 +IN0O+4 "N0 LINUJ
Microsoft +indows and LinuB are t%o ma2or competing computer operating systems.
5indo%s is the most prominent proprietary (shared source! operating system (about A9.2P of
the des*top mar*et share!" and ;inu# is the most prominent free soft%are and open source
operating system (about 8.8P of the des*top mar*et share!. The t%o operating systems compete
for user base in the personal computer mar*et as %ell as the server mar*et. They are used in
government offices" schools" business offices" homes" supercomputers" intranet and internet
servers" and more.
There are several factors that may ma*e it difficult to compare 5indo%s and ;inu#.
There are many ;inu# distributions" each %ith a %ide range of functionality.
5indo%s and ;inu# sell at different prices based on their editions" distributors" and 3$'
products" ma*ing it difficult to compare pricing. ;inu# vendors charge mainly for technical
support" but the actual 36 is almost al%ays freely available" %hereas 'icrosoft charges for both
the sale to limited usage rights to the 5indo%s operating system as %ell as technical support.
+;inu#+ technically refers to the ;inu# *ernel" though it is mostly understood to mean any
operating system distribution that uses the ;inu# *ernel. Eor this meaning the name
+FO<=;inu#+ is used" too. )t indicates that this operating system is a variant of FO<.
+5indo%s+ is a trademar* for a series of 'icrosoft products that include the 5indo%s platform
and various user programs.
$ach 5indo%s version has several editions" including %ome 5dition" $rofessional 5dition" and
others. ;inu# has many distributions" some of %hich have different editions as %ell. $ach edition
differs greatly and may confuse attempts to compare operating systems. $ach ;inu# distribution
offers different usability and capabilities" ma*ing it hard to put an upper and lo%er bound on
%hat the system is capable of. 'a2or 3$' vendors of ne% computers may also choose to bundle
additional useful soft%are in addition to the operating system installed.
5indo%s and ;inu# sell at different prices based on their editions" distributors" and 3$'
products" ma*ing it difficult to compare pricing. 'any popular distributions of ;inu# are freely
available" focusing on paid support.
9o%ever" it is possible to compare the list prices of ;inu# des*top subscriptions and 5indo%s
licenses. Eor e#ample" a (fully referenced! pricing comparison published by Oovell demonstrates
that at list price" a 1-year subscription to 6<6$ ;inu# $nterprise ?es*top 10 is A:P less
e#pensive than a ne% license for 5indo%s Qista 4usiness %ith one year of maintenance (g0 vs.
g8A7!" %hile a 8-year subscription is :AP less e#pensive than a ne% 5indo%s Qista 4usiness
license %ith 8 years of maintenance (g12 vs g9!.
)t may be difficult to compare features bet%een the t%o 36s" because one or both may provide
various alternatives to carry out each tas*. Eor e#ample" comparing des*top environment
features is not trivial" because there are several ?$s for ;inu#" %hereas 5indo%s has only one
(though it should be noted that this environment can be changed by installing third party
soft%are" such as 3b2ect ?es*top!. This ma*es it impossible to limit the comparison to a single
couple of 5indo%s=;inu# des*top environments.
)t is very difficult to estimate the number of ;inu# users as they are not re@uired to register their
copies. The above chart cites a study by the 58/ of ho% %hich operating system %as used %hile
7
hitting certain sites. This does not reflect the total mar*et share for either 'icrosoft or ;inu#" it
simply estimates the des*top mar*et share (O3T$" does not include servers" please see section
belo%!. The above chart also points to des*top environments1 some ;inu# distributions may not
come %ith all the des*top environments described above" some may come %ith more.
1. 5hy is it so difficult to estimate the number of ;inu# usersC
2. 5hy is it so difficult to compare features bet%een the t%o 36sC
8. 5hat has each 5indo%s versionC
4. 5here are the 5indo%s and ;inu# 06s usually usedC
. 5hat 36 is the most prominent proprietary (shared source! operating systemC
7. 5hat do ;inu# popular distributions focus on profit conte#tC
:. 5hose 8-year subscription is less e#pensiveC
A. 5hat indicates that the operating system is a variant of FO<C
9. 5hy is it so hard to put an upper and lo%er bound on %hat the system is capable of tal*ing
about the each ;inu# distributionC
10. 5hat ma*es it impossible to limit the comparison to a single couple of 5indo%s=;inu#
des*top environmentsC
1. )t is very difficult to estimate the number of ;inu# users as they are not re@uired to register
their copies.
2. +;inu#+ technically refers to the ;inu# hard%are" though it is mostly understood to mean
any operating system distribution that uses the ;inu# driver device.
8. ;inu# is the most prominent proprietary (shared source! operating system (about A9.2P of
the des*top mar*et share!" and 5indo%s is the most prominent free soft%are and open
source operating system (about 8.8P of the des*top mar*et share!.
4. The above chart also points to des*top environments1 some ;inu# distributions may not
come %ith all the des*top environments described above" some may come %ith more.
. 'a2or 9otdog vendors of ne% computers may also choose to bundle additional useful
soft%are in addition to the operating system installed.
II 'oca(u!ary
9ome $dition" +FO<=;inu#+" 3$'" 3b2ect ?es*top" ?$" (rofessional $dition.
1.36 version, 2.36 edition, 8.Eree soft%are, .(roprietary soft%are, 7.Trademar*, :.;icense, A.
6erver
a! A %ord" symbol" or phrase used to identify a particular company.s product and differentiate it
from other companies. products.
b! The legal terms under %hich a person is allo%ed to use a product" especially soft%are.
c! A particular revision (of soft%are" firm%are" /(<" etc.!.
d! /omputer soft%are %hich is neither free nor open source.
e! The %hole number of copies of an 36 at one time.
f! 6oft%are that can be used" studied" and modified %ithout restriction" and %hich can be copied
and redistributed in modified or unmodified form either %ithout restriction" or %ith minimal
restrictions" %ithout charge.
g! A computer or a program %hich provides services to other programs or users" either in the
same computer or over a computer net%or*.
77
1. The first t%o editions released by 'icrosoft are 5indo%s R( IIIIII" designed for home
users" and 5indo%s R( IIIIII" designed for business and po%er-users.
2. )n 199A" 'icrosoft stated that there %ould be no IIIII of 5indo%s 9# after 5indo%s 9A.
8. As IIIII are usually administered by @ualified engineers" their operating systems are also
more tuned for stability and performance than for user friendliness and ease of use.
4. 'icrosoft ended mainstream support for 5indo%s 'illennium IIIII on 81 ?ecember 2008.
. IIIIII term means that it has a copyright o%ner %ho can e#ercise control over %hat users can
do %ith the soft%are.
7. 5ell *no%n e#amples of IIIII include 'icrosoft 5indo%s" Adobe Elash (layer" (68 36"
iTunes" Adobe (hotoshop" Foogle $arth" 'ac 36 R" 6*ype" 5inbip and some versions of <ni#.
:. /onfusingly" IIIIII may also refer to a company that purchases a component made by a
second company for use in the purchasing company.s products.
A. The essential function of a IIIII is to e#clusively identify the commercial source or origin of
products or services" such that a trademar*" properly called" indicates source or serves as a badge
of origin.
9. Lou have a IIIIII to use it under the terms of this agreement" until you breach this
agreement.
10. 'any companies %hose core business is not in the )T sector choose IIIII for their )nternet
information and sales sites" due to the lo%er initial capital investment and ability to freely
customi&e the application pac*ages.
To estimate ) to calculate roughly" often from imperfect data" to compare.
In addition to ) other than" e#cept for" besides" also.
To ref!ect ) to mirror" or sho% the image of something. To give evidence of someone.s or
something.s character etc. and many other.
4ing!e ) not accompanied by anything else, not divided in parts, designed for a single use,
not reusable, not married nor dating" the only one.
To (und!e ) to tie or %rap together, to hustle, to dispatch something or someone @uic*ly,
to dress %armly, to hurry. (computing! To sell hard%are and soft%are as a single product.
To focus on ) to concentrate one.s attention.
3-C%ill in the blank spaces with the correspondent word. .hoose words from 2.,
1. The shop %indo% IIIII his image as he %al*ed past.
2. Bosh put do%n that he %as a IIIII male on the dating %ebsite.
8. IIIIIII passing the testj
4. )n mathematics" to IIIII typically means to find upper or lo%er bounds of a @uantity that
cannot readily be computed precisely and is also an educated guess.
. IIIIII the biblical te#t the Qulgate contains 1: prologues" 17 of %hich %ere %ritten by
Berome.
7. )n mar*eting strategy IIIII is to involve offering several products for sale as one combined
product.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: G)f Lou have to choose an 36 for Lour ne% (/" %hat
36 %ould Lou install1 5indo%s or ;inu#C 5hyCH
Lesson > Microsoft +indows O4
I Reading
MICRO4O9T +IN0O+4
7:
Microsoft +indows is the name of several families of proprietary operating systems by
'icrosoft. They can run on several types of platforms such as servers" embedded devices and"
most typically" on personal computers. 'icrosoft first introduced an operating environment
named 6indows in Oovember 19A as an add-on to '6-?36 in response to the gro%ing trend of
graphical user interfaces (F<)! populari&ed by the 'acintosh. 'icrosoft 5indo%s eventually
came to dominate the %orld.s personal computer mar*et. At the 2004 )?/ ?irections conference"
)?/ Qice (resident Avneesh 6a#ena stated that 5indo%s had appro#imately 90P of the client
operating system mar*et.

The term 6indows collectively describes any or all of several
generations of 'icrosoft ('6! operating system (36! products. These products are generally
categori&ed as follo%s1
The early versions of 5indo%s %ere often thought of as 2ust graphical user interfaces or
des*tops" mostly because they %ere started from '6-?36 and used it for file system services.
9o%ever even the earliest 17-bit 5indo%s versions already assumed many typical operating
system functions" notably having their o%n e#ecutable file format and providing their o%n
device drivers (timer" graphics" printer" mouse" *eyboard and sound! for applications. <nli*e
'6-?36" 5indo%s allo%ed users to e#ecute multiple graphical applications at the same time"
through cooperative multitas*ing. Einally" 5indo%s implemented an elaborate" segment-based"
soft%are virtual memory scheme %hich allo%ed it to run applications larger than available
memory1 code segments and resources %ere s%apped in and thro%n a%ay %hen memory became
scarce" and data segments moved in memory %hen a given application had relin@uished
processor control" typically %aiting for user input. $#amples include 5indo%s 1.0 (19A!.

This family of 5indo%s systems %as designed and mar*eted for higher-reliability business use"
and %as unencumbered by any 'icrosoft ?36 heritage. The first release %as 5indo%s OT 8.1
(1998" numbered +8.1+ to match the 5indo%s version and to one-up 36=2 2.1" )4'.s flagship
36 codeveloped by 'icrosoft and 5indo%s OT.s main competitor at the time!" %hich %as
follo%ed by OT 8. (1994!" OT 8.1 (199!" and OT 4.0 (1997!, the latter implemented the
5indo%s 9 user interface. 'icrosoft then moved to combine their consumer and business
operating systems. Their first attempt" 5indo%s 2000" failed to meet their goals" and %as
released as a business system. The home consumer edition of 5indo%s 2000" codenamed
+5indo%s Oeptune+" ceased development and 'icrosoft released 5indo%s 'e in its place.
$ventually +Oeptune+ %as merged into their ne% pro2ect" 5histler" %hich later became 5indo%s
R(. 6ince then" a ne% business system" 5indo%s 6erver 2008" has e#panded the top end of the
range" and the forthcoming 5indo%s Qista %ill complete it. 5indo%s /$" 'icrosoft.s offering
in the mobile and embedded mar*ets" is also a true 82-bit operating system that offers various
services for all sub-operating %or*stations.
'icrosoft has ta*en t%o parallel routes in operating systems. 3ne route has been the home user
and the other has been the professional )T user. The dual route has generally led to the home
versions %ith more +eye candy+ and less functionality in net%or*ing and security" and
professional versions %ith less +eye candy+ and better net%or*ing and security.
The first independent version of 'icrosoft 5indo%s" version 1.0" released in Oovember 19A"
lac*ed a degree of functionality and achieved little popularity" and %as to compete %ith Apple.s
o%n operating system. 5indo%s 1.0 did not provide a complete operating system, rather" it
e#tended '6-?36. 'icrosoft 5indo%s version 2.0 %as released in Oovember" 19A: and %as
slightly more popular than its predecessor. 5indo%s 2.08 (release date Banuary 19AA! had
changed the 36 from tiled %indo%s to overlapping %indo%s. The result of this change led to
Apple /omputer filing a suit against 'icrosoft alleging infringement on Apple.s copyrights.
'icrosoft 5indo%s version 8.0" released in 1990" %as the first 'icrosoft 5indo%s version to
achieve broad commercial success" selling 2 million copies in the first si# months. )t featured
improvements to the user interface and to multitas*ing capabilities. )n August 199" 'icrosoft
released 5indo%s 9" %hich made further changes to the user interface and %as the first
5indo%s version to utili&e multitas*ing.
7A
)n Buly 1998" 'icrosoft released 5indo%s OT based on a ne% *ernel. OT %as considered to be
the professional 36. OT and the 5indo%s non-professional line %ould later be fused together to
create 5indo%s R(.
The ne#t in line %as 'icrosoft 5indo%s 9A released in Bune 199A. 6ubstantially critici&ed for its
slo%ness compared %ith 5indo%s 9" many of its basic problems %ere later rectified %ith the
release of 5indo%s 9A 6econd $dition in 1999.
As part of its professional line" 'icrosoft released 5indo%s 2000 in Eebruary 2000. The
consumer version follo%ing 5indo%s 9A %as 5indo%s 'e (5indo%s 'illennium $dition!.
>eleased in 6eptember 2000" 5indo%s 'e attempted to implement a number of ne%
technologies for 'icrosoft1 most notably publici&ed %as +<niversal (lug and (lay.+ 9o%ever"
the 36 %as substantially critici&ed for its lac* of compatibility and stability.
)n 3ctober 2001" 'icrosoft released 5indo%s R(" a version built on the 5indo%s OT *ernel
that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of 5indo%s 9 and its successors. This ne%
version %as %idely praised in computer maga&ines. )t shipped in t%o distinct editions" +9ome+
and +(rofessional+" the former lac*ing many of the superior security and net%or*ing features of
the (rofessional edition. Additionally" the +'edia /enter+ edition %as released in 2008" %ith an
emphasis on support for ?Q? and TQ functionality including program recording and a remote
control.
)n April 2008" 5indo%s 6erver 2008 %as introduced" replacing the 5indo%s 2000 line of server
products %ith a number of ne% features and a strong focus on security, this %as follo%ed in
?ecember 200 by 5indo%s 6erver 2008 >2.
5indo%s Qista" the successor to 5indo%s R(" is due to be released on Banuary 80" 200:. )t %as
made available to business consumers on Oovember 80" 2007. 5indo%s 6erver 2008.s successor
%ill be 5indo%s 6erver +;onghorn+" and has a planned release date in the second half of 200:.
1. 5hy %ere the early versions of 5indo%s thought of as 2ust graphical user interfaces or
des*topsC
2. 5hat did )?/ Qice (resident Avneesh 6a#ena state at the 2004 )?/ ?irections conference
about the 5indo%s 36C
8. 5hen did the 'icrosoft release 5indo%s 2000C
4. 5hat *ind of t%o parallel routes in operating systems has 'icrosoft ta*en in its %or*C
. 5hy did the first independent version of 'icrosoft 5indo%s" version 1.0" released in
Oovember 19A" achieve little popularityC
7. 5hat %as the first 'icrosoft 5indo%s version to achieve broad commercial success"
selling 2 million copies in the first si# monthsC
:. 5hat %as the codename of the home consumer edition of 5indo%s 2000C
A. 5hat %as the first 5indo%s version to utili&e multitas*ingC
9. 5hy %as the 5indo%s '$ 36 substantially critici&ed for its lac* of compatibility and
stabilityC
10. 5hat 5indo%s 36 versions %ere fused together to create 5indo%s R(C
1. )n 3ctober 2001" 'icrosoft released 5indo%s '$" a version built on the 5indo%s /$
*ernel that also retained the consumer-oriented usability of 5indo%s 9A and its successors.
2. The early versions of 5indo%s %ere often thought of as 2ust graphical user interfaces or
des*tops" mostly because they %ere started from '6-?36 and used it for file system
services.
8. 'icrosoft first introduced an operating environment named 6indows in Oovember 19A as
an add-on to '6-?36 in response to the gro%ing trend of multitas*ing capabilities.
4. As part of its professional line" 'icrosoft released 5indo%s 19A in Eebruary 2000.
. Additionally" the +'edia /onverter+ edition %as released in 2008" %ith an emphasis on
support for ?Q? and /? functionality including program recording and a remote control.
79
7. OT %as considered to be the professional 36. OT and the 5indo%s non-professional line
%ould later be fused together to create 5indo%s R(.
:. 'icrosoft : can run on several types of platforms such as servers" embedded devices and"
most typically" on personal computers.
II 'oca(u!ary
5indo%s 'e" +5indo%s Oeptune+" +;onghorn+" ?Q?" 5indo%s Qista" )?/" +eye candy+
1.)mprovement, 2./apability, 8.$nvironment, 4.6egment, ./opyright, 7.?es*top computer, :.
/ompatibility, A.6tability, 9.)nput
a& The po%er or ability to generate an outcome" the ability to perform actions.
(& A personal computer designed to fit on a des*.
c& A length of some ob2ect. An $thernet bus (computing!.
d& The soft%are and=or hard%are e#isting on any particular computer system. )n general" it refers
to the surroundings of an ob2ect.
e& The condition of being stable. The tendency to recover from perturbations.
f& 6omething fed into a process %ith the intention of it shaping or affecting the outputs of that
process.
g& The act of improving, advancement or gro%th, promotion in desirable @ualities, progress
to%ard %hat is better" increase, gro%th, progress, advance.
#& 6omething fed into a process %ith the intention of it shaping or affecting the outputs of that
process.
!& The ability to e#ecute a given program on different types of computers %ithout modification of
the program or the computers.
m& The set of e#clusive rights granted to the author or creator of an original %or*" including the
right to copy" distribute and adapt the %or*.
1. IIIIII is described under the umbrella term intellectual property along %ith patents and
trademar*s.
2. The largest gathering of global performance IIIIII professionals passionate about improving
performance in the %or*place.
8. IIIII and output devices ma*e up the hard%are interface bet%een a computer as a scanner or
7?3E controller.
4. IIIII come in a variety of types ranging from large vertical to%er cases to small form factor
models that can be tuc*ed behind an ;/? monitor.
. A IIIII" in the systems engineering sense" is defined as the ability to e#ecute a specified
course of action.
7. 6oft%are %hich provides a des*top IIIIII might also provide drag and drop functionality and
other features %hich ma*e the des*top metaphor more complete.
:. A memory IIIIII has a set of permissions" and a length" associated %ith it.
A. 6oft%are IIIIII can also refer to ability for the soft%are to run on a particular operating
system.
9. Qariations of the term IIIIII often describe the %ay data is stored on the discs.
10. IIIIII %as the successor to 5indo%s 9A and" 2ust li*e 5indo%s 9A" %as targeted
specifically at home (/ users.
4uccesor
9ort#coming
:0
To ac#ie8e
E8entua!!y
4u(stantia!!y
To imp!ement
2.-%ill in the blank spaces with the correspondent word. .hoose words from 2.,
1. Lou can IIIIII all of your life goalsj
2. 9e %as the IIIIII of Mumaragupta )) and the predecessor of Oarasimhagupta 4aladitya .
8. This terrible tragedy IIIIII damaged her health.
4. )tJs a good thought" but it %ill be a difficult thing IIIIII.
. ) shall vote in the IIIIIII election.
7. IIIIII %e %ill o%n the house free and clear.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: G)s the popularity of the 5indo%s 36 brand out of
competitionC Les" Oo and 5hyC H
:1
Lesson C M4 0O4
I Reading
M4)0O4
M4)0O4 (short for Microsoft 0is* Operating 4ystem! is an operating system commerciali&ed
by 'icrosoft. )t %as the most %idely used member of the ?36 family of operating systems and
%as the dominant operating system for the (/ compatible platform during the 19A0s. )t has
gradually been replaced on consumer des*top computers by various generations of the 5indo%s
operating system.
'6-?36 %as originally released in 19A1 and had eight ma2or versions released before 'icrosoft
stopped development in 2000. )t %as the *ey product in 'icrosoft.s gro%th from a programming
languages company to a diverse soft%are development firm" providing the company %ith
essential revenue and mar*eting resources.
'6-?36 began as e?36 (for euic* and ?irty 3perating 6ystem!" %ritten by Tim (aterson for
computer manufacturer 6eattle /omputer (roducts (6/(! in 19A0. )t %as mar*eted by 6/( as
A7-?36 because it %as designed to run on the )ntel A0A7 processor. e?36 function calls %ere
based on the dominant /(='-A0 operating system" %ritten by ?igital >esearch" but it used a
different file system. )n a se@uence of events that %ould later inspire much fol*lore" 'icrosoft
negotiated a license for e?36 from 6/( in ?ecember 19A0 for g2"000" then re-licensed e?36
to )4'. 'icrosoft then ac@uired all rights to e?36 for only g0"000 from 6/( in Buly" 19A1"
shortly before the (/.s release.
)4' and 'icrosoft both released versions of ?36, the )4' version %as supplied %ith the )4'
(/ and *no%n as (/-?36. 3riginally" )4' only validated and pac*aged 'icrosoft
developments" and thus )4'.s versions tended to be released shortly after 'icrosoft.s. 9o%ever"
'6-?36 4.0 %as actually based on )4' (/-?36 4.0" as 'icrosoft %as by then concentrating
on 36=2 development. 'icrosoft released its versions under the name +'6-?36+" %hile )4'
released its versions under the name +(/-?36.+ )nitially" %hen 'icrosoft %ould license their
3$' version of '6-?36" the computer manufacturer %ould customi&e its name (i.e.
Tandy?36" /ompa@ ?36" etc!. 'ost of these versions %ere identical to the official '6-?36,
ho%ever" 'icrosoft began to insist that 3$'s start calling the product '6-?36. $ventually"
only )4' resisted this move.
'6-?36 has effectively ceased to e#ist as a product. )t became the bootstrap loader for
5indo%s 9" 5indo%s 9A and 5indo%s 'e" but %as integrated as a full product" thus ending
the days of a standalone ?36. Today it is still used in various embedded #A7 systems due to its
simplistic architecture" minimal memory re@uirements" and minimal processor speed
re@uirements. The command line interpreter of 5indo%s OT is cmd.e#e" %hich maintains most
of the same commands and compatibility %ith ?36.
5indo%s OT" although not based on ?36" provides a command-line interface similar to '6-
?36.s character-mode interface. This command line is provided by a native e#ecutable"
cmd.e#e. 'any command-line applications (*no%n as console applications! for 5indo%s are
incorrectly referred to as ?36 applications" %hen actually they are full 5indo%s applications
%hich use the console for their output rather than a graphical interface" and cannot be run under
any version of '6-?36, ho%ever" rema*es of ?36 such as Eree?36 have support for that type
of program.

1. 5hy %as the e?36 mar*eted by 6/( as A7-?36C
2. 4y %hat type of an operating system has the '6-?36 been replaced on consumer
des*topC
8. 5ho %rote the e?36 in 19A0C
4. ?ue to %hat *ind of characteristics is '6-?36 still used in various embedded #A7
systemsC
:2
. Oame the operating system that provides a command-line interface similar to '6-?36.s
character-mode interfaceC
7. 5hat became the bootstrap loader for 5indo%s 9" 5indo%s 9A and 5indo%s 'eC
:. 9o% do %e also call the command-line applicationsC
A. Eor ho% much did the 'icrosoft ac@uire all rights to e?36 from 6/( in Buly" 19A1C
9. Oame the operating system that e?36 function calls %ere based on.
10. 5hat cannot be run under any version of '6-?36C
1. )4' and 'icrosoft both released versions of 5indo%s OT.
2. '6-?36 %as originally released in 19A1 and had eight ma2or versions released before
'icrosoft stopped development in 2000.
8. '6-?36 %as the most %idely used member of the ?36 family of operating systems and
%as the dominant operating system for the (/ compatible platform during the 19A0s.
4. '6-?36 began as F<)" %ritten by Tim (aterson for computer manufacturer 6eattle
/omputer (roducts (6/(! in 19A0.
. FO3'$ %as the *ey product in 'icrosoft.s gro%th from a programming languages
company to a diverse soft%are development firm" providing the company %ith essential
revenue and mar*eting resources.
II 'oca(u!ary
2.< &i'e definitions to the following words.
e?36" Eree?36" A7-?36" (rocessor" /ompatibility" /onsole" 3$'" 4ootstrap" ;oader"
/ompa@" ?36.
2.1= (ake)up sentences with the terms from 2.1
2.11 (atch the words with their definitions.
+ords.
1. /ommand-line interface
2. >e@uirements
8. 3utput
4. To supply
. To release
0efinitions.
a! ?ata sent out of the computer" as to output device such as a monitor or printer.
b! To provide (something!" to ma*e (something! available for use.
c! To distribute an initial or ne% and upgraded version of a computer soft%are product, to ma*e
available to the public, to free or liberate, to set free.
d! A mechanism for interacting %ith a computer operating system or soft%are by typing
commands to perform specific tas*s.
e! A statement (in domain specific terms! %hich specifies a verifiable constraint on an
implementation that it shall undeniably meet or (a! be deemed unacceptable" or (b! result in
implementation failure" or (c! result in system failure. 6omething as*ed.

2.12 %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the words from 2.1 and 2.
1. They IIIIII the ne% product later than intended.
2. A IIIIII is used %henever a large vocabulary of commands or @ueries" coupled %ith a
%ide (or arbitrary! range of options" can be entered more rapidly as te#t than %ith a pure
F<).
8. IIIIII sho% %hat elements and functions are necessary for the particular pro2ect.
4. 6oft%are IIIIII can also refer to ability for the soft%are to run on a particular operating
system.
:8
. 'icrosoft purchased a none#clusive license for IIIIII from 6eattle /omputer (roducts in
?ecember 19A0 for g2"000.
7. A user typically interacts %ith a IIIIII application using only a *eyboard and display
screen" as opposed to F<) applications" %hich normally re@uire the use of a mouse or other
pointing device.
:. The IIIIII concept %as used in the )4' :01 computer (192-197! %hich had a +load
button+ %hich initiated reading of the first 87-bit %ord from a punched card in a card
reader.
A. A multi-core IIIIIII is a processing system composed of t%o or more independent cores.
9. An automobile part may carry the designation IIIIII if it is made by the same
manufacturer and is the original part used %hen building and selling the product.
10. All operating systems that support program loading have IIIIII apart from systems %here
code e#ecutes directly from >3' or in the case of highly speciali&ed computer systems
that only have a fi#ed set of specialised programs.
T#us - as a result" in this %ay or manner.
4tanda!one - operating" functioning" or e#isting %ithout additions or assistance,
independent, able to be separate or separated.
To negotiate - to arrange or settle something by mutual agreement" to confer %ith others in
order to come to terms or reach an agreement.
Initia!!y - in an initial manner or degree, at the beginning
7radua!!y - in a gradual manner, ma*ing slo% progress, slo%ly.
To cease to - to stop doing (something!.
1. The empire IIIIIII emerged as a distinct artistic and cultural entity from %hat is today
referred to as the >oman $mpire after A? 880.
2. IIIIII" they began to struggle for the first place in a very aggressive manner.
8. 9e should IIIIII %orry about his childrenJs career.
4. IIIIII ) %ill be able to fi# the car %ithout having to call a mechanic.
. 5e IIIIII the contract to everyone.s satisfaction.
7. They offer an ine#pensive add-on for a computer" or a IIIIII system %ith all the functions
built in.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "6implistic usage of modern opersting systems$
Lesson K UNIJ
I Reading
UNIJ
UniB (officially trademar*ed as UNIJL! is a computer operating system originally developed
in the 1970s and 19:0s by a group of AThT employees at 4ell ;abs including Men Thompson"
?ennis >itchie" and ?ouglas 'c)lroy. Today.s <ni# systems are split into various branches"
developed over time by AThT" as %ell as various commercial vendors and non-profit
organi&ations.
The present o%ner of the trademar* &7238 is The 3pen Froup" an industry standards
consortium. 3nly systems fully compliant %ith and certified to the 6ingle <O)R 6pecification
@ualify as +<O)Rk+ (others are called +<ni# system-li*e+ or +<ni#-li*e+!.
:4
<ni# operating systems are %idely used in both servers and %or*station. The <ni# environment
and the client-server program model %ere essential elements in the development of the )nternet
and the reshaping of computing as centered in net%or*s rather than in individual computers.
The <ni# system had a great impact on other operating systems. <ni# has been called +the most
important operating system you may never use.+
Eollo%ing the lead of 'ultics" it %as %ritten in high level language as opposed to assembly
(assembly had been necessary for achieving acceptable performance on early computers!.
)t had a drastically simplified file model compared to many contemporary operating systems"
treating all *inds of files as simple byte arrays. The file system hierarchy contained machine
services and devices (such as printers" terminals" or dis* drives!" providing a uniform interface"
but at the e#pense of occasionally re@uiring additional mechanisms such as ioctl and mode flags
to access features of the hard%are that did not fit the simple +stream of bytes+ model. The (lan 9
operating system pushed this model even further and eliminated the need for additional
mechanisms.
<ni# stores time values as the number of seconds from midnight Banuary 1" 19:0 (the +<ni#
$poch+! in variables of type timeIt" historically defined as +signed 82-bit integer+. 3n Banuary
19" 208A" the current time %ill roll over from a &ero follo%ed by 81 ones
(01111111111111111111111111111111! to a one follo%ed by 81 &eros
(10000000000000000000000000000000!" %hich %ill reset time to the year 1901 or 19:0"
depending on implementation. As many applications use 36 library routines for date
calculations" the impact of this could be felt much earlier than 208A, for instance" 80-year
mortgages may be calculated incorrectly beginning in the year 200A.

1. 5ho is the present o%ner of the trademar* &7238*
2. Oame the essential elements in the development of the )nternet and the reshaping of
computing as centered in net%or*s.
8. 5hat had the assembly been necessary forC
4. 5hat had a drastically simplified file model compared to many contemporary operating
systems" treating all *inds of files as simple byte arraysC
. 5hat do applications use for date calculationsC
7. 5hen did the +<ni# $poch+ beginC
:. Oame the operating system that pushed +stream of bytes+ model even further and
eliminated the need for additional mechanisms-
A. 4y %hom %as <O)R developedC
9. 5here are <ni# operating systems %idely usedC
1. The <ni# system had a great impact on other operating systems.
2. The present o%ner of the trademar* &7238 is 6eattle /omputer (roducts (6/(!" an
industry standards consortium.
8. As many applications use 36 library routines for date calculations" the impact of this could
be felt much earlier than 204:, for instance" 88-year mortgages may be calculated
incorrectly beginning in the year 2012.
4. <ni# is a computer operating system originally developed in the 1970s and 19:0s by a
group of AThT employees at 4ell ;abs.
. <ni# stores time values as the number of seconds from midnight Banuary 1" 19:0 (the
+<ni# $poch+! in variables of type timeIt" historically defined as +signed 74-bit integer+.
II 'oca(u!ary
<ni#" )nteger" 5or*station" 'echanism" +<ni#-li*e+
:
1. 9ard%are
2. Array
8. /ompliant
4. Oet%or*
. $nvironment
7. Eeature
a! Any interconnected group or system" multiple computers and other devices connected together
to share information
b! The part of a computer that is fi#ed and cannot be altered %ithout replacement or physical
modification, motherboard" e#pansion cards" etc.
c! The soft%are and=or hard%are e#isting on any particular computer system.
d! To clothe and ornament, to adorn or attire, to lay out in an orderly arrangement, to deploy or
marshal.
e! /ompatible %ith or follo%ing guidelines" specifications" rules" or la%s.
d! An important or main item. /omputing - a beneficial capability of a piece of soft%are.
1. 9e %as IIIIII in his finest robes and 2e%els.
2. The copy machine is connected to the IIIIII so it can no% serve as a printer.
8. The %or*place is IIIIII %ith the Americans %ith ?isabilities Act.
4. The connections present in a IIIIIII are called *inematic pairs.
. The program contained an internal IIIIII" %hich allo%ed a user to update display te#t after
each command *eystro*e.
7. That program uses the 'icrosoft 5indo%s IIIIII.
:. (resently" the IIIIII mar*et is highly commoditi&ed and is dominated by large (/ vendors"
such as ?ell and 9(" selling 'icrosoft 5indo%s=;inu# running on )ntel Reon=A'? 3pteron.
A. Alternative IIIIII based platforms are provided by Apple )nc." 6un 'icrosystems" and 6F).
9. 3ther IIIIII datatypes are implemented %ith a fi#ed si&e" usually a number of bits %hich is a
po%er of 2 (4" A" 17" etc.! or a memorable number of decimal digits (e.g." 9 or 10!.
Occasiona!!y - Erom time to time, no% and then, once in a %hile, at infre@uent intervals.
0rastica!!y - in a drastic manner, e#tremely, using drastic or severe measures.
9or instance - as an e#ample.
To #a8e an impact on - to influence, to affect.
Non)profit - not see*ing to produce a profit.
Imp!ementation ) the process of moving an idea from concept to reality, A result of
implementing something, a finished product" system or device.
T#e num(er of A @uantity.
1. $mployees of a IIIIII rarely ma*e as much as greedy counterparts in the commercial %orld.
2. IIIIIII" feuding bet%een different groups %ith the )ndigenous community %as identified as a
problem for a number of young people on the program.
8. Oo% that the re@uirements are complete %e can move on to IIIIIII.
4. 4y definition" IIIIIII elementary entities (atoms or molecules! comprising one mole of a
given substance.
. Oot only is he respected for his passion for soft%are" his very presence is e#pected IIIIIII
the company.s beleaguered team of programmers.
:7
7. 6ome perhaps %orship only on alternate 6undays, others still more IIIIIII.
:. ;isa al%ays %ore shorts and a T-shirt" %hich clashed IIIIII %ith her brother.s thic* %inter
coat.
666 3riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: G5ill all the computers in the %orld go mad on
Banuary 19" 208ACH
::
UNIT 'III PRO7R"MMIN7 L"N7U"7E4
Lesson 1 Programming Language
I Reading
PRO7R"MMIN7 L"N7U"7E
A programming !anguage is an artificial language that can be used to control the behavior of a
machine" particularly a computer. (rogramming languages are defined by syntactic and semantic
rules %hich describe their structure and meaning respectively. 'any programming languages
have some form of %ritten specification of their synta# and semantics, some are defined only by
an official implementation. (rogramming languages are used to facilitate communication about
the tas* of organi&ing and manipulating information" and to e#press algorithms precisely. 6ome
authors restrict the term +programming language+ to those languages that can e#press all
possible algorithms, sometimes the term +computer language+ is used for more limited artificial
languages. Thousands of different programming languages have been created" and ne%
languages are created every year.
Traits often considered important for constituting a programming language1
9unction( A programming language is a language used to %rite computer programs" %hich
involve a computer performing some *ind of computation or algorithm and possibly control
e#ternal devices such as printers" robots" and so on.
Target( (rogramming languages differ from natural languages in that natural languages are only
used for interaction bet%een people" %hile programming languages also allo% humans to
communicate instructions to machines. 6ome programming languages are used by one device to
control another. Eor e#ample (ost6cript programs are fre@uently created by another program to
control a computer printer or display.
"onstructs( (rogramming languages may contain constructs for defining and manipulating data
structures or controlling the flo% of e#ecution.
50pressive power( The theory of computation classifies languages by the computations they can
e#press (see /homs*y hierarchy!. All Turing complete languages can implement the same set of
algorithms. AO6)=)63 6e; and /harity are e#amples of languages that are not Turing complete
yet often called programming languages.
Oon-computational languages" such as mar*up languages li*e 9T'; or formal grammars li*e
4OE" are usually not considered programming languages. 3ften a programming language is
embedded in the non-computational (host! language.
A prominent purpose of programming languages is to provide instructions to a computer. As
such" programming languages differ from most other forms of human e#pression in that they
re@uire a greater degree of precision and completeness. 5hen using a natural language to
communicate %ith other people" human authors and spea*ers can be ambiguous and ma*e small
errors" and still e#pect their intent to be understood. 9o%ever" computers do e#actly %hat they
are told to do" and cannot understand the code the programmer +intended+ to %rite. The
combination of the language definition" the program" and the program.s inputs must fully specify
the e#ternal behavior that occurs %hen the program is e#ecuted.
'any languages have been designed from scratch" altered to meet ne% needs" combined %ith
other languages" and eventually fallen into disuse. Although there have been attempts to design
one +universal+ computer language that serves all purposes" all of them have failed to be
accepted in this role.The need for diverse computer languages arises from the diversity of
conte#ts in %hich languages are used1
(rograms range from tiny scripts %ritten by individual hobbyists to huge systems %ritten by
hundreds of programmers. (rogrammers range in e#pertise from novices %ho need simplicity
above all else" to e#perts %ho may be comfortable %ith considerable comple#ity.(rograms must
balance speed" si&e" and simplicity on systems ranging from microcontrollers to supercomputers.
(rograms may be %ritten once and not change for generations" or they may undergo nearly
constant modification. Einally" programmers may simply differ in their tastes1 they may be
accustomed to discussing problems and e#pressing them in a particular language.
:A
3ne common trend in the development of programming languages has been to add more ability
to solve problems using a higher level of abstraction. The earliest programming languages %ere
tied very closely to the underlying hard%are of the computer. As ne% programming languages
have developed" features have been added that let programmers e#press ideas that are more
removed from simple translation into underlying hard%are instructions. 4ecause programmers
are less tied to the needs of the computer" their programs can do more computing %ith less effort
from the programmer. This lets them %rite more programs in the same amount of time.
Oatural language processors have been proposed as a %ay to eliminate the need for a speciali&ed
language for programming. 9o%ever" this goal remains distant and its benefits are open to
debate. $dsger ?i2*stra too* the position that the use of a formal language is essential to prevent
the introduction of meaningless constructs" and dismissed natural language programming as
+foolish.+ Alan (erlis %as similarly dismissive of the idea.
1. 9o% is the definition of programming languages classifiedC
2. Eor %hat are programming languages usedC
8. 5hat important traits for constituting a programming language do you *no%C
4. 5hat is the function of programming languageC
. 5hat is the difference bet%een human and programming languageC
7. 9o% is the programming language constructedC
:. 5hat is the main purpose of programming languageC
A. 5hat are the most important conditions that programming language %or*C
9. 9o% %as the programming language changed over time timeC
10. 5hat is the $dsger ?i2*straJs position about formal and natural language programming C
1. A programming language is an artificial language that can be used to control the behavior
of a machine" particularly a car .
2. 'any programming languages have some form of %ritten specification of their synta# and
semantics, some are defined only by an official implementation.
8. (rogramming languages are used to burden communication and to e#press algorithms
precisely.
4. Oatural language processors have been proposed as a %ay to eliminate the need for a
speciali&ed language for programming .
. Thousands of different programming languages have been created" and no% ne% languages
arenJt created .
II 'oca(u!ary
1. programming language
2. natural languages
8. Oon-computational languages
4. scratch
. trend
7. translation
:. hard%are
A. The theory of computation
1.behavior" 2.syntactic" 8.semantic" 4.synta#" .9T';
a! the manner in %hich something functions or operates1
b! relating to or conforming to the rules of synta#,
c! relating to meaning or arising from distinctions bet%een the meanings of different %ords or
symbols
:9
d! the rules governing the formation of statements in a programming language.
e! a set of tags and rules for using them in developing hyperte#t documents S9yper te#t 'ar*up
;anguageT
1.)n the first part the greatest freedom has been used in reducing the narration into a narro%
compass" so that it is by no means a FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF but an epitome" in %hich" %hether
everything either useful or entertaining be comprised" the compiler is least @ualified to
determine. 2.The faulty >>>>>>>>>>>> of a computer program can ma,e many problems. :. )n
his test Bhon scorned all FFFFFFFFFFFF rules of english language. 4. FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
classifies languages by the computations they can e#press. .The bar silver is in the north cache,
you can find it by the FFFFFFFFFFFFof the east hummoc*" ten fathoms south of the blac* crag
%ith the face on it. 7.Oature has her language" and she is not unveracious, but %e don.t *no% all
the intricacies of her FFFFFFFFFFFFF 2ust yet" and in a hasty reading %e may happen to e#tract
the very opposite of her real meaning. :.<p until recently %hen coding a page in FFFFFFFFFF
%e %ould be using tags such as the font tag and p paragraph tags. A.FFFFFFFFFFFFFF computer
machinery and e@uipment collectively, e#cepting the programs. 9.This is 2ust a FFFFFFFFFFFFFF
" you can thro% it. 10.FFFFFFFFFFFFFFF processors have been proposed as a %ay to eliminate
the need for a speciali&ed language for programming.
1. respectively - adv. in the order given,
2. flo% of - n. A continuous output or outpouring , a continuous movement or
circulation
8. fallen into disuse - to become useless
4. accustomed to - adj. ( someone or something and to doing something! used to someone
or something
. tie to - to connect one thing to another
1. Any increase in pay is IIIIIIIIIII doing a better 2ob. 2. Today a IIIIIIIIIII paper%or*
%as across his des*. 8.5e have become so FFFFFFFFFFFFF seeing and using promotional
merchandise that %e don..t even reali&e it. . 4.The brothers %ere called Eeli# and 'a#"
IIIIIIIIII..After an short circuit my computer has IIIIIIIIIIIII .
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. 4"omputers are useless. They can only give you
answers./ (ablo (icasso (1AA1 - 19:8!
A0
Lesson 3 Compi!ers
I Reading
COMPILER
A compi!er is a computer program (or set of programs! that translates te#t %ritten in a computer
language (the source language! into another computer language (the target language!. The
original se@uence is usually called the source code and the output called object code. /ommonly
the output has a form suitable for processing by other programs (e.g." a lin*er!" but it may be a
human-readable te#t file. The most common reason for %anting to translate source code is to
create an e#ecutable program. The name +compiler+ is primarily used for programs that translate
source code from a high-level programming language to a lo%er level language (e.g." assembly
language or machine language!. A program that translates from a lo% level language to a higher
level one is a decompiler. A program that translates bet%een high-level languages is usually
called a language translator" source to source translator" or language converter. A language
rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of e#pressions %ithout a change of
language. A compiler is li*ely to perform many or all of the follo%ing operations1 le#ical
analysis" preprocessing" parsing" semantic analysis" code generation" and code optimi&ation.
6oft%are for early computers %as e#clusively %ritten in assembly language for many years.
9igher level programming languages %ere not invented until the benefits of being able to reuse
soft%are on different *inds of /(<s started to become significantly greater than the cost of
%riting a compiler. The very limited memory capacity of early computers also created many
technical problems %hen implementing a compiler. To%ards the end of the 190s" machine-
independent programming languages %ere first proposed. 6ubse@uently" several e#perimental
compilers %ere developed. The first compiler %as %ritten by Frace 9opper" in 192" for the A-0
programming language. The E3>T>AO team led by Bohn 4ac*us at )4' is generally credited
as having introduced the first complete compiler" in 19:. /343; %as an early language to be
compiled on multiple architectures" in 1970.)n many application domains the idea of using a
higher level language @uic*ly caught on. 4ecause of the e#panding functionality supported by
ne%er programming languages and the increasing comple#ity of computer architectures"
compilers have become more and more comple#. $arly compilers %ere %ritten in assembly
language. The first self+hosting compiler - capable of compiling its o%n source code in a high-
level language - %as created for ;isp by 9art and ;evin at ')T in 1972. 6ince the 19:0s it has
become common practice to implement a compiler in the language it compiles" although both
(ascal and / have been popular choices for implementation language. 4uilding a self-hosting
compiler is a bootstrapping problem - the first such compiler for a language must be compiled
either by a compiler %ritten in a different language" or (as in 9art and ;evin.s ;isp compiler!
compiled by running the compiler in an interpreter.
Compi!ed 8ersus interpreted !anguages
9igher-level programming languages are generally divided for convenience into compiled
languages and interpreted languages. 9o%ever" there is rarely anything about a language that
requires it to be e#clusively compiled" or e#clusively interpreted. The categori&ation usually
reflects the most popular or %idespread implementations of a language - for instance" 4A6)/ is
thought of as an interpreted language" and / a compiled one" despite the e#istence of 4A6)/
compilers and / interpreters.
)n a sense" all languages are interpreted" %ith +e#ecution+ being merely a special case of
interpretation performed by transistors s%itching on a /(<. 'odern trends to%ard 2ust-in-time
compilation and bytecode interpretation also blur the traditional categori&ations.
There are e#ceptions. 6ome language specifications spell out that implementations must include
a compilation facility, for e#ample" /ommon ;isp. 3ther languages have features that are very
easy to implement in an interpreter" but ma*e %riting a compiler much harder, for e#ample"
A(;" 6O343;4" and many scripting languages allo% programs to construct arbitrary source
code at runtime %ith regular string operations" and then e#ecute that code by passing it to a
A1
special evaluation function. To implement these features in a compiled language" programs must
usually be shipped %ith a runtime library that includes a version of the compiler itself.
Hardware compi!ation
The output of some compilers may target hard%are at a very lo% level. Eor e#ample a Eield
(rogrammable Fate Array (E(FA! or structured Application-specific integrated circuit (A6)/!.
6uch compilers are said to be hardware compilers or synthesis tools because the programs they
compile effectively control the final configuration of the hard%are and ho% it operates, the
output of the compilation are not instructions that are e#ecuted in se@uence - only an
interconnection of transistors or loo*up tables. Eor e#ample" R6T is the Rilin# 6ynthesis Tool
used for configuring E(FAs. 6imilar tools are available from Altera" 6ynplicity" 6ynopsis and
other vendors.
1. 9o% does a compiler %or*C
2. 5here is the +compiler+ primarily usedC
8. 5hich is the difference bet%een a compiler and a decompilerC
4. 5hat *ind of operations does the compiler doC
. 5ho %as the author of the first compilerC
7. 9o% must the self-hosting compiler %or*C
:. 5hy are some compilers named hardware compilersC
A. 9o% %ere categori&ed higher-level programming languagesC
9. 5hat *ind of languages comprise a compilation facility and %hyC
10. 5hat does a language translator meanC
1. A compiler is a computer program that translates te#t %ritten in a computer language into
humane language .
2. The original se@uence (te#t! is usually called the source code and the output called
program code.
8. A program that translates from a lo% level language to a higher level one is a decompiler.
4. A program that translates bet%een high-level languages is usually called a language
rewriter.
. 9igher-level programming languages are generally divided for convenience into
interpreted languages and compiled languages .
II 'oca(u!ary
2., &i'e definitions to the following words.
1. compiler
2. decompiler
8. language converter
4. computer language
. E(FA
7. program
:. memory capacity
2.- (ake)up sentences with the terms from 2.1
2.8 (atch the words with their definitions
1 9ard%are a! computer ob2ect code that is processed by a program"
usually referred to as a virtual machine
2 6oft%are b! is the brains of the computer, it is %here most calculations
ta*e place.
8 4ytecode c! a high-level programming language developed by 6%iss
professor Oi*laus 5irth and named after the Erench mathematician
4 /(< d! an artificial language designed to e#press computations that
can be performed by a computer.
programming language
A2
e! various *inds of
programs used to operate
computers and related
devices
7 (ascal f! physical components of a computer system
1. IIIIIIIIIIis available in both interpreter and compiler form and has uni@ue %ays of defining
variables. 2 'ost IIIIIIIIIare purely te#tual, they use se@uences of te#t including %ords"
numbers" and punctuation" much li*e %ritten natural languages.8 IIIIIIIIIIIIcontain
programmable logic components called +logic bloc*s+" and a hierarchy of reconfigurable
interconnects that allo% the bloc*s to be +%ired together+-some%hat li*e a one-chip
programmable breadboard. 4 $arly IIIIIIIIIIII%ere %ritten in assembly language. 6ome
computer IIIIIIIIIIIare embedded into hard%are. 7 /omputer programs may be categori&ed
along functional lines1 system IIIIIIIIII and application IIIIIIIIII. 'any computer
programs may run simultaneously on a single computer" a process *no%n as multitas*ing. : The
ma#imum or minimum amount of IIIIIIIIIIIIa computer or hard%are device is capable of
having or the re@uired amount of memory re@uired for a program to run. A A personal computer
is made up of multiple physical components of IIIIIIIIIIIIII" upon %hich can be installed an
operating system and a multitude of soft%are to perform the operator.s desired functions. 9
IIIIIIIIIII is based on the A;F3; programming language and named in honor of the Erench
mathematician and philosopher 4laise (ascal. 10 IIIIIIIIIIIcontains a special set of memory
cells called registers that can be read and %ritten to much more rapidly than the main memory
area.
1 common!y adv. - usually, ordinarily
2 primari!y adv - principally, chiefly, mainly, at first, originally,
8 into adv. - to the inside or interior of , so as to be in or be included in1
4 (ased on adv - dependent on" founded on" grounded on
in a sense - in conclusion" specific meaning, definition
1. %e was ;;;;;;;;;; ,nown as <oe. 2.IIIIIIIII " )Jm not ready to do this 2ob . 8. (arties
entering IIIIIIIII an agreement. 4. 9e is IIIIIIIIIIII interested in butterflies. . This boo*
is IIIIIIIIIII true story.
/ommonly, in a sense" into " primarily " based on
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /T#e future of computers1
Lesson , Interpreters
I Reading
INTERPRETER %COMPUTIN7&
)n computer science" an interpreter normally means a computer program that e#ecutes" i.e.
performs" instructions %ritten in a programming language. 5hile interpretation and compilation
are the t%o principal means by %hich programming languages are implemented" these are not
fully distinct categories" one of the reasons being that most interpreting systems also perform
some translation %or*" 2ust li*e compilers. An interpreter may be a program that either
A8
1. e#ecutes the source code directly
2. translates source code into some efficient intermediate representation (code! and
immediately e#ecutes this
8. is invo*ed to e0plicitly e#ecute stored precompiled code made by a compiler %hich is
part of the interpreter system
(erl" (ython" 'AT;A4" and >uby are e#amples of type 2" %hile </6? (ascal and the Bava
virtual machine are type 81 Bava source programs are compiled ahead of time and stored as
machine independent code" %hich is then lin*ed at run-time and e#ecuted by an interpreter
(virtual machine!. 6ome systems" such as 6malltal*" and others" may also combine 2 and 8. The
terms )nterpreted language or /ompiled language merely mean that the canonical
implementation of that language is an interpreter or a compiler, a high level language is basically
an abstraction %hich is (ideally! independent of particular implementations.
The main disadvantage of interpreters is that %hen a program is interpreted" it runs slo%er than if
it had been compiled. The difference in speeds could be tiny or great, often an order of
magnitude and sometimes more. )t generally ta*es longer to run a program under an interpreter
than to run the compiled code but it can ta*e less time to interpret it than the total time re@uired
to compile and run it. This is especially important %hen prototyping and testing code %hen an
edit-interpret-debug cycle can often be much shorter than an edit-compile-run-debug cycle.
)nterpreting code is slo%er than running the compiled code because the interpreter must analy&e
each statement in the program each time it is e#ecuted and then perform the desired action
%hereas the compiled code 2ust performs the action. This run-time analysis is *no%n as
+interpretive overhead+. Access to variables is also slo%er in an interpreter because the mapping
of identifiers to storage locations must be done repeatedly at run-time rather than at compile
time.
There are various compromises bet%een the development speed %hen using an interpreter and
the e#ecution speed %hen using a compiler. 6ome systems (e.g." some ;)6(s! allo% interpreted
and compiled code to call each other and to share variables. This means that once a routine has
been tested and debugged under the interpreter it can be compiled and thus benefit from faster
e#ecution %hile other routines are being developed. 'any interpreters do not e#ecute the source
code as it stands but convert it into some more compact internal form. Eor e#ample" some
4A6)/ interpreters replace *ey%ords %ith single byte to*ens %hich can be used to find the
instruction in a 2ump table. An interpreter might %ell use the same le#ical analy&er and parser as
the compiler and then interpret the resulting abstract synta# tree.
There is a spectrum of possibilities bet%een interpreting and compiling" depending on the
amount of analysis performed before the program is e#ecuted. Eor e#ample" $macs ;isp is
compiled to bytecode" %hich is a highly compressed and optimi&ed representation of the ;isp
source" but is not machine code (and therefore not tied to any particular hard%are!. This
+compiled+ code is then interpreted by a bytecode interpreter (itself %ritten in /!. The compiled
code in this case is machine code for a virtual machine" %hich is implemented not in hard%are"
but in the bytecode interpreter. The same approach is used %ith the Eorth code used in 3pen
Eirm%are systems1 the source language is compiled into +E code+ (a bytecode!" %hich is then
interpreted by a virtual machine.
Eurther blurring the distinction bet%een interpreters" byte-code interpreters and compilation is
2ust-in-time compilation (or B)T!" a techni@ue in %hich bytecode is compiled to native machine
code at runtime. This confers the efficiency of running native code" at the cost of startup time
and increased memory use %hen the bytecode is first compiled. Adaptive optimi&ation is a
complementary techni@ue in %hich the interpreter profiles the running program and compiles its
most fre@uently-e#ecuted parts into native code. 4oth techni@ues are a fe% decades old"
appearing in languages such as 6malltal* in the 19A0s.
Bust-in-time compilation has gained mainstream attention amongst language implementors in
recent years" %ith Bava" (ython and the .O$T Erame%or* all no% including B)Ts.
The term +interpreter+ often referred to a piece of unit record e@uipment that could read punched
cards and print the characters in human-readable form on the card. The )4' 0 Oumeric
A4
)nterpreter and )4' : Alphabetic )nterpreter are typical e#amples from 1980 and 194"
respectively.
1. 5hat do interpreters meanC
2. 5hat is the relation bet%een interpreters and compilersC
8. 5hat *ind of interpreters can %e distinguishC
4. 5hat is the main disadvantage of interpreters and %hyC
. 5hat is the difference bet%een interpreting code and compiled codeC
7. ?escribe the process of compilation of $macs ;ispC
:. 5hat is the prerogative of B)TC
A. 5hich programs does B)T includeC
9. $#plain the term +interpreter+ (from 1980 and 194!.
1. An interpreter may be a program that either e#ecutes the source code directly .
2. The main advantage of interpreters is that %hen a program is interpreted" it runs slo%er
than if it had been compiled.
8. /ompiled code is slo%er than running the interpreting code .
4. The run-time analysis is *no%n as +interpretive overhead+.
. The interpreting systems and compilers perform some translation %or* .
II 'oca(u!ary
1. interpreter
2. +interpretive overhead+
8. precompiled code
4. )nterpreted language
. mapping
7. le#ical analy&er
:. B)T
A. +E code+
9. 6malltal* language
10. 'AT;A4
1 code" 2 (erl" 8 (yton" 4 ;)6(" /ontrol tables
a! high-level" general-purpose" interpreted" dynamic programming language.
b! multi-paradigm programming language.
c! system of symbols and rules used to represent instructions to a computer, a computer program.
d! tables that control the program flo% or play a ma2or part in program control.
e! po%erful computer programming language designed for manipulating lists of data or symbols"
(abbreviation ;isp in 6mall (ieces !
1. )n recent years more advanced IIIIIIIII have been developed to accommodate computer
data and satellite communications. 2.IIIIIIIIIIII %as originally developed by ;arry 5all in
19A: as a general-purpose <ni# scripting language to ma*e report processing easier .
8.IIIIIIIIII %as conceived in the late 19A0s and its implementation %as started in ?ecember
19A9
S7T
by Fuido van >ossum at /5) in the Oetherlands as a successor to the A4/ programming
language capable of e#ception handling and interfacing %ith the Amoeba operating system.
4.IIIIIIIIII %as developed in the late 190s and early 1970s by a group headed by Bohn
'c/arthy at ')T "its name derives from +list processor.+ . )n IIIIIIIIIIIIIIare no rigid
rules concerning the structure or content and the design of such tables is sometimes referred to as
+Table driven design+. 7. The term IIIIIIIIIIII often referred to a piece of unit record
e@uipment that could read punched cards and print the characters in human-readable form on the
A
card. :. IIIIIIIIIIII is a techni@ue in %hich bytecode is compiled to native machine code at
runtime.A. An ;;;;;;;;;;; can translates source code into some efficient intermediate
representation and immediately e#ecutes this .9. IIIIIIIIIIIIcompilation has gained
mainstream attention amongst language implementors in recent years . 10. 5ith FFFFFFFFFFFF"
the code is saved in the same format that you entered.
1. a spectrum of (something! 0 n. the full range (of something! , a variety
2. fully (distinct! 0 adv. sufficiently, more than ade@uately , totally or completely
8. either 0 in the same %ay
4. canonical 0 adj. reduced to the simplest and most significant form possible %ithout loss of
generality
. blurring 0 vb. to ma*e or become vague or less distinct , to ma*e (the 2udgment" memory"
or perception! less clear
1.The actress.s voice %as capable of e#pressing the %hole IIIIIIIIII of emotion. 2.)t is
IIIIIIII 2ust one %ord to ma*e me hate you .8. Bohn isn.t a liar" but he isn.t e#actly honest
IIIIIIII .4. /aravaggio has finally attained IIIIIIIIIII status as an artist. .9er remar*s %as
IIIIIIIII my opiniond an ma*e me not so sure .
III +riting
,-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. 4The most li,ely way for the world to be
destroyed, most e0perts agree, is by accident. That.s where we come in= we.re computer
professionals. 6e cause accidents. / Oathaniel 4orenstein
A7
UNIT IJ 4O9T+"RE
Lesson 1 "pp!ication 4oftware
I Reading
"pp!ication 4oftware
"pp!ication software is a subclass of computer soft%are that employs the capabilities of a
computer directly to a tas* that the user %ishes to perform. This should be contrasted %ith
system soft%are %hich is involved in integrating a computer.s various capabilities" but typically
does not directly apply them in the performance of tas*s that benefit the user. )n this conte#t the
term application refers to both the application software and its implementation.
A simple" if imperfect" analogy in the %orld of hard%are %ould be the relationship of an electric
light-an application-to an electric po%er generation plant-the system. The po%er plant
merely generates electricity" itself not really of any use until harnessed to an application li*e the
electric light %hich performs a service that the user desires.
The e#act delineation bet%een the operating system and application soft%are is not precise"
ho%ever" and is occasionally sub2ect to controversy. Eor e#ample" one of the *ey @uestions in the
<nited 6tates v. 'icrosoft antitrust trial %as %hether 'icrosoft.s )nternet $#plorer %eb bro%ser
%as part of its 5indo%s operating system or a separable piece of application soft%are. As
another e#ample" the FO<=;inu# naming controversy is" in part" due to disagreement about the
relationship bet%een the ;inu# *ernel and the ;inu# operating system.
Typical e#amples of software app!ications are %ord processors" spreadsheets" and media
players.
'ultiple applications bundled together as a pac*age are sometimes referred to as an app!ication
suite. 'icrosoft 3ffice and 3pen3ffice.org" %hich bundle together a %ord processor" a
spreadsheet" and several other discrete applications" are typical e#amples. The separate
applications in a suite usually have a user interface that has some commonality ma*ing it easier
for the user to learn and use each application. And often they may have some capability to
interact %ith each other in %ays beneficial to the user. Eor e#ample" a spreadsheet might be able
to be embedded in a %ord processor document even though it had been created in the separate
spreadsheet application.
)n some types of embedded systems" the application soft%are and the operating system soft%are
may be indistinguishable to the user" as in the case of soft%are used to control a Q/>" ?Q?
player or 'icro%ave 3ven.
1. 5hat %ould be an analogy to the application soft%are in the %orld of hard%areC
2. 9o% is the delineation bet%een the operating system and application soft%areC
8. 5hat %as one of the *ey @uestions in the <nited 6tates vs. 'icrosoft antitrust trialC
4. 5hat are the typical e#amples of soft%are applicationsC
. 5hich are typical e#amples of application suiteC
7. )n %hat types of embedded systems may the application soft%are and the operating system
soft%are be indistinguishable to the userC
:. 5hat usually have the separate applications in a suiteC
1. The term application refers only to the application soft%are.
2. The po%er plant merely generates electricity.
8. The e#act delineation bet%een the operating system and application soft%are is very precise.
4. Typical e#amples of soft%are applications are %ord processors" spreadsheets" and media
players.
. The separate applications in a suite usually don.t have a user interface that has some
A:
commonality.
7. The commonality bet%een separate applications in a suite ma*e it easier for the user to learn
and use each application.
:. )n some types of embedded systems" the application soft%are and the operating system
soft%are may be indistinguishable to the user.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. Application soft%are, 2. (o%er plant, 8. To harness, 4. 'edia player, . )nterface, 7. 5eb
bro%ser.
1. <ser, 2. (rocessor, 8. 6preadsheet, 4. To bundle, . Analogy, 7. /ontroversy.
a! A dispute" especially a public one" bet%een sides holding opposing vie%s, b! To tie" %rap" or
gather together, c! a similarity bet%een li*e features of t%o things" on %hich a comparison may
be based, d! a person %ho uses a computer, e! An accounting or boo**eeping program that
displays data in ro%s and columns on a screen, f! an electronic device designed to accept data"
perform prescribed mathematical and logical operations at high speed" and display the results of
these operations.
Mere!y A 1. only as specified and nothing more, simply1 merely a matter of form. 2. 3bsolete. a.
%ithout admi#ture, purely. b. altogether, entirely.
In part A partly, to a lesser degree or e#tent.
"s in t#e case of A As in the matter of someone or something, in the instance of someone or
something.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: " #he importance and 'ariety of software
applications$
Lesson 3 0ata(ase
I Reading
0"T"2"4E
The term or e#pression data(ase originated %ithin the computer industry. Although its meaning
has been broadened by popular use" even to include non-electronic databases" this article ta*es a
more technical perspective to%ards the topic. A possible definition is that a database is a
collection of records or information %hich is stored in a computer in a systematic (i.e. structured!
%ay" so that a computer program can consult it to ans%er @uestions. The items retrieved in
ans%er to @ueries become information that can be used to ma*e decisions. The computer
program used to manage and @uery a database is *no%n as a database management system
(?4'6!. The properties and design of database systems are included in the study of information
science.
The central concept of a database is that of a collection of records" or pieces of *no%ledge.
Typically" for a given database" there is a structural description of the type of facts held in that
database1 this description is *no%n as a sc#ema. The schema describes the ob2ects that are
represented in the database" and the relationships among them. There are a number of different
AA
%ays of organi&ing a schema" that is" of modeling the database structure1 these are *no%n as
database models (or data models!. The model in most common use today is the relational model"
%hich in layman.s terms represents all information in the form of multiple related tables each
consisting of ro%s and columns (the true definition uses mathematical terminology!. This model
represents relationships by the use of values common to more than one table. 3ther models such
as the hierarchical model and the net%or* model use a more e#plicit representation of
relationships.
?atabase management systems are usually categori&ed according to the data model that they
support1 relational" ob2ect-relational" net%or*" and so on. The data model %ill tend to determine
the @uery languages that are available to access the database. A great deal of the internal
engineering of a ?4'6" ho%ever" is independent of the data model" and is concerned %ith
managing factors such as performance" concurrency" integrity" and recovery from hard%are
failures. )n these areas there are large differences bet%een products.
The earliest *no%n use of the term .data base? %as in Bune 1978" %hen the 6ystem ?evelopment
/orporation sponsored a symposium under the title >evelopment and Management of a
"omputer+centered >ata 'ase. 0ata(ase as a single %ord became common in $urope in the
early 19:0s and by the end of the decade it %as being used in ma2or American ne%spapers.
(0ata(an" a comparable term" had been used in the 6ashington $ost ne%spaper as early as
1977.!
The first database management systems %ere developed in the 1970s. A pioneer in the field %as
/harles 4achman. 4achman.s early papers sho% that his aim %as to ma*e more effective use of
the ne% direct access storage devices becoming available1 until then" data processing had been
based on punched cards and magnetic tape" so that serial processing %as the dominant activity.
T%o *ey data models arose at this time1 /3?A6L; developed the net%or* model based on
4achman.s ideas" and (apparently independently! the hierarchical model %as used in a system
developed by Oorth American >oc*%ell" later adopted by )4' as the cornerstone of their )'6
product.
1. 5hich is a possible definition of the databaseC
2. 5hen %as the earliest *no%n use of the term .data base?9
8. 9o% is the computer program used to manage and @uery a database *no%nC
4. 5hat is the model in most common use todayC
. 9o% does the relational model represent relationshipsC
7. 9o% are database management systems usually categori&edC
:. 5hen %ere the first database management systems developedC
A. 5hat did 4achman.s early papers sho%C
9. 5hat is a great deal of the internal engineering of a ?4'6 concerned %ithC
10. 5hat did the 6ystem ?evelopment /orporation sponsor in Bune 1978C
1. The properties and design of database systems are included in the study of information
science.
2. There is a no structural description of the type of facts held in the database.
8. The schema describes the ob2ects that are represented in the database" and the relationships
among them.
4. The model in most common use today is the hierarchical model.
. ?atabase management systems are usually categori&ed according to the data model that
they support.
7. The relational model uses a more e#plicit representation of relationships.
:. The first database management systems %ere developed in the 19A0s.
A9
II 'oca(u!ary
1. ?atabase, 2. 6ystematic, 8. 6chema, 4. 9ierarchical, . ?4'6, 7. )4', :. )'6.
1. euery, 2. ;ayman, 8. Oet%or*, 4. >etrieve, . Terminology, 7. 6ymposium.
a! A meeting or conference for discussion of a topic" especially one in %hich the participants
form an audience and ma*e presentations, b! A user.s (or agent.s! re@ues for information"
generally as a formal re@uest to a database or a search engine, c! The vocabulary of technical
terms used in a particular field" sub2ect" science" or art, nomenclature, d! a person %ho is not a
member of a given profession, e! To locate and read (data! from storage" as for display on a
monitor, f! A system of computers that are 2oined together so that they can communicate by
e#changing information and sharing resources.
+it#in A )n or into the inner part, inside, 2.)nside the mind" heart" or soul, in%ardly.
"!t#oug# A in spite of the fact that, even though, though.
4o t#at A 1. )n order that 2. 5ith the result or conse@uence that.
Typica!!y A in a typical manner
Howe8er A 1. nevertheless, yet, on the other hand, in spite of that, 2. to %hatever e#tent or
degree, no matter ho%. 8. in %hatever manner.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "#he importance of the database and the main
reasons it was in'ented$
Lesson , 7rap#ica! User Interface
I Reading
7R"PHIC"L U4ER INTER9"CE
A grap#ica! user interface (or 7UI" often pronounced +gooey+!" is a particular case of user
interface for interacting %ith a computer %hich employs graphical images and %idgets in
addition to te#t to represent the information and actions available to the user. <sually the actions
are performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements. (recursors to F<)s
The precursor to F<)s %as invented by researchers at the 6tanford >esearch )nstitute led by
?oug $ngelbart. They developed use of te#t-based hyperlin*s manipulated %ith a mouse for the
3n-;ine 6ystem. The concept of hyperlin*s %as further refined and e#tended to graphics by
researchers at Rero# (A>/" %ho %ent beyond te#t-based hyperlin*s and used F<)s as the
primary interface for the Rero# Alto computer. 'ost modern general-purpose F<)s are derived
from this system. Eor this reason some people call this class of interface a (A>/ <ser )nterface
((<)! (note that (<) is also an acronym for perceptual user interface!.
The F<)s familiar to most people today are the 'acintosh" the R 5indo% 6ystem" or 5indo%s
interfaces. Their applications originated at the Rero# (A>/ ((alo Alto >esearch /enter! in the
late 19:0s and %as copied by Apple %ho used it in their first 'acintosh computers. ;ater )4'
and 'icrosoft borro%ed many of Apple.s ideas to develop the /ommon <ser Access
specifications" %hich formed the basis of the user interface found in 'icrosoft 5indo%s" )4'
36=2 (resentation 'anager" and the <ni# 'otif tool*it and %indo% manager. These ideas
evolved to create the interface found in current versions of the 5indo%s operating system" as
90
%ell as inspiring ne% features in 'ac 36 R and various des*top environments for <ni#-li*e
systems. Thus most current graphical user interfaces have largely common idioms.
$#amples of systems that support F<)s are 'ac 36" 'ac 36 R" ;inu#" 'icrosoft 5indo%s"
O$RT6T$( and the R 5indo% 6ystem. The latter is e#tended %ith tool*its such as 'otif
(/?$!" et (M?$! and FTMD (FO3'$!.
F<) design is an important ad2unct to application programming. )ts goal is to enhance the
usability of the underlying logical design of a stored program. The visible graphical interface
features of an application are sometimes referred to as +chrome+. They include graphical
elements (%idgets! that may be used to interact %ith the program. /ommon %idgets are1
%indo%s" buttons" menus" and scroll bars. ;arger %idgets" such as %indo%s" usually provide a
frame or container for the main presentation content such as a %eb page" email message or
dra%ing. 6maller ones usually act as a user-input tool.
,0 user interfaces
Eor commonly-available computer displays" 8? is a misnomer. Their displays are t%o-
dimensional. Three-dimensional images are pro2ected on them in t%o dimensions. 6ince this
techni@ue has been in use for many years" the recent use of the term 8? must be considered a
declaration by e@uipment mar*eters that the speed of 8? to 2? pro2ection is ade@uate to use in
standard F<)s.
8? F<)s are very common in science fiction literature and movies" such as in <urassic $ar,"
%hich features 6ilicon Fraphics. 8? file manager" +Eile system navigator+" an actual file
manager that never got any %idespread use" as the user interface of a <ni# computer.
8? is li*ely to ta*e a larger part in mainstream operating systems such as the upcoming 'ac 36
R v10. +;eopard+ and 5indo%s Qista. 9o%ever current ;inu# and 'ac operating systems have
already begun implementing three dimensional rendering" mainly in the form of eye candy. This
is evident in Apple.s use of euart& $#treme %ithin 'ac 36 R Tiger" %hich uses 3penF; to
render e#traordinary three dimensional animations. Eor e#ample" user s%itching is in the form of
a rotating cube and %indo% management in the form of $#pos_" %hich resi&es %indo%s on-the-
fly" %hilst updating live content such as playing euic*Time movies. Eurthermore" this
technology is used in programs such as ?ashboard and Eront >o%" %hich &oom into vie%"
feature bright colours and interesting animations. ;inu# operating systems such as <buntu have
also begun implementing basic 8? user interfaces through the RF; architecture" %hich" li*e
euart& $#treme in 'ac 36 R" uses 3penF; to perform tas*s such as user s%itching in a similar
fashion.
Another branch in the 8? des*top environment is the 8? F<)s that ta*e the des*top metaphor a
step further" li*e the 4umpTop" %here a user can manipulate documents and %indo%s as if they
%ere +real %orld+ documents" %ith realistic movement and physics. 5ith the current pace on 8?
and related hard%are evolution" %e can e#pect that pro2ects such these reach an operational level
soon.
1. 4y %hom %as the precursor to F<)s inventedC
2. 5hich are the F<)s familiar to most people todayC
8. 5hat are the e#amples of systems that support F<)sC
4. 5hat is the goal of F<) designC
. 5hich are the common %idgetsC
7. 5hat do larger %idgets" such as %indo%s" usually provideC
:. 5here are 8? F<)s very commonC
A. 5hat is another branch in the 8? des*top environmentC
9. 5hat can %e e#pect %ith the current pace on 8? and related hard%are evolutionC
10. 5hat are the e#amples of three dimensional animationsC
1. ;ater )4' and 'icrosoft borro%ed many of Apple.s ideas to develop the /ommon <ser
91
Access specifications.
2. F<) design is an important ad2unct to application programming.
8. The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as
%idgets.
4. ;arger %idgets usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content.
. 8? F<)s aren.t very common in science fiction literature and movies.
7. 'ac operating systems such as <buntu have also begun implementing basic 8? user
interfaces.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. Fraphical user interface, 2. 9yperlin*, 8. Tool*it, 4. /hrome, . (A>/, 7. 8?, :. 5hilst
1. 5idget, 2. )diom, 8. 'isnomer, 4. 5idespread, . To feature.
a! distributed over a %ide region" or occurring in many places or among many persons or
individuals, b! to delineate the main characteristics of, depict, outline, c! an e#pression %hose
meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements" or from the
general grammatical rules of a language and that is not a constituent of a larger e#pression of li*e
characteristics, d! a misapplied or inappropriate name or designation, e! An element of a F<)"
such as a te#t bo# or button" that displays information or settings that can be entered or altered by
the user.
In addition to A 3ver and above, besides.
9urt#er A 1. at or to a greater distance, farther. 2. at or to a more advanced point, to a
greater e#tent. 8. in addition, moreover.
9urt#ermore A moreover, besides, in addition.
T#us A 1. in the %ay 2ust indicated, in this %ay. 2. in such or the follo%ing manner, so. 8.
accordingly, conse@uently. 4. to this e#tent or degree1 thus far. . as an e#ample, for
instance.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "3hat is your fa'ourite &+69 3hy9$
Lesson < Medica! 4oftware
I Reading
ME0IC"L 4O9T+"RE
)n computers" medical soft%are is a significant branch of soft%are engineering. 'any medical
devices that monitor or control patients are predominantly controlled by soft%are.
Monitors( heart rate" blood pressure" breathing rate" use soft%are to interpret the sensor
information and display it in a meaningful %ay on a monitor.
Medication pumps( These devices are programmed to pump a certain amount of plasma" blood"
saline solution" or other medication into a patient at a certain rate. The soft%are provides the
ability to control many aspects of treatment procedures.
#nalysis( 'any devices" such as /AT scanners" measure ra% data that is essentially meaningless
to people. 6oft%are reinterprets this data to create images that doctors can read and understand.
92
50pert )ystems( A variety of e#pert systems have been created to indicate %hat should be done.
These are less used than the other things 2ust mentioned.
Medical informatics( 6oft%are for the business and informational aspect of medicine.
Therapy delivery( The soft%are in implantable pacema*ers and defibrillators provides fault-
tolerant" real-time" mission-critical monitoring of cardiac rhythms and associated therapy
delivery.
Medical and healthcare educational software( 6oft%are used as an educational or study tool for
healthcare professionals.
12.
1. 4y %hom are many medical devices controlledC
2. 5hat are medication pumps programmed forC
8. 5hat do many devices" such as /AT scanners doC
4. 5hat does the soft%are in implantable pacema*ers and defibrillators provideC
. 5hat soft%are is used as an educational or study tool for healthcare professionalsC
1. 'edical soft%are is an insignificant branch of soft%are engineering.
2. $#pert 6ystems are a type of soft%are used as an educational or study tool for healthcare
professionals.
8. /AT scanners measure ra% data that is essentially meaningless to people.
4. 6oft%are reinterprets data to create images that doctors can read and understand.
. 'any medical devices that monitor or control patients are predominantly controlled by
hard%are.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. $ngineering, 2. (umps, 8. Amount, 4. >a%
1. To monitor, 2. to interpret, 8. 9ealthcare, 4. ?efibrillator.
a! the field concerned %ith the maintenance or restoration of the health of the body or mind, b! to
observe" record" or detect (an operation or condition! %ith instruments that have no effect upon
the operation or condition, c! An electrical device used to counteract fibrillation of the heart
muscle and restore normal heartbeat by applying a brief electric shoc*, d! to give or provide the
meaning of, e#plain, e#plicate, elucidate.
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "#he role of medical software in the process of
monitoring and controlling the patients$
98
Lesson > +ord Processor
I Reading
+OR0 PROCE44OR
A word processor (more formally *no%n as document preparation system! is a computer
application used for the production (including composition" editing" formatting" and possibly
printing! of any sort of printable material.
A %ord processor may also refer to a stand-alone computer unit similar to a type%riter" but often
including technological advancements such as a screen" advanced formatting and printing
options" and the ability to save documents onto memory cards or dis*ettes. 5ord processors
almost invariably allo%ed the user to choose bet%een standard typing and %ord processing
modes by %ay of a s%itch. 6uch %ord processors should not be confused %ith an electric
type%riter.
5ord processors are descended from early teBt formatting tools (sometimes called teBt
*ustification tools" from their only real capability!. 5ord processing %as one of the earliest
applications for the personal computer in office productivity.
Although early %ord processors used tag-based mar*up for document formatting" most modern
%ord processors ta*e advantage of a graphical user interface. 'ost are po%erful systems
consisting of one or more programs that can produce any arbitrary combination of images"
graphics and te#t" the latter handled %ith type-setting capability.
'icrosoft 5ord is the most %idely used computer %ord processing system, 'icrosoft estimates
over five hundred million people use the 3ffice suite. There are also many other commercial
%ord processing applications" such as 5ord(erfect. 3pen-source applications such as
3pen3ffice.s 5riter and M5ord are rapidly gaining in popularity.
C#aracteristics
6ord processing typically refers to te#t manipulation functions such as automatic generation of1
1. batch mailings using a form letter template and an address database (also called mail
merging!,
2. indices of *ey%ords and their page numbers,
8. tables of contents %ith section titles and their page numbers,
4. tables of figures %ith caption titles and their page numbers,
. cross-referencing %ith section or page numbers,
7. footnote numbering
3ther %ord processing functions include +spell chec*ing+ (actually chec*s against %ordlists!"
+grammar chec*ing+ (chec*s for %hat seem to be simple grammar errors!" and a +thesaurus+
function (finds %ords %ith similar or opposite meanings!. )n most languages grammar is very
comple#" so grammar chec*ers tend to be unreliable and also re@uire a large amount of >A'.
3ther common features include collaborative editing" comments and annotations" support for
images and diagrams and internal cross-referencing.
5ord processors can be distinguished from several other" related forms of soft%are1
Te#t editors (modern e#amples of %hich include Ootepad" $macs!" %ere the precursors of %ord
processors. 5hile offering facilities for composing and editing te#t" they do not format
documents. This can be done by batch document processing systems" starting %ith TB-2 and
><O3EE and still available in such systems as ;aTeR (as %ell as programs that implement the
paged-media e#tensions to 9T'; and /66!. Te#t editors are no% used mainly by programmers"
%ebsite designers" and computer system administrators.
Origin of word processing
)4' defined the term in a broad and vague %ay as +the combination of people" procedures" and
e@uipment %hich transforms ideas into printed communications"+ and originally used it to
include dictating machines and ordinary" manually-operated 6electric type%riters. 4y the early
seventies" ho%ever" the term %as generally understood to mean semiautomated type%riters
affording at least some form of electronic editing and correction" and the ability to produce
perfect +originals.+ Thus" the Times headlined a 19:4 Rero# product as a +speedier electronic
94
type%riter"+ but %ent on to describe the product" %hich had no screen" as +a %ord processor
rather than strictly a type%riter" in that it stores copy on magnetic tape or magnetic cards for
retyping" corrections" and subse@uent printout.+
1. 5hat did the %ord processors allo% the user to chooseC
2. To %hat te#t manipulation functions does %ord processing typically referC
8. 5hat are other %ord processing functionsC
4. Erom %hat related forms of soft%are can %ord processors be distinguishedC
. 5hat %ere the precursors of %ord processorsC
7. 4y %hom are no% te#t editors used mainlyC
:. 9o% did )4' define the term G%ord processorHC
A. 9o% %as this term generally understood in the early seventiesC
9. 9o% did the Times headline a 19:4 Rero# productC
1. 5ord processors almost invariably allo%ed the user to choose bet%een standard typing and
%ord processing modes by %ay of a s%itch.
2. 5ord processing %as one of the ne%est applications for the personal computer in office
productivity.
8. $arly %ord processors used tag-based mar*up.
4. 'ost modern %ord processors don.t ta*e advantage of a graphical user interface.
. 5ord processing typically refers to te#t manipulation functions.
7. Te#t editors %ere the descendants of %ord processors.
:. Te#t editors are no% used mainly by programmers" %ebsite designers" and computer
system administrators.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. 5ord processor, 2. Eormatting, 8. 6tand-alone, 4. ?is*ette, . 'ar*up, 7. 'erging, :.
/ontent, A. Eootnote, 9. 4atch, 10. 6ubse@uent.
1. To edit, 2. Arbitrary, 8. To estimate, 4. Template, . <nreliable, 7. Annotation, :. (recursor,
A. Qague.
a! not clear or distinct to the sight or any other sense, perceptible or recogni&able only in an
indefinite %ay, b!$#tra information associated %ith a particular point in a document or program,
c! not trust%orthy" not true" undependable" irresponsible" untrust%orthy, d! 3ne that precedes
and indicates" suggests" or announces someone or something to come, e! sub2ect to individual
%ill or 2udgment %ithout restriction, contingent solely upon one.s discretion, f! an electronic file
%ith a predesigned" customi&ed format and structure" as for a fa#" letter" or e#pense report" ready
to be filled in, g! to form an appro#imate 2udgment or opinion regarding the %orth" amount" si&e"
%eight" etc." of, calculate appro#imately
III +riting
.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: "(icrosoft 3ord )) the most widely used computer
word processing system$
UNIT J COMPUTER 'IRU4E4
9
Lesson 1 Computer 'iruses
I Reading
1.1 Read, translate and make the summary of the text below.
COMPUTER 'IRU4
A computer 8irus is a computer program that can copy itself and infect a computer %ithout
permission or *no%ledge of the user. The term +virus+ is also commonly used" albeit
erroneously" to refer to many different types of mal%are and ad%are programs. The original
virus may modify the copies" or the copies may modify themselves" as occurs in a metamorphic
virus. A virus can only spread from one computer to another %hen its host is ta*en to the
uninfected computer" for instance by a user sending it over a net%or* or the )nternet" or by
carrying it on a removable medium such as a floppy dis*" /?" or <64 drive. 'ean%hile viruses
can spread to other computers by infecting files on a net%or* file system or a file system that is
accessed by another computer. Qiruses are sometimes confused %ith computer %orms and
Tro2an horses. A %orm can spread itself to other computers %ithout needing to be transferred as
part of a host" and a Tro2an horse is a file that appears harmless. 5orms and Tro2ans may cause
harm to either a computer system.s hosted data" functional performance" or net%or*ing
throughput" %hen e#ecuted. )n general" a %orm does not actually harm either the system.s
hard%are or soft%are" %hile at least in theory" a Tro2an.s payload may be capable of almost any
type of harm if e#ecuted. 6ome can.t be seen %hen the program is not running" but as soon as the
infected code is run" the virus *ic*s in. That is %hy it is so hard for people to find viruses
themselves and %hy they have to use spy%are programs and registry processors.
'ost personal computers are no% connected to the )nternet and to local area net%or*s"
facilitating the spread of malicious code. Today.s viruses may also ta*e advantage of net%or*
services such as the 5orld 5ide 5eb" e-mail" )nstant 'essaging and file sharing systems to
spread" blurring the line bet%een viruses and %orms. Eurthermore" some sources use an
alternative terminology in %hich a virus is any form of self-replicating mal%are.
6ome viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs" deleting files" or
reformatting the hard dis*. 3thers are not designed to do any damage" but simply replicate
themselves and perhaps ma*e their presence *no%n by presenting te#t" video" or audio messages.
$ven these benign viruses can create problems for the computer user. They typically ta*e up
computer memory used by legitimate programs. As a result" they often cause erratic behavior
and can result in system crashes. )n addition" many viruses are bug-ridden" and these bugs may
lead to system crashes and data loss. 'any /i? programs are programs that have been
do%nloaded by the user and pop up every so often. This results in slo%ing do%n of the
computer" but it is also very difficult to find and stop the problem.
History
The /reeper virus %as first detected on A>(AO$T" the forerunner of the )nternet in the early
19:0s. )t propagated via the T$O$R operating system and could ma*e use of any connected
modem to dial out to remote computers and infect them. )t %ould display the message +).' T9$
/>$$($> 1 /AT/9 '$ )E L3< /AO.+. )t is rumored that the >eaper program" %hich
appeared shortly after and sought out copies of the /reeper and deleted them" may have been
%ritten by the creator of the /reeper in a fit of regret.
A common misconception is that a program called +>other B+ %as the first computer virus to
appear +in the %ild+ - that is" outside the single computer or lab %here it %as created" but that
claim is false. 6ee the Timeline of notable computer viruses and %orms for other earlier viruses.
)t %as ho%ever the first virus to infect computers +in the home+. 5ritten in 19A2 by >ichard
97
6*renta" it attached itself to the Apple ?36 8.8 operating system and spread by floppy dis*. This
virus %as originally a 2o*e" created by a high school student and put onto a game. The dis* could
only be used 49 times. The game %as set to play" but release the virus on the 0th time of
starting the game. 3nly this time" instead of playing the game" it %ould change to a blan* screen
that read a message about the virus named $l* /loner.
The first (/ virus in the %ild %as a boot sector virus called (c!4rain" created in 19A7 by the
Earoo@ Alvi 4rothers" operating out of ;ahore" (a*istan. The brothers reportedly created the
virus to deter pirated copies of soft%are they had %ritten. 9o%ever" analysts have claimed that
the Ashar virus" a variant of 4rain" possibly predated it based on code %ithin the virus.
4efore computer net%or*s became %idespread" most viruses spread on removable media"
particularly floppy dis*s. )n the early days of the personal computer" many users regularly
e#changed information and programs on floppies. 6ome viruses spread by infecting programs
stored on these dis*s" %hile others installed themselves into the dis* boot sector" ensuring that
they %ould be run %hen the user booted the computer from the dis*.
Traditional computer viruses emerged in the 19A0s" driven by the spread of personal computers
and the resultant increase in 446 and modem use" and soft%are sharing. 4ulletin board driven
soft%are sharing contributed directly to the spread of Tro2an horse programs" and viruses %ere
%ritten to infect popularly traded soft%are. 6hare%are and bootleg soft%are %ere e@ually
common vectors for viruses on 446.s. 5ithin the +pirate scene+ of hobbyists trading illicit
copies of retail soft%are" traders in a hurry to obtain the latest applications and games %ere easy
targets for viruses.
6ince the mid-1990s" macro viruses have become common. 'ost of these viruses are %ritten in
the scripting languages for 'icrosoft programs such as 5ord and $#cel. These viruses spread in
'icrosoft 3ffice by infecting documents and spreadsheets. 6ince 5ord and $#cel %ere also
available for 'ac 36" most of these viruses %ere able to spread on 'acintosh computers as %ell.
'ost of these viruses did not have the ability to send infected e-mail. Those viruses %hich did
spread through e-mail too* advantage of the 'icrosoft 3utloo* /3' interface.
'acro viruses pose uni@ue problems for detection soft%are.

Eor e#ample" some versions of
'icrosoft 5ord allo%ed macros to replicate themselves %ith additional blan* lines. The virus
behaved identically but %ould be misidentified as a ne% virus. )n another e#ample" if t%o macro
viruses simultaneously infect a document" the combination of the t%o" if also self-replicating"
can appear as a +mating+ of the t%o and %ould li*ely be detected as a virus uni@ue from the
+parents+.
A virus may also send a %eb address lin* as an instant message to all the contacts on an infected
machine. )f the recipient" thin*ing the lin* is from a friend (a trusted source! follo%s the lin* to
the %ebsite" the virus hosted at the site may be able to infect this ne% computer and continue
propagating.
The ne%est species of the virus family is the cross-site scripting virus.

The virus emerged from
research and %as academically demonstrated in 200. This virus utili&es cross-site scripting
vulnerabilities to propagate. 6ince 200 there have been multiple instances of the cross-site
scripting viruses in the %ild" most notable sites affected have been 'y6pace and Lahoo.
Infection strategies
)n order to replicate itself" a virus must be permitted to e#ecute code and %rite to memory. Eor
this reason" many viruses attach themselves to e#ecutable files that may be part of legitimate
programs. )f a user tries to start an infected program" the virus. code may be e#ecuted first.
9:
Qiruses can be divided into t%o types" on the basis of their behavior %hen they are e#ecuted.
Oonresident viruses immediately search for other hosts that can be infected" infect these targets"
and finally transfer control to the application program they infected. >esident viruses do not
search for hosts %hen they are started. )nstead" a resident virus loads itself into memory on
e#ecution and transfers control to the host program. The virus stays active in the bac*ground and
infects ne% hosts %hen those files are accessed by other programs or the operating system itself.
1. 5hat is a computer virusC
2. 9o% can a virus spreadC
8. 5hat are viruses sometimes confused %ithC
4. 5hen %as the /reeper virus first detectedC
. 5hat %as the first virus to infect computers +in the home+C
7. 5hat %as the first (/ virus in the %orldC
:. 9o% can a virus spreadC
A. Five an e#ample of the %ay macro viruses %or*C
9. 5hat notable sites does a cross-site scripting virus affectC
10. Oame the t%o types viruses are divided intoC
1. The term +virus+ is also commonly used" to refer to many different types of mal%are and
ad%are programs.
2. A virus can only spread from one computer to another %hen its host is ta*en to the
infected computer.
8. 5orms and Tro2ans do not cause harm to either a computer system.s hosted data"
functional performance" or net%or*ing throughput" %hen e#ecuted.
4. 6ome viruses are programmed to damage the computer by damaging programs" deleting
files" or reformatting the hard dis*.
. 'ost personal computers are no% connected to the )nternet and to local area net%or*s"
facilitating the spread of malicious code.
7. The /reeper virus %as first detected on A>(AO$T" the forerunner of the )nternet in the
early 1990s.
:. The first (/ virus in the %ild %as a boot sector virus called (c! /erebrum.
A. )n order to replicate itself" a virus must be permitted to e#ecute copy and paste to memory.
II 'oca(u!ary
3riginal(ad2!" metamorphic(ad2!" payload(n!" facility(n!" malicious(ad2!" soft%are(n!"
spreadsheets(n!" resident(ad2!.
1.'al%are(n!, 2. <64 drive(n!, 8.modem(n!, 4.vulnerability(n!, .propagation(n!.
a! the distribution of free soft%are in a manner e#plicitly permitted under the applicable license,
b! a device or program that enables a computer to transmit data over" for e#ample" telephone or
cable lines, c! a plug-and-play portable storage device that uses flash memory and is light%eight
enough to attach to a *ey chain, d!in computer security" the term is a %ea*ness %hich allo%s an
attac*er to reduce a system.s )nformation Assurance, e!malicious soft%are.
9A
1. )n computer virus terms" ;;;;;;;;;;; code is code that can reprogram itself. 2.IIIIIIIIIII
is the collection of computer programs and related data that provide the instructions telling a
computer %hat to do. ,- 5hen referring to a computer e#ploit" the ;;;;;;;; is the effect caused
by a virus or other malicious code e#ecuted by the e#ploit on the target computer. 4. 9ave you
ever considered %hat ma*es an anti-;;;;;;;;;; application effectiveC .>>>>>>>>>
.omputer Qiruses are stored in a file on a computer.s hard drive once they have initially infected
the computer. 7. A ;;;;;;;;;; has been discovered in 3penR Qideo (lugin" %hich can be
e#ploited by malicious people to compromise a vulnerable system.
1.4eep code(n! - is t#e audio signa! gi8en out (y a computer to announce t#e resu!t of a
s#ort diagnostic testing se6uence t#e computer performs w#en first powering up=
3-2IO4 attac%n& ) is an eBp!oit t#at infects t#e 2IO4 wit# ma!icious code and is persistent
t#roug# re(oots and attempts to ref!as# t#e firmware-
2.- (ake)up sentences with the expressions from 2.,
III 4peaing
.1 Retell the text of the lesson and discuss it.
I' +riting
<-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /Computer 8iruses A t#e disease of t#e century-1
Lesson 3 Tro*an Horses
I Reading
TROM"N HOR4E %COMPUTIN7&
)n the conte#t of computing and soft%are" a Tro*an #orse" or simply Trojan" is a piece of
soft%are %hich appears to perform a certain action but in fact performs another such as a
computer virus. /ontrary to popular belief" this action" usually encoded in a hidden payload" may
or may not be actually malicious" but Tro2an horses are notorious today for their use in the
installation of bac*door programs. 6imply put" a Tro2an horse is not a computer virus. <nli*e
such mal%are" it does not propagate by self-replication but relies heavily on the e#ploitation of
an end-user (see 6ocial engineering!. )t is instead a categorical attribute %hich can encompass
many different forms of codes. Therefore" a computer %orm or virus may be a Tro2an horse. The
term is derived from the classical story of the Tro2an 9orse.
)n the field of computer architecture" .Tro2an 9orse. can also refer to security loopholes that
allo% *ernel code to access anything for %hich it is not authori&ed.
99
A very classic e#ample" is due to computer pioneer Men Thompson in his 19A8 A/' Turing
A%ard lecture. Thompson noted that it is possible to add code to the <O)R+login+ command that
%ould accept either the intended encrypted pass%ord or a particular *no%n pass%ord" allo%ing a
bac* door into the system %ith the latter pass%ord. Eurthermore" Thompson argued" the /
compiler itself could be modified to automatically generate the rogue code" to ma*e detecting the
modification even harder. 4ecause the compiler is itself a program generated from a compiler"
the Tro2an horse could also be automatically installed in a ne% compiler program" %ithout any
detectable modification to the source of the ne% compiler.
EBamp!e
The simple e#ample of a Tro2an horse %ould be a program named +%aterfalls.scr+ %here its
author claims it is a free %aterfall screensaver. 5hen run" it instead unloads hidden programs"
commands" scripts" or any number of commands %ith or %ithout the user.s *no%ledge or
consent. 'alicious Tro2an 9orse programs are often used to circumvent protection systems in
effect creating a vulnerable system to allo% unauthori&ed access to the user.s computer. Oon-
malicious Tro2an horse programs are used for managing and forensics.
Types of Tro*an #orse pay!oads
Tro2an horse payloads are almost al%ays designed to do various harmful things" but can also be
harmless. They are bro*en do%n in classification based on ho% they breach and damage
systems. The si# main types of Tro2an horse payloads are1 >emote Access" ?ata ?estruction"
?o%nloader" 6erver Tro2an ((ro#y" ET(" )>/" $mail" 9TT(=9TT(6" etc.!" 6ecurity soft%are
disabler" ?enial-of-service attac* (?o6!. 6ome e#amples of damage are1
$rasing or over%riting data on a computer. $ncrypting files in a cryptoviral e#tortion attac*.
/orrupting files in a subtle %ay. <pload and do%nload files. /opying fa*e lin*s" %hich lead to
false %ebsites" chats" or other account based %ebsites" sho%ing any local account name on the
computer falsely engaging in untrue conte#t. Allo%ing remote access to the victim.s computer.
This is called a >AT (remote access tro2an!. 6preading other mal%are" such as viruses1 this type
of Tro2an horse is called a .dropper. or .vector.. 6etting up net%or*s of &ombie computers in order
to launch ??o6 attac*s or send spam. 6pying on the user of a computer and covertly reporting
data li*e bro%sing habits to other people (see the article on spy%are!. 'a*ing screenshots.
;ogging *eystro*es to steal information such as pass%ords and credit card numbers. (hishing for
ban* or other account details" %hich can be used for criminal activities. )nstalling a bac*door on
a computer system. 3pening and closing /?->3' tray. (laying sounds" videos or displaying
images. /alling using the modem to e#pensive numbers" thus causing massive phone bills.
9arvesting e-mail addresses and using them for spam. >estarting the computer %henever the
infected program is started. ?eactivating or interfering %ith anti-virus and fire%all programs.
?eactivating or interfering %ith other competing forms of mal%are. >andomly shutting off the
computer.
Met#ods of de!etion
6ince Tro2an horses have a variety of forms" there is no single method to delete them. The
simplest responses involve clearing the temporary internet files on a computer" or finding the file
and deleting it manually ( safe mode is recommended !. Oormally" anti-virus soft%are is able to
detect and remove the tro2an automatically. )f the antivirus cannot find it" booting the computer
from alternate media(cd! may allo% an antivirus program to find a tro2an and delete it. <pdated
anti-spy%are programs are also very efficient against this threat.
0isguises
100
'ost varieties of Tro2an horses are hidden on the computer %ithout the user.s a%areness. Tro2an
horses sometimes use the >egistry" adding entries that cause programs to run every time the
computer boots up. Tro2an horses may also %or* by combining %ith legitimate files on the
computer. 5hen the legitimate file is opened" the Tro2an horse opens as %ell.
1. 5hat is a Tro2an horseC
2. )s the Tro2an horse a computer virusC
8. 5hat can the Tro2an horse also refer to in the field of computer architectureC
4. To %hat program can the Tro2an horse be compared toC
. 5hat are non-malicious Tro2an 9orse programs used forC
7. 5hat are the si# main types of Tro2an horse payloadsC
:. 5hat does a .dropper. doC
A. 5hat are the methods to fight against the Tro2an horseC
1. A computer %orm or virus may be a Tro2an horse.
2. Tro2an horse payloads are almost al%ays designed to do various harmful things" they can
never be harmless.
8. A Tro2an horse payload has five main types.
4. 6ince Tro2an horses have a variety of forms" there is a single method to delete them.
. <pdated anti-spy%are programs are also very efficient against this threat.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. $ncoded, 2.(ayload, 8.forensics, 4./?->3', .6pam, 7.>andom, :. Anti-spy%are.
2. %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the words from 2.1
1. The goal of computer IIIIIIIIII is to e#plain the current state of a digital artifact,
such as a computer system" storage medium (e.g. hard dis* or /?->3'!" an electronic
document (e.g. an email message or B($F image!.
2. 5hen referring to a computer e#ploit" the >>>>>>>> is the effect caused by a virus or
other malicious code e#ecuted by the e#ploit on the target computer.
8. IIIIIIII is the use of electronic messaging systems (including most broadcast media"
digital delivery systems! to send unsolicited bul* messages indiscriminately.
4. >unning IIIIIIII soft%are has become a %idely recogni&ed element of computer
security practices for computers" especially those running 'icrosoft 5indo%s.
. )n communications and information processing" FFFFFFFFF is the process by %hich
information from a source is converted into symbols to be communicated.
101
0efragmentation 1n2 - is the process of locating the noncontiguous fragments of data into %hich
a computer file may be divided as it is stored on a hard dis*" and rearranging the fragments and
restoring them into fe%er fragments or into the %hole file.
.ore dump 1n2 - is the printing or the copying to a more permanent medium (such as a hard
dis* ! the contents of random access memory (>A' ! at one moment in time.
0e'ice dri'er - is a program that controls a particular type of device that is attached to your
computer.
III 4peaing
I' +riting
*.1 3rite an essay on the following topic: ".omputers in our life$
Lesson , +orms
I Reading
COMPUTER +ORM
A computer worm is a self-replicating computer program. )t uses a net%or* to send copies of
itself to other nodes (computer terminals on the net%or*! and it may do so %ithout any user
intervention. <nli*e a virus" it does not need to attach itself to an e#isting program. 5orms
almost al%ays cause harm to the net%or*" if only by consuming band%idth" %hereas viruses
almost al%ays corrupt or modify files on a targeted computer.
Naming and #istory
The name worm comes from The )hoc,wave -ider" a science fiction novel published in 19: by
Bohn 4runner. >esearchers Bohn E 6hoc* and Bon A 9upp of Rero# (A>/ chose the name in a
paper published in 19A2, The 6orm $rograms" /omm A/'" 2(8!11:2-1A0" 19A2!" and it has
since been %idely adopted.
The first implementation of a %orm %as by these same t%o researchers at Rero# (A>/ in 19:A
6hoch and 9upp originally designed the %orm to find idle processors on the net%or* and assign
them tas*s" sharing the processing load" and so improving the ./(< cycle use efficiency. across
an entire net%or*. They %ere self-limited so that they %ould spread no farther than intended.
Pay!oads
'any %orms have been created %hich are only designed to spread" and don.t attempt to alter the
systems they pass through. 9o%ever" as the 'orris %orm and 'ydoom sho%ed" the net%or*
traffic and other unintended effects can often cause ma2or disruption. A +payload+ is code
designed to do more than spread the %orm - it might delete files on a host system (e.g." the
$#plorebip %orm!" encrypt files in a cryptoviral e#tortion attac*" or send documents via e-mail.
A very common payload for %orms is to install a bac*door in the infected computer to allo% the
creation of a +&ombie+ under control of the %orm author - 6obig and 'ydoom are e#amples
%hich created &ombies. Oet%or*s of such machines are often referred to as botnets and are very
102
commonly used by spam senders for sending 2un* email or to cloa* their %ebsite.s address.
6pammers are therefore thought to be a source of funding for the creation of such %orms" and
%orm %riters have been caught selling lists of )( addresses of infected machines. 3thers try to
blac*mail companies %ith threatened ?o6 attac*s.
4ac*doors can be e#ploited by other mal%are" including %orms. $#amples include ?oom2uice"
%hich spreads using the bac*door opened by 'ydoom" and at least one instance of mal%are
ta*ing advantage of the root*it and bac*door installed by the 6ony=4'F ?>' soft%are utili&ed
by millions of music /?s prior to late 200.
+orms wit# good intent
4eginning %ith the very first research into %orms at Rero# (A>/ there have been attempts to
create useful %orms. The Oachi family of %orms" for e#ample" tried to do%nload and install
patches from 'icrosoft.s %ebsite to fi# vulnerabilities in the host system - by e#ploiting those
same vulnerabilities. )n practice" although this may have made these systems more secure"and
*illed some &ero day viruses but ho%ever it generated considerable net%or* traffic" rebooted the
machine in the course of patching it" and did its %or* %ithout the consent of the computer.s
o%ner or user.
'ost security e#perts regard all %orms as mal%are" %hatever their payload or their %riters.
intentions" even if good %orms are at play.
Protecting against dangerous computer worms
5orms spread by e#ploiting vulnerabilities in operating systems. All vendors supply regular
security updates" and if these are installed to a machine then the ma2ority of %orms are unable to
spread to it. )f a vendor ac*no%ledges a vulnerability but has yet to release a security update to
patch it" a &ero day e#ploit is possible. 9o%ever" these are relatively rare.
<sers need to be %ary of opening une#pected email" and should not run attached files or
programs" or visit %eb sites that are lin*ed to such emails. 9o%ever" as %ith the );3Q$L3<
%orm" and %ith the increased gro%th and efficiency of phishing attac*s" it remains possible to
tric* the end-user into running a malicious code.
Anti-virus and anti-spy%are soft%are are helpful" but must be *ept up-to-date %ith ne% pattern
files at least every fe% days. The use of a fire%all is also recommended.
1. 5hat is the difference bet%een a computer %orm and a virusC
2. 5hat does the name worm come fromC
8. 9o% did the first implementation of a %orm ta*e placeC
4. 5hat is a payloadC
. 9o% can bac*doors be e#ploitedC
7. 9o% do %orms spreadC
:. 9o% do most security e#perts regard all %ormsC
A. 5hich programs are recommended for protection against %ormsC
1. A computer %orm is uses a net%or* to send copies of itself to other nodes.
2. 5orms almost never cause harm to the net%or*.
8. 'any %orms have never been designed to spread.
4. <sers need to be %ary of opening une#pected birthday presents.
108
. 4eginning %ith the very first research into %orms at Rero# (A>/ there have been
attempts to create useful %orms.
7. Anti-virus and anti-spy%are soft%are are helpful" but must be *ept up-to-date %ith ne%
pattern files at least every fe% days.
II 'oca(u!ary
>eplicating(ad2!, 4and%idth (n!, )dle (ad2!, unintended(ad2!, vulnerability(n!, reboot(v!,
patching(v!, anti-virus(n!, anti-spy%are(n!.
2. %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms. +se the terms from 2.1
1.IIIIIIIII is often used as a synonym for data transfer rate. 2. The concept
of ;;;;;;;;;;;;conse@uences is one of the building bloc*s of economics. 8. 6he had to
IIIIIIIII her computer in order for it to start %or*ing. 4. Oo%adays an IIIIIIIIIII can the
do%nloaded for free from the internet" and your computer security is free of charge. . )f you
found a self-;;;;;;;; organism living inside your computer" your first instinct might be to reach
for the antivirus soft%are. 7. A ;;;;;;;;; has been reported in the ;inu# Mernel" %hich can be
e#ploited by malicious" local users to cause a ?o6 (?enial of 6ervice!. :. IIIIIIIIII your
system can lead to loss of data and=or site instabilities. A. >unning IIIIIIIIIII soft%are has
become a %idely recogni&ed element of computer security practices for computers" especially
those running 'icrosoft 5indo%s.
A binary file 0 is a file %hose content must be interpreted by a program or a hard%are processor
that understands in advance e#actly ho% it is formatted.
@loatware - is an unflattering name for un%anted pre-installed soft%are applications on a ne%
computer.
A bit (short for binary digit! - is the smallest unit of data in a computer.
AutoRun - is a feature of the 5indo%s operating system that causes a certain file to open or a
certain program to run automatically as soon as a compact disc (/?! is inserted into the /?
drive.

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8iruses-1
104
UNIT JI TELECOMMUNIC"TION
Lesson 1 Te!ecommunication
I Reading
TELECOMMUNIC"TION
Te!ecommunication is the transmission of signals over a distance for the purpose of
communication. )n modern times" this process almost al%ays involves the sending of
electromagnetic %aves by electronic transmitters but in earlier years it may have involved the
use of smo*e signals" or semaphore. Today" telecommunication is %idespread and devices that
assist the process" such as the television" radio and telephone" are common in many parts of the
%orld. There is also a vast array of net%or*s that connect these devices" including computer
net%or*s" public telephone net%or*s" radio net%or*s and television net%or*s. /omputer
communication across the )nternet" such as e-mail and instant messaging" is 2ust one of many
e#amples of telecommunication.
Telecommunication systems are generally designed by te!ecommunication engineers. 'a2or
contributors to the field of telecommunications include Ale#ander 4ell %ho invented the
telephone (as %e *no% it!" Bohn ;ogie 4aird %ho invented the mechanical television and
Fuglielmo 'arconi %ho first demonstrated transatlantic radio communication. )n recent times"
optical fibre has radically improved the band%idth(latime de banda! available for
intercontinental communication" helping to facilitate a faster and richer )nternet e#perience. And"
digital television has eliminated effects such as sno%y pictures and ghosting.
Telecommunication remains an important part of the %orld economy and the telecommunication
industry.s revenue has been placed at 2ust under 8P of the gross( brut! %orld product.
@ey concepts
The basic elements of a telecommunication system are1
a transmitter that ta*es information and converts it to a signal for transmission
a transmission medium over %hich the signal is transmitted
a receiver that receives and converts the signal bac* into usable information
Eor e#ample" consider a radio broadcast. )n this case the broadcast to%er is the transmitter" the
radio is the receiver and the transmission medium is free space. 3ften telecommunication
systems are t%o-%ay and devices act as both a transmitter and receiver or transceiver. Eor
e#ample" a mobile phone is a transceiver. Telecommunication over a phone line is called point-
to-point communication because it is bet%een one transmitter and one receiver"
telecommunication through radio broadcasts is called broadcast communication because it is
bet%een one po%erful transmitter and numerous receivers.
6ignals can either be analogue or digital. )n an analogue signal" the signal is varied continuously
%ith respect to the information. )n a digital signal" the information is encoded as a set of discrete
values (e.g. 1.s and 0.s!. Telecommunications devices convert different types of information"
such as sound and video" into electrical or optical signals. $lectrical signals typically travel along
a medium such as copper %ire or are carried over the air as radio %aves. 3ptical signals typically
travel along a medium such as strands of glass fibers. 5hen a signal reaches its destination" the
device on the receiving end converts the signal bac* into an understandable message" such as
sound over a telephone" moving images on a television" or %ords and pictures on a computer
screen.
10
A collection of transmitters" receivers or transceivers that communicate %ith each other is *no%n
as a net%or*. ?igital net%or*s may consist of one or more routers that route data to the correct
user. An analogue net%or* may consist of one or more s%itches that establish a connection
bet%een t%o or more users. Eor both types of net%or*" a repeater may be necessary to amplify or
recreate the signal %hen it is being transmitted over long distances. This is to combat attenuation
that can render the signal indistinguishable from noise.
A channel is a division in a transmission medium so that it can be used to send multiple
independent streams of data. Eor e#ample" a radio station may broadcast at 97 '9& %hile
another radio station may broadcast at 94. '9&. )n this case the medium has been divided by
fre@uency and each channel received a separate fre@uency to broadcast on. Alternatively one
could allocate each channel a recurring segment of time over %hich to broadcast.
The shaping of a signal to convey information is *no%n as modulation. 'odulation is a *ey
concept in telecommunications and is fre@uently used to impose the information of one signal on
another. 'odulation is used to represent a digital message as an analogue %aveform. This is
*no%n as *eying. 9o%ever" more relevant to earlier discussion" modulation is also used to boost
the fre@uency of analogue signals. This is because a ra% signal is often not suitable for
transmission over long distances of free space due to its lo% fre@uencies. 9ence its information
must be superimposed on a higher fre@uency signal before transmission. There are several
different modulation schemes available to achieve this - some of the most basic being
amplitude modulation and fre@uency modulation. An e#ample of this process is a ?B.s voice
being superimposed on a 97 '9& carrier %ave using fre@uency modulation (the voice %ould
then be received on a radio as the channel G97 E'H!.
1. 5hat does the process of telecommunication involve in modern timesC
2. 5ho are telecommunication systems generally designed byC
8. 5hat are the names of ma2or contributors to the field of telecommunicationsC
4. 5hat are the basic elements of a telecommunication systemC
. 9o% (of %hat types! can the signals beC
7. 5hat is a net%or*C
:. 5hat is a channelC
A. 5hat is a modulationC
1. /omputer communication across the )nternet" such as e-mail and instant messaging" is 2ust
one of many e#amples of telecommunication.
2. )n recent times" optical fibre has radically improved the band%idth available for
intercontinental communication" helping to facilitate a faster and richer )nternet
e#perience.
8. Telecommunications devices convert different types of information" such as photos and
videos.
4. A collection of transmitters" receivers or transceivers that never communicate %ith each
other is *no%n as a net%or*.
. The shaping of a signal to convey information is *no%n as restoration.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. ?igital television, 2.4roadcast, 8.Oet%or*, 4.Meying, .Amplitude, 7.Ere@uency.
107
1./enter in 6t. ;ouis" 'issouri provides a practical and usable education designed to put its
graduates to %or* in the ;;;;;;;;; industry in radio. 2. 'y ne% radio station is on AA.7
IIIIIIIIIIIII. 8.IIIIIIII provides many advantages over traditional analog television. 4.
The display sho%s the viruses as they move through the ;;;;;;;;..The ;;;;;;;;; of a sound
%ave is the ma#imum amount by %hich the instantaneous sound pressure differs from the
ambient pressure.
@andwidth 1n2 ) The capacity of a telecom line to carry signals,
9re6uency Modu!ation %9M& - A signaling method that varies the carrier fre@uency in
proportion to the amplitude of the modulating signal,
A Ainks 1n2 - also *no%n as 66: access lin*s connect an end office or signal point to a mated
pair of signal transfer points,
@ipolar !ignal - is a baseband method of sending binary data over %ire or cable, .apping1'2-
refers to the activity of )6(s ()nternet 6ervice (rovider! to limit (capping! the accessing speed of
cable modem so that cable modem )6(s can easily distribute band%idth among users.

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de8e!oping country-1
Lesson 3 History of te!ecommunication
I Reading
HI4TOR5 O9 TELECOMMUNIC"TION
$arly forms of telecommunication include smo*e signals and drums. ?rums %ere used by
natives in Africa" Oe% Fuinea and 6outh America %hereas smo*e signals %ere used by natives
in Oorth America and /hina. /ontrary to %hat one might thin*" these systems %ere often used to
do more than merely announce the presence of a camp.
)n 1:92" a Erench engineer" /laude /happe built the first fi#ed visual telegraphy (or semaphore!
system bet%een ;ille and (aris. 9o%ever semaphore as a communication system suffered from
the need for s*illed operators and e#pensive to%ers often at intervals of only ten to thirty
*ilometres (si# to nineteen miles!. As a result" the last commercial line %as abandoned in 1AA0.
Te!egrap# and te!ep#one
10:
The first commercial electrical telegraph %as constructed by 6ir /harles 5heatstone and 6ir
5illiam Eothergill /oo*e and opened on 9 April 1A89. 4oth 5heatstone and /oo*e vie%ed their
device as +an improvement to the Se#istingT electromagnetic telegraph+ not as a ne% device.
3n the other side of the Atlantic 3cean" 6amuel 'orse independently developed a version of the
electrical telegraph that he unsuccessfully demonstrated on 2 6eptember 1A8:. 6oon after he %as
2oined by Alfred Qail %ho developed the register - a telegraph terminal that integrated a
logging device for recording messages to paper tape. This %as demonstrated successfully on 7
Banuary 1A8A. The first transatlantic telegraph cable %as successfully completed on 2: Buly
1A77" allo%ing transatlantic telecommunication for the first time.
The conventional telephone %as invented by Ale#ander 4ell in 1A:7. Antonio 'eucci in 1A49
invented a device that allo%ed the electrical transmission of voice over a line. 'eucci.s device
depended upon the electrophonic effect and %as of little practical value because it re@uired users
to place the receiver in their mouth to GhearH %hat %as being said. The first commercial
telephone services %ere set-up in 1A:A and 1A:9 on both sides of the Atlantic.
Radio and te!e8ision
)n 1A82" Bames ;indsay gave a classroom demonstration of %ireless telegraphy to his students.
4y 1A4 he %as able to demonstrate a transmission across a distance of t%o miles" using %ater as
the transmission medium. )n ?ecember 1901" Fuillermo 'arconi established %ireless
communication bet%een" earning him the Oobel (ri&e in physics in 1909.
3n 'arch 2" 192" Bohn ;ogie 4aird %as able to demonstrate the transmission of moving
pictures. 4aird.s device relied upon the Oip*o% dis* and thus became *no%n as the mechanical
television. )t formed the basis of e#perimental broadcasts done by the 4ritish 4roadcasting
/orporation beginning 6eptember 80" 1929. 9o%ever for most of the t%entieth century
televisions depended upon the cathode ray tube invented by Marl 4raun. The first version of such
a television to sho% promise %as produced by (hilo Earns%orth and demonstrated to his family
on 6eptember :" 192:.
Computer networs and t#e Internet
3n 6eptember 11" 1940 Feorge 6tibit& %as able to transmit problems using teletype to his
/omple# Oumber /alculator in Oe% Lor* and receive the computed results bac* at ?artmouth
/ollege in Oe% 9ampshire. This configuration of a centrali&ed computer or mainframe %ith
remote terminals remained popular throughout the 190s. 9o%ever it %as not until the 1970s
that researchers started to investigate pac*et s%itching - a technology that %ould allo% chun*s
of data to be sent to different computers %ithout first passing through a centrali&ed mainframe. A
four-node net%or* emerged on ?ecember " 1979, this net%or* %ould become A>(AO$T"
%hich by 19A1 %ould consist of 218 nodes.
A>(AO$T.s development centred around the >e@uest for /omment process and on April :"
1979" >E/ 1 %as published. This process is important because A>(AO$T %ould eventually
merge %ith other net%or*s to form the )nternet and many of the protocols the )nternet relies
upon today %ere specified through this process. )n 6eptember 19A1" >E/ :91 introduced the
)nternet (rotocol v4 ()(v4! and >E/ :98 introduced the Transmission /ontrol (rotocol (T/(! -
thus creating the T/(=)( protocol that much of the )nternet relies upon today.
9o%ever not all important developments %ere made through the >e@uest for /omment process.
T%o popular lin* protocols for local area net%or*s (;AOs! also appeared in the 19:0s.
10A
1. 5hat did the early forms of telecommunication includeC
2. 5hen %as the first fi#ed visual telegraphy builtC
8. 5ho constructed the first commercial electrical telegraphC
4. 5hen %as the first transatlantic telegraph cable successfully completedC
. 5ho invented the conventional telephoneC
7. 5hat %as Bohn ;ogie 4aird able to demonstrate 3n 'arch 2" 192C
:. 5hat did most of the t%entieth century televisions depend uponC
1. 6emaphore as a communication system suffered from the need for s*illed operators.
2. The first transatlantic telegraph cable %as successfully completed on 2: Buly 1A97.
8. All important developments %ere made through the >e@uest for /omment process.
4. )n ?ecember 1901" Fuillermo 'arconi established %ireless communication bet%een"
earning him the Oobel (ri&e in physics in 1909.
. 3n 'arch 2" 192" Bohn ;ogie 4aird failed to demonstrate the transmission of moving
pictures.
II 'oca(u!ary
1.Telegraph, 2.Terminal, 8. )ntegrate, 4. $lectrophonic effect, 4. 5ireless, . Transmission, 7.
'ainframe, :. (rotocols.
1.The function of a IIIIIIIIII is confined to display and input of data. 2. 6ome scientists state
that ;;;;;;;;; may also be caused by lightning stri*es" very bright auroras" and earth@ua*es. 8.
The IIIIIIII in human communication are rules about appearance" spea*ing" listening and
understanding. 4. The electric IIIIIIII is a no% outdated communication system that
transmitted electric signals over %ires from location to location that translated into a message. .
The leading <.6. cable operator said on 'onday it %ill IIIIIIIIII its e-mail and voice
messaging services in a ne% 5eb-based communications center called 6martbone. 7.
IIIIIIIIIII internet is much more comfortable.
%;#! ) Eiber 3ptic Transmission 6ystem. 5ith its minimal transit time delay and very lo% bit
error rate" E3T6 is the superior method to transmit high-speed data" digital video signals and
other compressed signals, .hrominance1n2 ) that portion of a composite video signal containing
the color information, .ompression, data ) the process of reducing the @uantity of data
necessary to transmit or store, Bixel ) picture element.

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109
Lesson , 4ociety and Te!ecommunication
I Reading
4OCIET5 "N0 TELECOMMUNIC"TION
Telecommunication is an important part of many modern societies. )n 2007" estimates place the
telecommunication industry.s revenue at g1.2 trillion or 2ust under 8P of the gross %orld
product. Food telecommunication infrastructure is %idely ac*no%ledged as important for
economic success in the modern %orld on a both micro- and macroeconomic scale.
3n the microeconomic scale" companies have used telecommunication to help build global
empires" this is self-evident in the business of online retailer Ama&on.com but observers note
that even the conventional retailer 5al-'art has benefited from possessing superior
telecommunication infrastructure compared to its competitors. )n modern 5estern society" home
o%ners often use their telephone to organi&e many home services ranging from pi&&a deliveries
to electricians. $ven relatively poor communities have been noted to use telecommunication to
their advantage. )n 4angladesh.s Oarshingdi district" isolated villagers use cell phones to spea*
directly to %holesalers and arrange a better price for their goods. )n /ote d.)voire coffee gro%ers
share mobile phones to follo% hourly variations in coffee prices and sell at the best price.
3n the macroeconomic scale" in 2001" ;ars-9endri* >lller and ;eonard 5averman suggested a
causal lin* bet%een good telecommunication infrastructure and economic gro%th. Ee% dispute
the e#istence of a correlation although some argue it is %rong to vie% the relationship as causal.
9o%ever from any perspective the economic benefits of good telecommunication infrastructure
are undeniable and" for this reason" there is increasing %orry about the digital divide.
This stems from the fact that access to telecommunication systems is not e@ually shared amongst
the %orld.s population. A 2008 survey by the )nternational Telecommunication <nion ()T<!
revealed that roughly one-third of countries have less than 1 mobile subscription for every 20
people and one-third of countries have less than 1 fi#ed line subscription for every 20 people. )n
terms of )nternet access" roughly half of countries have less than 1 in 20 people %ith )nternet
access. Erom this information" as %ell as educational data" the )T< %as able to compile a ?igital
Access )nde# that measures the overall ability of citi&ens to access and use information and
communication technologies. <sing this measure" countries such as 6%eden" ?enmar* and
)celand receive the highest ran*ing %hile African countries such as Oiger" 4ur*ina Easo and
'ali receive the lo%est.
1. 5hat have companies used to help on the microeconomic scaleC
2. )n modern 5estern society" %hat do home o%ners often use their phone forC
8. 9o% are the mobile phones used in different countriesC
4. 5hat did a 2008 survey by the )nternational Telecommunication <nion ()T<! revealC
. 5hy is Telecommunication an important part of many modern societiesC
1. Food telecommunication infrastructure is %idely ac*no%ledged as important for economic
success.
2. 3n the microeconomic scale" companies have used telecommunication to help build some
houses.
8. )n 4angladesh.s Oarshingdi district" isolated villagers use cell phones to spea* directly to
their family.
4. )n terms of )nternet access" roughly half of countries have less than 1 in 20 people %ith
)nternet access.
110
. /ountries such as 6%eden" ?enmar* and )celand receive the highest ran*ing %hile African
countries such as Oiger" 4ur*ina Easo and 'ali receive the lo%est.
II 'oca(u!ary
1. )nfrastructure, 2. Ac*no%ledge, 8. >etailer, 4. /ompetitor, . ;in*, 7. )T<, :. >an*.
2. %ill in the gaps with the most appropriate terms .+se the terms from 2.1
1. Lou ;;;;;;;;;; and agree that you use and=or rely on any information obtained through the
discussion forums at your o%n ris*. 2.IIIIIIIIII analysis identifies the strengths and
%ea*nesses of competing products or services.8. Eor the last 20 years" IIIIIIIII has been
coordinating efforts of government and industry and private sector in the development of a
global broadband multimedia international mobile telecommunication system" *no%n as )'T. 4.
The Australian Fovernment has announced a ne%" national approach to planning" funding and
implementing the nation.s future IIIIIIIIII needs. . A telecommunications IIIIIIIIIIII is
generally one of several types of information transmission paths accomplished
by communication satellites to connect t%o points on earth.
Card by - Gclose to+ or +near+, (ake or break - a ma*e or brea* decision" stage" etc" is a crucial
one that %ill determine the success or failure of the %hole venture., (end fences - %hen people
mend fences" they try to improve or restore relations that have been damaged by disputes or
arguments,
Bass muster - if something passes muster" it meets the re@uired standard, Dnow full well - %hen
you *no% full %ell" you are absolutely sure that you *no%.

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111
Lesson < Modern Te!ecommunication
I Reading
MO0ERN TELECOMMUNIC"TION
Te!ep#one
)n a conventional %ire telephone system" the caller is connected to the person they %ant to tal*
to" by the s%itches at various e#changes. The s%itches form an electrical connection bet%een the
t%o users and the setting of these s%itches is determined electronically %hen the caller dials the
number based upon pulses or tones made by the caller.s telephone. 3nce the connection is made"
the caller.s voice is transformed to an electrical signal using a small microphone in the
telephone.s receiver. This electrical signal is then sent through various s%itches in the net%or* to
the user at the other end %here it transformed bac* into sound %aves by a spea*er for that person
to hear. This electrical connection %or*s both %ays" allo%ing the users to converse.
'obile phones have had a significant impact on telephone net%or*s. 'obile phone subscriptions
no% outnumber fi#ed-line subscriptions in many mar*ets. 6ales of mobile phones in 200
totalled A17.7 million %ith that figure being almost e@ually shared amongst the mar*ets of
Asia=(acific (204 m!" 5estern $urope (174 m!" /$'$A (/entral $urope" the 'iddle $ast and
Africa! (18. m!" Oorth America (14A m! and ;atin America (102 m!. )n terms of ne%
subscriptions over the five years from 1999" Africa has outpaced other mar*ets %ith A.2P
gro%th. )ncreasingly these phones are being serviced by digital systems such as F6' or 5-
/?'A %ith many mar*ets choosing to depreciate analogue systems such as A'(6.
Te!e8ision
The broadcast media industry is at a critical turning point in its development" %ith many
countries starting to move from analogue to digital broadcasts. The chief advantage of digital
broadcasts is that they prevent a number of complaints %ith traditional analogue broadcasts. Eor
television" this includes the elimination of problems such as sno%y pictures" ghosting and other
distortion. These occur because of the nature of analogue transmission" %hich means that
perturbations due to noise %ill be evident in the final output. ?igital transmission overcomes this
problem because digital signals are reduced to binary data upon reception and hence small
perturbations do not affect the final output. )n a simplified e#ample" if a binary message 1011
%as transmitted %ith signal amplitudes S1.0 0.0 1.0 1.0T and received %ith signal amplitudes S0.9
0.2 1.1 0.9T it %ould still decode to the binary message 1011 - a perfect reproduction of %hat
%as sent. Erom this e#ample" a problem %ith digital transmissions can also be seen in that if the
noise is great enough it can significantly alter the decoded message. <sing for%ard error
correction a receiver can correct a handful of bit errors in the resulting message but too much
noise %ill lead to incomprehensible output and hence a brea*do%n of the transmission.
)n digital television broadcasting" there are three competing standards that are li*ely to be
adopted %orld%ide. These are the AT6/" ?Q4 and )6?4 standards and the adoption of these
standards thus far is presented in the captioned map. All three standards use '($F-2 for video
compression. AT6/ uses ?olby ?igital A/-8 for audio compression" )6?4 uses Advanced
Audio /oding ('($F-2 (art :! and ?Q4 has no standard for audio compression but typically
uses '($F-1 (art 8 ;ayer 2.
T#e Internet
112
Today an estimated 1.:P of the %orld population has access to the )nternet %ith the highest
concentration in Oorth America (7A.7P!" 3ceania=Australia (2.7P! and $urope (87.1P!. )n
terms of broadband access" countries such as )celand (27.:P!" 6outh Morea (2.4P! and the
Oetherlands (2.8P! lead the %orld.
The nature of computer net%or* communication lends itself to a layered approach %here
individual protocols in the protocol stac* run largely independently of other protocols. This
allo%s lo%er-level protocols to be customi&ed for the net%or* situation %hile not changing the
%ay higher-level protocols operate. A practical e#ample of %hy this important is because it
allo%s an )nternet bro%ser to run the same code regardless of %hether the computer it is running
on is connected to the )nternet through an $thernet or 5i-Ei connection. (rotocols are often
tal*ed about in terms of their place in the 36) reference model - a model that emerged in 19A8
as the first step in a doomed attempt to build a universally adopted net%or*ing protocol suite.
At the net%or* layer things become standardi&ed %ith the )nternet (rotocol ()(! being adopted
for logical addressing. Eor the %orld %ide %eb" these G)( addressesH are derived from the human
readable form (e.g. :2.14.20:.99 is derived from %%%.google.com! using the ?omain Oame
6ystem. At the moment the most %idely used version of the )nternet (rotocol is version four but
a move to version si# is imminent. The main advantage of the ne% version is that it supports 8.40
d 10
8A
addresses compared to 4.29 d 10
9
addresses. The ne% version also adds support for
enhanced security through )(6ec as %ell as support for eo6 identifiers. At the transport layer
most communication adopts either the Transmission /ontrol (rotocol (T/(! or the <ser
?atagram (rotocol (<?(!. 5ith T/(" pac*ets are retransmitted if they are lost and placed in
order before they are presented to higher layers (this ordering also allo%s duplicate pac*ets to be
eliminated!. 5ith <?(" pac*ets are not ordered or retransmitted if lost. 4oth T/( and <?(
pac*ets carry port numbers %ith them to specify %hat application or process the pac*et should be
handed to on the client.s computer. 4ecause certain application-level protocols use certain ports"
net%or* administrators can restrict )nternet access by bloc*ing or throttling traffic destined for a
particular port.
Above the transport layer there are certain protocols that loosely fit in the session and
presentation layers and are sometimes adopted" most notably the 6ecure 6oc*ets ;ayer (66;!
and Transport ;ayer 6ecurity (T;6! protocols. These protocols ensure that the data transferred
bet%een t%o parties remains completely confidential and one or the other is in use %hen a
padloc* appears at the bottom of your %eb bro%ser. 6ecurity is generally based upon the
principle that eavesdroppers cannot factori&e very large numbers that are the composite of t%o
primes %ithout *no%ing one of the primes. Another protocol that loosely fits in the session and
presentation layers is the >eal-time Transport (rotocol (>T(! most notably used to stream
euic*Time. Einally at the application layer are many of the protocols )nternet users %ould be
familiar %ith such as 9TT( (%eb bro%sing!" (3(8 (e-mail!" ET( (file transfer! and )>/
()nternet chat! but also less common protocols such as 4itTorrent (file sharing! and )/e (instant
messaging!.
1. 9o% does a conventional %ire telephone system %or*C
2. 9o% did the mobile phones have a significant impact on telephone net%or*sC
8. 5hat is the chief advantage of digital broadcastsC
4. 5hat are the cities %ith the highest concentration of the internetC
. 5hat happens at the net%or* layerC
7. 5hat is the main advantage of the ne% version of the )nternet (rotocolC
:. 5hat do these protocols ensureC
A. 5hat are 9TT(" (3(8" ET( and )>/C
118
1. )n a conventional %ire telephone system" the caller is connected to the person they %ant to
tal* to" by dialing the number.
2. 'obile phones have had a significant impact on telephone net%or*s.
8. The chief advantage of digital broadcasts is that they are more comfortable to %atch.
4. )n digital television broadcasting" there are five competing standards that are li*ely to be
adopted %orld%ide.
. Today an estimated 2.:P of the %orld population has access to the )nternet.
7. At the moment the most %idely used version of the )nternet (rotocol is version four.
II 'oca(u!ary
1./onventional, 2. 6ubscription, 8. F6', 4. 4roadcast, . (rotocol, 7. )mminent, :.
(adloc*.
1.The <M %as the first country to adopt the compulsory public ;;;;;;;;;;. 2. (ositive events
can also be ;;;;;;;;;;, they 2ust need to be coming soon. 8. A ;;;;;;;; loan is any mortgage
%hich is not guaranteed or insured by the federal government. 4. The IIIIIIIII association
represents the interests of the %orld%ide mobile communications industry. . A IIIIIIII is
designed to protect against some degree of forced and surreptitious entry. 7. Oo%adays any TQ
is capable to IIIIIIIIIII a lot more channels.
Dnock on wood ) this idiom is used to %ish for good luc*,
/est egg ) if you have some money saved for the future" it is a nest egg, /ice as pie ) if a person
is nice as pie" they are surprisingly very *ind and friendly, /o pain, no gain ) achievements
re@uire some sort of sacrifice, Raw deal ) )f you get a ra% deal" you are treated unfairly.
2.,(ake)up sentences with the expressions from 2.*

III 4peaing
I' +riting
<-1 +rite an essay on t#e fo!!owing topic. /Modern te!ecommunication re6uires modern
peop!e to use it-1
114
"00ITION"L RE"0IN7
11

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