Green's Functions

2
Green's Functions
In 1828 George Green wrote an essay entitled "On the application of mathematical analysis
to the theories of electricity and magnetism" in which he developed a method for obtaining
solutions to Poisson's equation in potential theory. The method, which makes use of a potential
function that is the potential from a point or line source of unit strength, has been expanded
to deal with a large number of different partial differential equations. The technique always
makes use of a function that is the field from a source of unit strength; this function is called the
Green's function for the problem. In the early applications of Green's method no mathematical
expression was introduced to represent a unit source. The Green's function was defined instead
through its singular behavior in the vicinity of the unit-strength source.
In 1927 the delta function was introduced by Dirac as the limit of a sequence of functions,
i.e.,
o(X -x') == lim Un(x -x')

where Un(x - x') can be, for example,
These functions have the property that
or
sin n(x - x')
1r(x - x')
lim jf(xI)Un(X - x') dx' == f(x).

The area under the curve of Un(x - x') is unity for all n. It is now common practice to use
the delta function to represent a unit source in one dimension and to use a product of delta
functions to represent a unit source in a multidimensional space. The functions Un(X -x') are
legitimate functions, but once the limit has been taken the result is no longer a function in the
classical sense and o(x - x') is called, for this reason, a symbolic function. It can be defined
for most purposes by the operational property given by (96) in Chapter 1. The delta function
did not come into widespread use before around 1940. Even Baker and Copson in their 1950
book [1.30] did not make use of the delta function. In 1950 Laurent Schwartz developed the
distribution theory which provided a rigorous nonoperational method of handling entities such
as the delta function. A short introduction to distribution theory is given in Section 2.21.
The first two sections of this chapter present the general Green's function method for solving
Poisson's equation. This is done to provide the reader with an introduction to the subject. A
number of the following sections take up the problem of how to construct Green's functions for
differential equations of the Sturm-Liouville type. The construction ofGreen's functions for
multidimensional problems and techniques for obtaining alternative representations are then
given. The chapter includes a treatment of dyadic Green's functions which are needed for
55
56
FIELD THEORY OF GUIDED WAVES
the vector problem. Integral equations for scattering are also discussed. In Section 2.20 we
present a brief discussion of procedures that must be followed to construct Green's functions
for non-self-adjoint differential equations.
The field point is described in terms of the coordinates x, y, Z or the position vector
r. The source point is described in terms of the coordinates xo, Yo, Zo or x', y', z' with
corresponding position vector ro or r'. In general, we use the xo, Yo, Zo notation when a
number of differentiations with respect to xo, Yo, Zo are involved. The distance Ir - ro I is
represented by the symbol R.
2.1. GREEN'S fuNCTIONS FOR POISSON'S EQUATION
The scalar potential in electrostatics is a solution of Poisson's equation
( 1)
where p is the density of the charge distribution which gives rise to the scalar potential <1>, and
is assumed constant. In the absence of any boundaries the solution is given by the integral
<1>( ) == fff p(xo, Yo, zo) dV
x, y, z JJJ 47r R 0
v
(2)
where R == [(x - XO)2 +(y - YO)2 +(z - ZO)2]1/2 and is the distance from the source point
to the point in space where the potential is evaluated. A source of unit strength located at
the point (xo, Yo, zo) can be conveniently represented by a three-dimensional delta function
o(x - xo)o(y - yo)o(z - zo), where the delta function is zero at all points except Xo == x,
Yo ==y, Zo ==Z.
If P(xo, Yo, zo) is an arbitrary vector function which is continuous at (x, y, z), then [see
(96) in Chapter 1]
IIIP(xo, .)o(x - xo)o(y - Yo)o(z - zo) dVi,
v
{
O'
P(x, y, z),
(x, y, z) not in V
(x, y, z) in V.
(3)
A similar result holds for a scalar function. Our discussion of the solution of the inhomoge-
neous Helmholtz equation in Section 1.9 showed that - \72(47rR)-1 has the properties given
by (3) above. The three-dimensional solution of the following inhomogeneous differential
equation defines the free-space three-dimensional Green's function for Poisson's equation:
\72G(X, y, ZIxo, Yo, zo) == -o(x - xo)o(y - yo)o(z - zo). (4)
The Green's function G is a function of both the point of observation or field point and the
source point. From the known properties of the function (47rR)-1 we see at once that this is
the solution of (4), and hence
G(x, y, zlxo, Yo, zo) == 1/47rR.
(5)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
Fig. 2.1. Illustration for Green's theorem.
57
The Green's function is symmetrical in the variables xo, Yo, Zo and x, y, z. This property
will be found to be true in most cases that we will encounter, and is equivalent to the field
obeying a reciprocity principle. Once the solution for a unit source is known, the solution for
any given arbitrary source distribution follows at once by superposition, i.e.,
(x,. .) = IIIG(x, y, zlxo, Yo, zo)p(xo. Yo, zo)dVo
v
(6)
which, with the aid of (5), is certainly recognizable as the standard solution of Poisson's
equation.
In addition to the notation used above, it will be convenient, in what follows, to use the
following abbreviated notation as well:
(r) = fflG(r, ro)p(ro)dVo.
v
When G is symmetrical, G(r, ro) == G(ro, r).
Let cP and 1/; be two scalar functions of position which are continuous with continuous partial
derivatives. Let the region of space V contain conducting bodies with surfaces 8
1,82,
... ,8
n
,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.1. By introducing suitable cuts, the region of interest can be made simply
connected. Let 8 be a closed surface consisting of the surfaces 8
1
, . ,8n the surfaces along
the cuts, and the surface of an infinite sphere which surrounds all the conducting bodies.
Applying Green's second identity! to the functions <P and 1/; gives
where n is the normal to S and is directed into the volume V. We now let by - pj and \75G by the negative delta function, we find that
- fff(ro)o(r - ro)dVo+ fffp(ro)G(r, ro)dV
o
v v
fj
aq>(ro) fj aG(r, ro)
== {jflG(r, ro)dSo - <p(ro) an dS
o
s s
where
(7a)
aG
- == (\7oG)-o
an
and \70 designates differentiation with respect to xo, Yo, zoo It is important to note that, if
xo, Yo, Zo are used as the variables of integration in Green's identity, then all derivatives of
functions in the integrands must also be with respect to xo, Yo, Zoo Using the property of the
delta function as given by (3) shows that the required solution for q> is
(r) = fffp(ro)G(r, ro)dVo + fj - as; (7b)
v s
The surface integrals along the cuts do not contribute since they are traversed twice in the
opposite sense and with.the normal 0 oppositely directed. The three terms contributing to q>
are the volume distribution of charge p, a surface distribution of charge - (a<p jan), and a
surface distribution of electric dipoles of dipole moment <P per unit area [2.1].
In a two-dimensional space the Green's function is defined by the differential equation
(8a)
The source function in this case is an infinite line source of unit density. The solution for 0
is readily obtained by rewriting (8a) in cylindrical coordinates r, 0 as follows:
1 a oc 1 a
2
0
--r- +-- == -o(r)
r ar ar r
2
ao
2
(8b)
where the origin for the r, 0 coordinate system has been chosen coincident with the line
charge, i. e., at x0, Yo. From symmetry considerations we see that G is not a function of 0,
and hence depends only on the radial distance r from the line source. If we surround the line
source by a cylindrical surface S as illustrated in Fig. 2.2 and integrate (8b) throughout the
volume enclosed by a unit length of S, we get
fffv-vo av = fj vo.as = - fffo(r)dV =-1
v s v
by virtue of the properties of the delta function. Since G is a function of r only, we get
(aG jar)21rr == -1, and a further integration gives the desired result, which is
G = - 1;: . (9a)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
59
..
z
s
-r--Ir--
l
-
I -------+1---...
I I
I V I
_L .J_
'-x' r
/ "'
I \
S I 8 \
'Xo,Yo I
\ I
, /
" '"

Fig. 2.2. Surface S surrounding a line source.
Transforming back to our X, Y coordinate system, we have
(9b)
2.2. MODIFIED GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
The solution for 4> given by (7b) is not too useful in practice since usually we know 4>
on part of the boundary and a4>jan on the remainder, but rarely do we know both on the
complete surface S. However, by a suitable modification of our Green's function it is possible,
in principle at least, to obtain a solution for 4> from a knowledge of either 4> or a4>jan on the
boundary. If the required boundary conditions specify the value of 4> on the complete boundary,
the potential 4> is said to satisfy Dirichlet boundary conditions. If the normal derivative a4>jan
is specified on the whole boundary, the corresponding boundary conditions are referred to as
Neumann boundary conditions. Finally, if 4> is specified on part of the boundary and a4>jan
on the remainder, we have mixed boundary conditions.
If 4> is known on the complete boundary, we see from an examination of the solution (7b)
that the offending term involving a4>jan can be eliminated by making the Green's function
vanish on the complete boundary, i.e., on the surface S. Thus we define the Green's function
of the first kind as a solution to the equation
(lOa)
and obeying the boundary condition
on S. (lOb)
The solution for the potential 4> is thus given by
(r) = JJJ;01 dVo + fj as;
v s
(11)
When a4>jan is given everywhere on S, we modify our Green's function to make aojan
vanish on the boundary. The Green's function of the second kind is defined as a solution of
(I2a)
subject to the boundary condition
a0
2
== 0
an
onS. (I2b)
60
The solution for in this case is given by
(r) = ff! ;0
2
av; - If 02 as;
V s
(13)
When we have mixed boundary conditions, it is desirable, if possible, to find a Green's
function which vanishes on that part of S for which we know and which has a normal
derivative equal to zero over that part of S for which we know From (11) and (13)
we see that the Green's functions are useful for solving boundary-value problems, when the
volume distribution of charge p is zero, as well. Needless to say, quite often in practice it
is about as difficult to find a solution for the Green's functions as it is to solve the original
boundary-value problem. The use of Green's functions converts a differential equation together
with the boundary conditions to an integral equation, which in many cases is more readily
attacked by approximate techniques.
We will now show that the Green's function is symmetric in the variables x, Y, z and
Xo, Yo, Zo, that is,
G(r, ro) == G(ro, r).
(14)
This property might have been anticipated since the delta function is symmetrical, i.e., o(r -
ro) = o(ro -r). This reciprocity principle states that the potential at (x, Y, z) from a unit charge
at (xo, Yo, zo) is the same as the potential at (xo, Yo, zo) due to a unit charge at (x, Y, z).
Let G
1
(r, rOl) be the Green's function of the first kind for a point charge at (X01, Y01, ZOI),
and let G
1(r,
r02) be the Green's function for a point charge at (X02, Y02, Z02). If these two
functions are used in Green's second identity, we get
!!!o\(r, rOl)V'
20\(r,
r02) -O\(r, r02)V'
20\(r,
rOl)]dV
v
__If [G ( )8G
1(r,
r02) _ G ( )8G
1(r,
r
01)]
dS
- 1 r, rOI 8n 1 r, r02 an
s
Since G1 vanishes on Sand
\72G
1
(r, rOl) = -o(r - rOl)
\72G
1
(r, r02) == -o(r - r02)
we obtain the following result from the volume integral:
(15)
Since (X01, Y01, ZOI) and (X02, Y02, Z02) are arbitrary points, the stated reciprocity principle
is proved. A similar proof holds for the Green's function of the second kind since aG2/8n
equals zero in this case and the surface integral again vanishes.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
2.3. STURM-LIOUVILLE EQUATION
61
Many of the boundary-value problems encountered in connection with the study of guided
electromagnetic waves lead to the Sturm-Liouville equation. In this section we will review the
basic properties of the Sturm-Liouville system but without detailed derivation.
The Sturm-Liouville equation is of the form
:XP(X) + [q(x) +AI1(X)]lf(X) =0 (16)
where Ais a separation constant. In practice both p and a are usually positive and continuous
functions of x. We will consider the properties of this equation when the interval in x is finite,
say 0 ::; x ::; a.
The solutions to (16) are fixed only if certain boundary conditions are first specified. The
three common boundary conditions are 1/; == 0, d1/; [dx == 0 and 1/;+K(d1/;/dx) == 0 at x == 0, a,
where K is a suitable constant. Once a set of boundary conditions has been specified (one
condition at x == 0 and one at x == a) then one finds an infinite set of solutions 1/;n to (16)
corresponding to particular values of A, say An. The functions 1/;n are called eigenfunctions
and the An are called eigenvalues. In all cases, the 1/;n form an orthogonal set of functions
over the interval 0 ::; x ::; a. The orthogonality of the functions may be proved as follows:
Multiplying the equation for 1/;n by 1/;m and vice versa, subtracting and integrating gives
fa ( d d1/;m d d1/;n) fa
Jo lfndx
P
dx -lfmdx
P
dx dx = Jo (An - A
m)
l1lfnlfm
dx
since the term involving q vanishes. Integrating the left-hand side by parts gives
(
lfndlfm -lfmdlfn ) p 1 - r P (d1/;m d1/;n _ d1/;n d1/;m) dx
dx dx 0 io dx dx dx dx
(
d1/;m d1/;n) I
a
fa
= P lfn dx -lfm dx 0 = (An - Am)Jo I1lfnlfm dx.
When 1/In and 1/Im satisfy the same boundary conditions, of the type given earlier, the integrated
terms vanish. For example, if 1/1; +K(d1/l;/dx) == at x == 0, a, with i == n, m, then we can
write
which clearly vanishes at x == 0, a. When An 1= Am we conclude that
(17)
i.e., the 1/;n form an orthogonal set with respect to the weighting function u(x). If An == Am
we have a degeneracy but suitable combinations of 1/;n and 1/;m can be chosen to yield an
orthogonal set of functions.
For example, if 1/;1 and 1/;2 are eigenfunctions with degenerate eigenvalues Al == A2 and
J: u1/;I1/;2 dx =1= 0, then we can choose new eigenfunctions == 1/;1 and == 1/11 + C1/;2
(18)
n =1= m.
n==m
1
0 {I,
u1/;n1/;m dx ==
o 0,
and force these to be orthogonal. This means that the constant C is chosen such that
J; u(1/;i +C1/;I1/;2)dx == O. The new eigenfunctions are now orthogonal but have the common
eigenvalue AI. This procedure may be extended to the case where there are N degenerate
eigenvalues with corresponding eigenfunctions. The procedure just described is an example
of the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization procedure.
We will now assume that the 1/;n have been normalized so that they form an orthonormal
set, i.e.,
The eigenfunctions form a complete set and may be used to expand an arbitrary piecewise
continuous function f(x) into a Fourier-type series. Thus let
00
f(x) == L an1/;n(X).
n=l
(19)
To find the unknown coefficients multiply both sides by u1/;m, integrate over 0 to a, and use
(18); thus
1
0 00 1
uf1/;m dx == Lan u1/;n1/;m dx == am
o n=l 0
(20)
Our main interest in the orthogonality property of the eigenfunctions is for the purpose of
finding the coefficients in Fourier series-type expansions.
The notion: of completeness for the space of functions 1/;n defined on the interval 0 ::; x ::; a
involves the following: Let f(x) be a piecewise continuous function on 0 ::; x ::; a that is
quadratically integrable with u(x) as a weighting function, i.e.,
We assume that u(x) is always positive.
Consider now the approximation
to f(x). If the limit as N ()() of the integrated square of the error tends to zero, then the
1/;n form a complete set. Completeness thus implies that
a N 2
lim r f(x) - LCn1Pn(X) u(x)dx =o.
n=l
(21)
This equation becomes, in the limit,
(22)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
63
which is Parseval's theorem. The space of functions 1/In is said to be complete when (21) is
true. The functions 1/In then span the space or domain of functions that the Sturm-Liouville
differential operator operates on. The functions are said to form a basis for this domain, which
means that they may be used to expand functions in the domain into Fourier-like series. It is
important to note that the functions 1/In are not a basis for expanding functions that do not lie
in the domain of the Sturm-Liouville differential operator. For example, they cannot be used
to give an expansion of the function defined on the interval 0 ::; x ::; b with b > a.
A method of showing that the eigenfunctions for the Sturm-Liouville differential operator
form a complete set is given in Chapter 6 and is based on an associated variational principle
for the eigenvalues. The eigenfunctions form an orthogonal set when the differential operator
is self-adjoint. When the operator is not self-adjoint it is necessary to find the eigenfunctions
of the adjoint operator in order to have an orthogonality principle that can be used to develop
eigenfunction expansions. Non-self-adjoint operators are discussed in Section 2.20.
The normalized eigenfunctions correspond to unit vectors in a linear vector function space.
When the eigenfunctions are orthogonal they correspond to orthogonal unit vectors. The
symmetrical scalar product
(23)
is analogous to finding the projection of the vector f(x) onto the unit vector 1/In(x). When
the operator is not self-adjoint the eigenfunctions are not orthogonal and we then need to
introduce a reciprocal set of unit vectors in order to find the components of f. The normalized
eigenfunctions of the adjoint operator correspond to the reciprocal set of unit vectors in a
nonorthogonal system.
2.4. GREEN'S FUNCTION G(x, X')
The Green's function is the response of a linear system to a point source of unit strength.
A source of unit strength, at the position x' can be conveniently represented by the Dirac
delta function o(x - x'). From a heuristic viewpoint we can think of o(x - x') as a narrow
rectangular pulse of width and height 1/ and thus' of unit area, in the limit as 0
as shown in Fig. 2.3(a). The Green's function G(x, x') is the solution of the Sturm-Liouville
equation when the source term or forcing function is a point source of unit strength. The
Green's function satisfies the equation,
d dG I
-p- +(q +"Au)G == -o(x - x ).
dx dx
(24)
The Green's function must also satisfy appropriate boundary conditions at x == 0, a. We will
discuss two basic solutions to (24).
Method I
We may expand G in terms of the eigenfunctions 1/In, with eigenvalues "An, that satisfy
the same boundary conditions as G. Thus let G(x, x') == Substituting in the
equation for G gives - "A
n)u1/ln
== -o(x - x') since 1/In is a solution of (16) for
L1x
--lr
1
1
L1x
--+-------...&...--"""------ X
x'
(a)

G
I
I
I
x'
(b)
pC::;
x
Fig. 2.3. (a) One-dimensional delta function. (b) Behavior of G and its derivative near x',
A == An. If we now multiply both sides by 1/;m, integrate over 0 to a, and use (18) we obtain
upon using (3) to evaluate the last integral. Using this solution for am we obtain
G(x, x') =
n=l n
Note that G has poles at the points A== An. We will make use of this property later on.
Method II
(25)
We note that at all points x =1= x' the Green's function is a solution of the homogeneous
equation (d /dx)p(dG/dX)+(q+AU)G == O. At x' G must be continuous but p(dG/dx) must
be discontinuous by a unit amount [see Fig. 2.3(b)]. The second derivative (d /dx)p(dG/dx)
then yields a delta function singularity. If G was not continuous at x' the resulting singularity
would be of too high an order.
Let A q,1 (x) be a solution of the homogeneous equation that satisfies the boundary condition
at x == O. Similarly, let Bq,2(X) be a solution, linearly independent of q,1, that satisfies the
boundary condition at x == a. Thus let G == Aq,l(X), x 5:. x', and G == Bq,2(X), x ? x'.
Continuity of G at x == x' requires that A q,l(x') == Bq,2(X'). If 'Ye integrate the equation for
G from x' - T to x' +T and let T 0 and note that limT--+o (q +AU)Gdx == 0 since
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
65
q, o , and G are all continuous at x', then we obtain
l
x' +7 d dG dG lX' +7
lim -p- dx == p - == - o(x -x')dx == -1.
X' -7 dx dx dx x': X'-7
In other words, p dG jdx evaluated between adjacent sides of the point x' must undergo a
step change as shown in Fig. 2.3(b). Hence we have
x'
dGI + 1 " "
- ==---, ==BiP
2(x)-AiPI(x)
dx s': p(x)
where iP' stands for diPjdx. The solution for A and B may be found from the above two
conditions and is A == -iP
2(x')/p(x')W(x'),
b == -iPI(x')/p(x')W(x') where the Wronskian
determinant W(x') == iP
l
- (x')iP
2(x')
does not equal zero since iP
l
and iP
2
are
linearly independent solutions.
Our solution for the Green's function is thus
(26)
x'< <.
O:::;x <x'
iP
l
(x)iP
2(x')
{
- p(x')W(x') ,
G(x, x') ==
iP
l
(x')iP
2(x)
- p(x')W(x') ,
The Wronskian determinant W will be a function of the parameter Aand will vanish whenever
A== An so G will have the poles that are explicitly exhibited by the first solution (25). Although
(25) and (26) are different in form they are equal.
It is convenient to define the following:
x., == the greater of x or x'
x< == the lesser of x or x',
We can then express the solution for G(x, x') in the condensed form
G(x, x') ==
<PI(x<)<P2(X
p(x')W(x')
(27)
which includes both forms given by (26).
A useful property of the Sturm-Liouville equation is that the product of p(x)W(x) is a
constant. We can prove this result as follows: We form the product of iP
l
(x) with the equation
for iP
2(x)
and subtract from this the corresponding result with iP
l
and iP
2
interchanged; thus
d diP
2
d diP
l
<PI dxP dx +(q +Au)iPl iP2 - iP2dxP dx - (q +Au)iPl iP2
d diP
2
d diP
l
== iP
l
dx
P
dx - iP
2
dx
P
dx
66
From the last result we conclude that
where the constant C is a function of A.
(28)
Example
We wish to find the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues for the equation d
2t/;
/ dx? + At/; == 0
with boundary conditions t/; == 0 at x == 0, a. This is a special case with P == a == 1 and
q == O. A general solution for t/; is A sin J>..x +B cos VAx. To make t/; == 0 at x == 0
we must choose B == O. To make t/; vanish at x == a we must have sin == O. Thus
== nx, n == 1,2,3, ... or An == (n7r/a)2. Hence the eigenfunctions are sin nxx ]a,
Since J; sin
2
(nxx fa) dx == a/2 the normalized eigenfunctions are JfTO sin (nxx fa) == t/;n.
We now wish to solve d
2
G[dx? + AG == -5(x - x'). According to Method I we let
G == sin (nxx ia). By substituting in the equation for G we find
n
2
7r
2
/ a
2
) JfTO sin (nxx fa) == -5(x - x'). We now multiply both sides by
JfTO sin (mxxfa), integrate from 0 to a, and obtain
(
m27r2) mxx mxx'
am A--- ==- - 5(x-x')sin--dx==- -sin--.
a
2
a 0 a. a a
Thus
. nxx . nxx'
- SIn - - sIn --
00 a a a a
G(x, X') = - L 2 2 / 2
n=1 A- n 7r a
(29a)
We may also use Method II. We let <1>1 == sin J>..x and <1>2 == sin - x). Note
that <1>1 and <1>2 are linearly independent and satisfy the boundary conditions at x ==
0, a, respectively. The Wronskian determinant W(x') == <1>1 (x') <1>2 (x') - <1>i (X')<1>2(X') ==
(sin J>..x')[ cos - x')] - cos J>..x' sin - x') == sin From
(27) we get
G(
') == sin vfXx<. sin /X(a -x
x,x
A
A
VA sin vAa
(29b)
Note that sin /Xa == 0 whenever A == (n7r/a)2 so that this second solution for G does have
the poles at A == n
27r2/a2
that are shown explicitly in the first solution. A Fourier series
expansion of the second solution would yield the first solution.
2.5. SOLUTION OF BOUNDARy-VALUE PROBLEMS
Let it be required to find a solution to the equation
d dt/;
dx Pdx +(q +AlJ)t/; == -f(x)
(30)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS 67
with either 1/;, d1/;/dx, or 1/; +K(d1/;/dx) specified at x == 0, Q. In (30) f(x) is a distributed
forcing function. Let G(x, x') be a Green's function that is a solution of
d dG I
-p- +(q +Aa)G == -o(x -x).
dx dx
(31)
(32)
We now replace x by x' for convenience, multiply the equation for 1/; by G and the equation
for G by 1/;, subtract, and integrate to obtain
1
0 [G( I ( l)d1/;(X
')
__"( ( l)dG(X
',
X)] d I
x ,x d ,P X d I 'Y X d ,P X d I X
o X x x x
=1 -f(x')G(x', x)dx' +11/!(X')o(x' -x)dx'
since the terms involving the factor q +Aa cancel. After an integration by parts we obtain
1/!(x) = 1G(x', x)f(x') dx' + [G(X', x)p(x')
_ 1/!(x')p(x') x) ] I: .
If 1/; satisfies one of the boundary conditions 1/; == 0, d1/; / dx
'
== 0, 1/; +K (d1/; / dx
')
== 0, at each
end x == 0 or Q, and we choose G to satisfy the same boundary conditions, then the boundary
terms vanish and the solution for 1/; is simply
1/!(x) = 1G(x', x)f(x')dx'. (33)
This solution is a superposition of the response from each differential element of force f dx
'
with G being the response of the system due to a point source of unit strength. It is the
ability to represent the solution to a linear system driven by an arbitrary forcing function f(x)
by a superposition integral such as (33) that makes the theory of Green's functions of great
importance in practice.
Sometimes the boundary conditions on 1/; may be of the form K t1/; +K
2(d1/;/dx)
== K
3
(K1
or K
2
might be zero and the K, may be different at each end). In this case we choose the
boundary conditions on G in such a way that we can evaluate the boundary terms in (32) in
terms of known quantities. If 1/; is given on the boundary (K2 == 0) we choose G == 0 on the
boundary; if d1/;/dx is given (K1 == 0) we choose dG/dx == 0; and finally if K 11/;+K
2(d1/;/dx)
is given we choose K IG +K
2(dG
/dx) == 0 on the boundary. We will illustrate the last case
explicitly. The boundary terms in (32) may be written as
which by virtue of the boundary conditions on 1/; and G becomes the known quantity
(K
3/K2)p(x')G(x
',
x)lg
At this point we digress in order to introduce some mathematical concepts that will be more
68
c + O"A)l/I
Source
space S
CR
Fig. 2.4. Mapping of functions from the domain of an operator into its range space CR. The
source function f(x) from the source space S should lie in the range space for a solution of the
differential equation to exist. Functions in the null space are not mapped into the range space.
important in connection with dyadic Green's functions but which can be illustrated in a simple
setting here.
For convenience we repeat (30) in the form
'1/; +ACJ1/; == - f(x) (34)
where , denotes the operator (d/dx)p(x)(d/dx) +q(x). This operator operates on functions
1/; that are in the space of functions called the domain of the operator. This space is the
space of functions that are twice differentiable, are quadratically integrable as defined in Section
2.3, exist on the interval 0 ::; x ::; a, and satisfy the boundary conditions at x == 0, a. The
boundary conditions are an important part of the specification of the domain of the operator.
The operator , +0"Acan be viewed as operating on functions 1/; in the domain and producing
new functions that lie in a space of functions called the range space <R of the operator. This
concept is illustrated in Fig. 2.4. It should be obvious that (34) does not have a solution if the
source function f(x) is not in the range space <R of the operator. Hence a necessary condition
for (34) to have a solution is that the source f(x) be in the range space, i.e., f(x) E <R where
E means that f(x) is in <R.
The solution for 1/; in (34) when f(x) E <R is unique only if there are no solutions except
the trivial one u == 0 to the homogeneous equation [solutions to the homogeneous equation
are not related to the source f (x)]
'U+CJAU == O.
Any nonzero solution U to this homogeneous equation is said to be in the null space of the
operator and is not mapped into the range space. For A == An, an eigenvalue, U == 1/;n is a
nonzero solution and is in the null space of (, +CJA
n
) . Hence for a unique solution to (34) A
must not be equal to an eigenvalue. All values of Athat correspond to the discrete eigenvalues
An make up the point spectrum of the operator. All values of Afor which (34) has a bounded
(finite) solution belong to the resolvent set. Later on we will encounter problems where A has
a continuous range of values forming a continuous spectrum. The continuous spectrum is not
part of the resolvent set. When A is in the resolvent set (34) can be solved (resolved).
The completeness of the eigenfunction set enables us to replace the operator +CJAoperating
on 1/; by
(, +O"A)1/; == LCJ(A - A
n)Cn1/;n
n
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
where
We can represent the operator cC +(J A as
cC +(JA == 2:(A - A
n)(J1/;n(x)1/;n(x
')
n
69
where the action of the operator on a function 1/;(x
')
is obtained by multiplying by 1/;(x
')
and
integrating over x'. This representation of the operator is called the spectral representation. If
we define the scalar product ((J1/;n, 1/;) to be
((l1/;n(X'), 1/J(x')) =1a(x')1/Jn (x')1/J(x') dx'
then symbolically we can write
(cC +(JA, 1/;) == 2:(A - A
n)1/;n(x)
((J1/;n , 1/;)
n
as describing the action of the operator on 1/;.
When we substitute the series expansion for 1/; into (34) we obtain
2:Cn(A - A
n)(J1/;n(x)
== -f(x).
n
By means of the standard procedure
C
-1 r
a
f
I I d I
n = A_ An Jo (x )1/Jn(x) X
and
1/J(x) = - r!(X')1/Jn(X')dx'.
n=1 nio
We now rewrite this solution in the form
which allows us to identify the Green's function operator as
G(x', x) = - f .
n=1 n
(35a)
(35b)
(36)
This is the spectral representation of the inverse operator (cC +(J A)-1. It is irrelevant whether
or not this series converges since it should be viewed as an operator that is to be used in a term
(37)
by term integration so as to generate the series expansion for the solution 1/; as in (35a). For
one-dimensional problems the Green's function series does converge to an ordinary function,
but in two- and three-dimensional problems the Green's function series is not convergent when
the field point and source point coincide. For this reason it is not meaningful to always consider
summing the series, which cannot be done in general. The concept of the Green's function as
an operator as used in (35a) is, however, valid.
In the space of functions 5) we have, for a function h(x),
h(x) = 'fOnt{;n(X), On = 1h(x')(J(X')t{;n(x')dx'
n=l
and hence
h(x) = 'ft{;n(X)1h(x')(J(x')t{;n(x')dx'
n=l 0
= [h(X') dx'.
The series in (37) is seen to have the same operational property as the symbolic function
o(x - x'). Hence the series, which is not a convergent one for all x, x', is a representation
for o(x - x') in the space 5), Le.,
00
o(x - x') == LU(X')1/;n(X')1/;n(X).
n=l
(38)
This representation for o(x - x') is also to be viewed as an operator, not as a function, and
be used in a term by term integration to yield h(x) as in (37). It is important to note that
this eigenfunction representation for o(x - x') is valid only for functions in the domain 5)
for which the eigenfunctions form a complete set of functions, i.e., span the domain 5). With
these qualifications the relationship exhibited in (38) is said to be the completeness relation
for the eigenfunction set.
Consider the equation (cC +UAk)1/; == - f for a given specified eigenvalue Ak. The eigen-
function 1/;k is in the null space of the operator cC +UAk since (cC +UAk )1/;k == o. Clearly the
space of functions in the range space of cC +UAk does not contain the function 1/;k. Conse-
quently, the equation has a solution only if the source function f is orthogonal to 1/;k. We see
that the range space is orthogonal to the null space for a self-adjoint operator.
Not all differential operators are self-adjoint operators. Non-self-adjoint operators are de-
scribed in Section 2.20. In this section we will give an example of a non-self-adjoint operator
and its implication. Consider a differential operator of the form
.t{; = d
2t{;
_ .dt{; +At{; =0
dx' J dx
with boundary conditions 1/; == 0 at x == 0, a. Let this equation be multiplied by a function 
and integrate by parts so as to transform the differential operators onto ; thus the symmetric
product
(<1>, .t{;) = r dx - j r<1> ddt{; dx +A r<1>t{;dx = 0
io dx io x io
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
becomes
71
d1/; la d4J la 1
a
d
24J
la
4J- -1/;- + 1/; -2dx -j4J1/;
dx 0 dx 0 0 dx 0
fa d4J fa
+j Jo I/; dx dx +AJo (pI/; dx = O.
If we wish to make the integral of the product 4J1/; equal to zero, then 4J must be a solution of
and. in order to make the integrated terms vanish 4J == 0 at x == 0, a. The new differential
operator shown above is called the adjoint operator. It differs from the original operator by
having j instead of - j as a multiplier in front of the first derivative. With the conditions
above imposed, we write
(39)
which is the formal definition for the adjoint operator. If an operator is not self-adjoint, then it
is the eigenfunctions, say 4J
n
, of the adjoint operator that are orthogonal to the eigenfunctions,
say 1/;m, of the original operator. A different expansion procedure is required to obtain a spectral
expansion of the solution for the inhomogeneous equation. The details for the modifications
required are described in Section 2.20.
When the eigenfunctions are complex we can choose to define the scalar product in the
following way:
where 1/;* is the complex conjugate of 1/;. If we choose this as our scalar product then a similar
analysis would show that cC
a
== cC so that the operator is now self-adjoint. Thus the choice of
scalar product dictates in many instances whether or not an operator is self-adjoint. Sometimes
cC
a
== cC but the boundary conditions for 4J are different from those for 1/;, in which case the
operator is classified as non-self-adjoint. An operator is not fully defined until the boundary
conditions are also given since this determines the domain of the operator. Generally, when
we have complex eigenfunctions it is preferable to use the scalar product involving 4J1/;*. The
mathematical theory for differential and integral operators that involve complex functions is
based on the use of the scalar product involving 4J1/;* because this allows the concept of length
(norm) to be defined as a positive real quantity, i.e., the length of a function 4J would be given
by
II (Pll = ((P, (p)1/2 = [1
0
(P(P*'". 1/2
which is analogous to the length of a Euclidean vector A with real components. The latter is
given by
72 FIELD THEORY OF GUIDED WAYES
(40)
and is always a real positive quantity. These concepts are described more completely in Section
2.20.
2.6. MULTIDIMENSIONAL GREEN'S FUNCTIONS AND ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS
[2.10], [2.13], [2.14]
We have noted that there is more than one representation for a one-dimensional Green's
function. Also we have noted that the Green's function has poles for certain values of the
separation constant X. These poles are called the spectrum of the Green's function. For finite-
range problems the spectrum is discrete, but for infinite-range problems the spectrum is
continuous and the Green's function will have branch point singularities instead of poles.
In two and three dimensions there are many different possible representations for the Green's
functions. For this reason we wish to present a unified approach to multidimensional Green's
functions.
First we will present a theorem that is useful in constructing two- and three-dimensional
Green's functions from Green's functions for one-dimensional problems.
Theorem I:
1 f I o(x -x')
-2. G(x, x , "A)d"A = - (/
1r) C U X )
where C is a closed contour in the complex X plane that encloses all the singularities of
G(x, x', X).
Proof: Use the form
G(
I '\.) == _ 1/;n(x)1/;n(x
')
X,X,/\ LJ X-X
n=l n
and Cauchy's theorem to give
To complete the proof we show that this equals the right-hand side of (40) by expanding
o(x - x') in terms of a series in the 1/;n. Let o(x - x') == We multiply both
sides by u(x)1/;m(x) and use (18) to obtain C
m
== J; o(x - x
')u(x)1/;m(x)
dx == u(x
l)1/;m(x
').
Hence
which completes the proof.
o(x - x') _ ( ).1, ( ')
(
') - LJ'Yn X vn X
U X n=l
(41)
Example
Consider d
2
G/dx
2
+XG == -o(x -x'), G == 0 at x == 0, a. By using Method II we readily
find that
sin VXx < sin JX(a - x,
G(x, x', X) == ----------
JX sin JXa
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
A plane
c
Fig. 2.5. Contour C enclosing the poles of the Green's function.
73
Since G is an even function of it has no branch points; its only singularities are poles at
== ns: or A == (n/a)2, n == 1, 2, 3, .... Theorem I gives
1 f I
-. GdA == -o(x -x)
21f'j c
where C is the contour shown in Fig. 2.5. Near An == (n1f' /a)2 we have sin == sin
A+A) == == cos nr (cos ==
cos n1f'[(A - An) /( + A)]a. Thus the residue from the term 1/( sin at the nth
pole is (2A)/(aA cos n1f') == (-I)n(2/a). The residue expansion of the integral may
now readily be found:
1 f G L
oo
n 2 . nxx; . nt:
-. d/\ == (-1) - SIn -- SIn -(a - x
21f'j c a a a
n=l
00 2 . n1f'X . nsx'
== - L - SIn -- sIn --
n=l a a a
since
. n1f'() . nxx-,
SIn - a -x> == -cos n1f' sIn --.
a a
The latter series is easily verified to be the expansion of - o(x - x') in conformity with
Theorem I.
We will use the above theorem to show that multidimensional Green's functions can be
constructed in the form of contour integrals taken over the spectrum of a product of associ-
ated one-dimensional Green's functions. The theory will be developed by means of suitable
examples.
Green's Function for Two-Dimensional Laplace's Equation
Consider
G==Oatx==O,a; y==O,b. (42)
y

.X', y'
x
a
Fig. 2.6. Line charge along z.
Apart from a factor l/eo the function G represents the electric potential from a z-directed line
charge inside a conducting rectangular tube as shown in Fig. 2.6.
Let == 8
2
j8x
2
+8
2
j8y 2 and x == 8
2
j8x
2
, y == 8
2
j8y 2 . The equation 1/; == 0
separates into two one-dimensional equations x1/;x(x) +A
x1/;x
== 0 and y1/;y(y) +A
y1/;y
== 0
with Ax +Ay == 0 provided we assume a solution in product form, i.e., 1/;(x, y) == 1/;x(x)1/;y(y).
Corresponding to each of the separated equations there are associated one-dimensional Green's
function problems of the form
G
x
== 0 at x == 0, a
Gy==Oaty==O,b. (43)
We will now show that the solution to the original problem (42) can be expressed in terms
of the solutions to the simpler one-dimensional problems (43). Specifically, we will show that
G(x, x', y, y') == 2- Gx(x, x', Ax)Gy(y, v', -Ax)dA
x
7rJ C
X
-If I I
== Gx(x, x , -Ay)Gy(y, y , Ay)dAy
7r} C
y
(44)
where Cx encloses the singularities of Gx and excludes those of Gy and similarly Cy encloses
only the singularities of Gy. The formula (44) synthesizes an appropriate two-dimensional
Green's function from the associated one-dimensional Green's functions.
To prove (44) we only need to show that it is a solution of (42). Clearly G satisfies the correct
boundary conditions in view of the conditions imposed on G
x
and G
y
at the boundaries. We
also have
G == (x +Ax +y +Ay)G
- 1 f 0 I I
- --2' (
a1J
x +Ax +y +Ay)Gx(X, x , Ax)Gy(y, y , Ay)dA
x
7r) C
x
==-2
1
.f [-o(x-x')Gy(y,y', -AX)-GX(X,X
',
Ax)O(y_y')]dA
x
7r} c.
upon using (43) to replace (x +Ax)G
x
by -o(x -x') and (y +Ay)Gy by -o(y - y'). Since
C; excludes the singularities of Gy we obtain G == (lj27rj)fc
x
Gx(x, x', Ax)dA
x
o(y -
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
75
y') == -o(X - X')o(y - y') upon using Theorem I (note that a == 1 in this problem). In other
words, the contour integral of G
y
is zero because no singularities are enclosed by virtue of
the manner in which Cx was chosen. A similar proof holds if we use the form involving
integration around the contour Cy in (44).
We will now illustrate the above procedure by constructing G directly and then show that
the same solution is obtained from using (44) and solutions to (43).
The normalized eigenfunctions of the equation d
2G
xj dx? + AxGx == 0 which vanish at
x == 0, a, are yff1Q sin (nxx Ia), n == 1,2 ... , and Ax == (n1rja)2. These form a complete
set so we may assume that
00
G(x, x', y, y') == L:an(y)<Pn(x),
n=I
n,. nxx
'J!n == - SIn --.
a a
When we substitute into the equation for G, i.e., into (42), we obtain
00 [ 2 ()2 ]
d an(y) nr
8 d
y
2 - a an (y) q)n(X) = -o(x - x')o(y - y').
We now multiply both sides by <Pm(x) and integrate to get
d
2
()2
am m1r I I
--2 - - am == -<Pm(x )o(y - y )
dy a
since the functions <P
n
are orthogonal. We can readily solve this equation for am(y) according
to Method II given earlier. We find that
n,. ( ') inh mx inh mx b
'J!m X SI -y<SI -( - y
a a
am(y) == -----------
mx inh mxb
-SI --
a a
upon choosing <PI == sinh (mxy jb), q>2 == sinh [(m1r ja)(b - y)]. Our solution for G is thus
o n1rX 0 nxx' 0 nt: 0 nt:
00 2 SIn -- sIn --SInh-y<SInh-(b - y
G == L:- a a a a
1
nt: inh nxb
n= SI --
a
(45)
We could equally well have made the first expansion with respect to y and we would then
have found that
(46)
We can find yet another form for G by assuming that it can be expanded as a double Fourier
76
series. Thus let
Fig. 2.7. The proper contour ex.
00 00
G
. nxx . mxy
== L.-t nm SIn -- SIn --.
a b
n=lm=l
If we substitute this solution into (42) we obtain
[(n7r)2 (m7r)2] . nxx . mxy "
- a + b sm a sm -b- == -o(x -x )o(y - y).
The coefficient C
nm
may be found by multiplying both sides by sin (n7rxfa) sin (mxy /b) and
integrating over x and y. The final result is
. nxx . nxx' . mxy . mxy'
00 00 SIn -- sIn -- sIn -- sIn --
G = a a b b
n=lm=l ( n
a
1r r+ r
(47)
(48a)
(48b)
We will now show how the different solutions (45)-(47) are all contained in the general
formulation (44). We first need the solutions to the one-dimensional Green's function problems
given in (43). By using Method II these are readily found in the forms
sin J}:;x< sin J}:;(a - x ,
G
x
== -----------
J}:; sin J}:;a
sin j>:;y< sin j>:;(b - y
G
y
== ---=----_...:.....--_---
j>:; sin j>:;b
We note that Gx(x, x', Ax) has poles at Ax == int:/a)2, n == 1, 2, ... ,and that Gy(y, y', -Ax)
has poles when sin J-Axb == 0 or at Ax == -(n7r/b)2. Thus we choose the contour C, as
shown in Fig. 2.7. According to (44) we now have
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
'.::::------..---
............ -1... ....
..... ,
<,
Fig. 2.8. Deformation of contour ex into Cy.
77
The residue expansion? of this integral in terms of the residues at the poles of Gx(A
x)
gives
the following solution for G:
. n7f' . n7f' ( ) . . nt: ..nt: b
00 SIn -X< sIn - a -x> sIn J-Y< sIn J-( - Y
G = -2: a a a a
.nx a . . nsb
n=l J-- cos nt: sin J--
a 2 a
. n7f'X . n7f'X'. n7f' n7f'
00 2 SIn -- SIn --SInh -Y< sinh -(b - Y
=2: a a a a
n
= l inh nxb
n7f'SI --
a
which is the same as (45).
Since the integral over any portion of a circle with infinite radius is zero, the contour Cx
may be deformed into the contour Cy as shown in Fig. 2.8. If this is done the integral may be
evaluated in terms of the residues at the poles of G
y
( -Ax) which occur at Ax == -(n7f' /b)2.
This evaluation would give the same solution as (46).
If we construct the solution for G
y
according to Method I we would obtain [see (29a)]
2 . macy . mxy'
00 - SIn -- SIn --
O( 'A) __"b b b
y Y,y, y - X
y
-(m7rjbi
(49)
If we use (48a) for Ox and (49) for Oy in the formula (44) we would obtain the Green's
function solution given by (47) provided that we integrate around a contour C; enclosing the
singularities of Ox(x, x', Ax). We leave the details as Problem 2.6 to be carried out by the
reader.
The eigenfunctions l/!nm(x, y) of the two-dimensional Laplacian operator are solutions of
(50)
2The residues may be found by evaluating the derivative of the denominator with respect to Ax at the poles.
y
bt------......
x
x' a
_______I_Ig_e_
iw
_
t
z
z'
Fig. 2.9. A line source in a rectangular waveguide.
where 'if;nm == 0 on the boundary shown in Fig. 2.6. The normalized eigenfunctions are
. nxx . mxy
- SIn -- SIn --
ab a b
and A
nm
== (n7r/ a)2 +imt:/ b)2. When these eigenfunctions are used to solve (42) the solution
is that given by (47). Thus (47) represents the complete eigenfunction expansion for the
Green's function. The other solutions given by (45) and (46) are eigenfunction expansions
with respect to x or y and closed-form solutions with respect to y or x, respectively.
2.7. GREEN'S fuNCTION FOR A LINE SOURCE IN A RECTANGULAR WAVEGUIDE
Figure 2.9 shows a uniform current filament directed along y, at x', z', in a rectangular
waveguide. The current has a time dependence e
j wt
and is not a function of y. This current
source will excite TEno modes only. The vector potential is a solution of (A == A yay == 'if;a
y)
(
82 8
2
2) .t I I
8x
2
+ 8z
2
+ko 'II = -/LoIgO(X - x )o(z - z )
(51)
with 'if; == 0 at x == 0, a and 'if; representing outward-propagating waves at Iz I approaching
infinity. If we solve the Green's function problem
(52) G == 0; x == 0, a
(
82 8
2
2) I I
- + - +k
o
G == -o(x -x )o(z -z),
8x
2
8z
2
then 'if; == p,oIgG and E, == -jwp,oIgG. In (51) and (52) kij ==w
2p,O O
==w
2
/C
2
.
Consider now the homogeneous equation (8
2/8x2
+8
2/8z2
+kij)G == O. If we assume
G(x, x', Z, Zl) == Gx(x, x')GZ(z, z') we obtain
so we must have
and
(53)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
79
From these we can identify the associated one-dimensional Green's function problems to be
G
x
== 0; x == 0, a (54a)
(54b)
G
z
is an outward-propagating wave as lz] -+ 00.
We may readily solve (54a) by Method I or II. If we use Method I we obtain [see (29a)]
. nxx . nxx'
00 SIn -- sIn --
G a a
x - LJ
a
A _ n
2
7r
2ja2

n=l x
Since the range in z is infinite we use Fourier transforms to solve (54b). We will define
G
z
({3 ) to be the transform of Gz(z), Le.,
(55a)
Then
(55b)
If we take the Fourier transform of (54b) and note that the transform of 8
2G
z/8z
2
is - (32G
z
(obtained through two integrations by parts) we find that
(56)
(57)
We wish to consider A
z
as a complex variable and so we will arbitrarily choose that branch
of the two-valued function A which has Imag. A < O. In the complex (3 plane o, then
has two poles located as shown in Fig. 2.10. The solution for G
z
is given by
1 /00 e-
j
{3 (z - z' )
G
z
== - f\ d(3.
27r -00 (3 - V A
z
)(3 + A)
When z > z' the factor e-
j{3(z-z')
becomes exponentially small (we write (3 as (3' +j(3") in
the lower half plane [proportional to e{3"(z-z') with (3/1 < 0]. Hence we can close the contour
by a semicircle of infinite radius in the lower half plane and evaluate the integral in terms of
the residue at the pole at (3 == A. For Z < z' we can close the contour in the upper half plane
and evaluate the integral in terms of the residue at - A. Note that there is no contribution to
the integral from the semicircles and that a negative sign enters when the contour is traversed
in a clockwise sense. We are thus led to the following solution for G
z
:
{
-2!;>:;e-
h
/ >; ; (Z- ZI ) , z > z'
G
z
== .
__J_ejy'}\;(Z-Z') z < z'
2A '
-.JI;
80
>:
-:
/
/
/
I
I
j/3"
----
<,
"'\ for z < z'
\
\
\
-n;
/3'
I
/
/
AforZ>Z'
/"
--./'"
Fig. 2.10. Pole locations in the complex {3 plane.
which may be also expressed as
G
z
== __J_'
2A
all z. (58)
Note that with Imag. A < 0 chosen as the branch of the function A that G
z
will tend
toward zero as Iz I 00 for complex A
z
. Also note that Gz does not have any poles but instead
has a branch point at A
z
== O. If we wish to always remain on the branch for which A has a
negative imaginary part, then the angle of A
z
in the complex plane must be restricted to - 211"
to O. This may be accomplished by placing a branch line (or cut) along the positive real axis
but an infinitesimal distance above it as shown in Fig. 2.11. This forces us to measure the
angle of X
z
from the positive real axis in a clockwise or negative sense and hence restricts
the angle to the range 0 to - 211". The spectrum of Gz is the continuous range of values of
A
z
along the branch cut (singular line, which if crossed changes the sign of A). This is in
accord with our earlier statement that for infinite-interval problems the Green's function has
a continuous spectrum.
We now apply (44) to obtain G in the form
G(x, x', Z, ZI) == -2
1
.f Gx(x, x', Ax)Gz(Z, Z', k6 - Ax)dA
x
7r} c.
== -2
1
.f Gx(x, x', k6 - Az)Gz(Z, Z', Az)dA
z
(59)
7r} c.
Note that when we integrate over Ax we use the condition (53) to express A
z
in terms of Ax
and vice versa. In the Ax plane the poles of G
x
are at Ax == (n1l" /a)2 and the branch line
for G
z
becomes the line along which Imag. Jk5 - Ax == O. This is the line extending from
Ax == k5 (branch point) along the negative axis. The contour ex is chosen to enclose the poles
but not the branch point at k5 as shown in Fig. 2.12(a). On the other hand, if we choose to
integrate over A
z,
then the contour Cz is chosen to enclose the branch cut for Gz but such
that the poles of Ox, which now occur when k5 - A
z
== tn/a)2 or A
z
== k5 - (n/a)2, are
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
A
z
plane
Sr. point
/
Sr. cut
81
L A
z
is negative
Fig. 2.11. Branch cut for Gz(z, z', Az)
Sr. cut - 00 to
(a)
k -
Poles
(b)
Sr. cut 0 to 00
Fig. 2.12. Proper choice of the contours Cx and Cz .
excluded [Fig. 2.12(b)]. If only the TE
10
mode propagates, then k
o
> x[a but k
o
< nr]a
for n > 1. The contour Cz can be deformed to cross the branch cut and thus exclude the pole
at A
z
== k5 - (1r /2)2 without changing the value of the integral, as long as the branch point is
enclosed.
Either of the two prescriptions given by (59) may be used for determining G. If we use the
first one then the integral may be evaluated in terms of the residues at the poles. We have
.n7rX . nrx'
. -jvk5-Axlz-z'l 00 SIn a sm -a-
G == --1-1 Je L 2 dA
x
21rj ex aJk'fi - Ax n=l Ax - (n1r/a)
1 1 . nxx . nxx' -rnlz-z'l
== - L....J - SIn -- SIn --e
a n=l rn a a
(60)
where r
n
== J(n7r/a)2 -k5 and Imag. r
n
> O. If k
o
< nx] for n > 1, then the solution
consists of the propagating dominant mode for which rI == j Jk5 - 1r
2
/ a
2
plus an infinite
number of evanescent or nonpropagating TEno modes. These modes exist on both sides of the
source point at z'. If x' == a/2, then only the modes for n == 1, 3, 5, ... , etc. are excited.
If the prescription involving the contour Cz in (59) is used, then the solution is expressed
simply as a branch cut integral which may be interpreted as a continuous sum (integral) over the
82
continuous spectrum of Oz in place of the sum over the discrete spectrum of Ox as exhibited
in (60).
We could equally well have chosen the branch Imag. A > 0 and would have arrived at the
same solution. The reader may find it of interest to make this choice and to show that (60) is
still obtained for the final result. If we make the change of variable w
2
== kij - Ax the branch
cut integral in (60) becomes an inverse Fourier transform.
At this point it will be instructive to show the relationship of this problem to the concepts
introduced in Section 2.5. The equation of interest is
(61)
with 1/; == 0 at x == 0, a; 1/; bounded at z == 00; and f(x, z) being a source function. We
wish to solve this equation using the eigenfunctions of
Since - 00 ::; z ::; 00 we first Fourier transform this equation with respect to Z to obtain
(
822 + A- W
2)
Joo if;(x, z)e
j wz
dz = 0
ax -00
or
(
a2 2) A
ax2+A-W 1/;(x,W) ==0.
For the x dependence we choose sin nxx[a and we then find that a solution exists if
)
2
2 n7r
A=W +(0
Corresponding to this eigenvalue is the unnormalized eigenfunction
_ -jwz . nxx
1/Inw(x, z) - e SIn --.
a
The normalization factor is obtained from the integral
J
OO 1 aJoo
if;nw(x, z)if;;w'(x, z)dxdz = "2 e-j(w-W')Z dz
-00 0 -00
a ,
== 27r-o(w - W )
2
upon using the Fourier transform property
(62)
(63)
This normalization procedure is analogous to setting the integral of the product of the one-
dimensional eigenfunction sin tnxxfa) with itself equal to unity. The normalization factor and
orthogonality properties are expressed through the integral
]
00 1 nxx m1rx ,
sin -- sin __ej(w-w )Z dx dz
-00 0 a a
== 1raO
nmo(w
- w') (64)
where the Kronecker delta onm == 0 if n =1= m and. onn 1. When a continuous spectrum
is involved the normalization-orthogonality integral results in a Dirac delta function. The
normalized eigenfunctions are seen to be
1 . nxx -jwz
-- SIn --e .
Vira a
We can expand the solution of (61) in terms of these as follows: Let
00 ]00 mxx ., dw'
1/;(x, z) == L Cm(w') sin __e-
jW
z __
m=l -00 a Vira
(65)
which is equivalent to solving (61) using a combination of Fourier series and a Fourier trans-
form. The sum over the continuous spectrum of eigenfunctions is an integral over w'. We now
substitute into (61) to obtain
00]00 1 mxx .,
L sin --e-
jW
Zdw' == -f(x, z)
m=l -00 Y 1ra a
where == wa +imt: / a)2. In order to find Cn (w) we multiply by the complex conjugated
eigenfunction (1/ Vira) sin (n1rx/a)e
jwz,
integrate over x and z, and use (64) to obtain
00 ]00
L - - w')dw'
m=l -00
== - n(w)
1 ]001 nxx .
== -. c; f(x, z) sin -ejWZdxdz.
y1ra -00 0 a
The expansion coefficients are now known and thus the solution for 1/; is readily constructed:
1 . nxx .
1/;(x, z) == L...J ---- SIn __e-
jWZ
n=l -00 - a
]
00 1 nxx' . ,
x f(x', z") sin __e
jWZ
dx' dz' dw.
-00 0 a
(66)
We can rewrite this solution in a form that will enable us to identify the Green's function
84
operator. We have
t/;(x, z) == joo t"f(x', z')
-ooJo
(68)
. ntoc' . nxx
00 00 SIn -- SIn --
x L:j a 2 a e-jW(z-z') dw dx'dz' (67)
n=l -00 1ra("A - k
o
)
which shows that
. nxx' . nxx
00 00 SIn -- SIn --
G(x', z'; x, z) == L:j a 2 a e-jW(z-z')dw
n=l -00 1ra("A - k
o
)
where "A == w
2
+(n1r/a)2. This Green's function is expressed as a complete eigenfunction
expansion in terms of the eigenfunctions of the operator given after (61). Its use is according
to the sequence of operations shown in (66) so as to generate the eigenfunction expansion
of t/;(x, z). If the integral over w in (68) is carried out, then the eigenfunction expansion of
the Green's function gets converted over to the expansion in terms of the waveguide modes
as given by (60). Note that the expansion of G in terms of modes is not the same as the
eigenfunction expansion even though they are equivalent. The integrand in (68) has poles of
order one at w == jfn so the mode expansion is readily found from an evaluation of the
integral in terms of the residues at the poles.
When the order of integration over x', z' and the integration over wand summation over
n are interchanged from that shown in (66) the interchange must, in general, be justified with
regard to its validity. When the integration over w leads to well-defined functions, which it
does for the present problem, it can be carried out first.
The series that occurs in the mode expansion of G is convergent for all values of x =1= x' ,
even if z == z' so that the exponential decay of the individual terms vanishes. For large values
of n we have Tn n1r / a so the behavior of G is governed by the dominant series
00 1 '
S
L:
. nxx . nxx -n7rlz-z'l/a
== - SIn -- sIn --e
ns: a a
n=l
L:
oo
1 [n1r(X-X') n1r(x+x')] -n7rlz-z'l/a
== -- cos - cos e
n=12n1r a a
The sum of series of this type is given in the Mathematical Appendix. Thus we find that G
behaves like the function S given by
1
S == -- In
41r
h
2
1r(z - z') 2 1r(X - x')
cos 2a - cos 2a
h
2
1r(z - z') 2 1r(X+x')
cos 2a - cos 2a
(69)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
When z - z' and x - x' are both very small we readily find that 8 has the limiting form
85
1
8 "J - - In
41r
(x - X')2 +(z - Z')2
(
')2 2 (2a) 2 . 2 1r (x +x')
z -z + - sIn
7r 2a
(70)
which shows that G has the expected logarithmic singularity near the line source. For an
infinitely long line source in free space the static vector potential is given by (I is the current
in the line source)
A = _/L0
1
In[(x -x'i +(z -z'il
y 47r
which is similar to the expression in (70).
In practice it is often useful to extract the dominant part (singular part) of the Green's
function as a closed-form expression since the remainder is a rapidly converging series; i.e.,
we express G in the form
G ==8 +(G -8)
where (G - 8) converges rapidly because the terms in 8 become essentially equal to those
in G for large n. The singular behavior of the Green's function is the same as that for static
conditions (k
o
== 0).
We can use the eigenfunctions of the differential operator in (61) to also obtain a represen-
tation of the delta function operator 5(x - x')5(z - z') that is valid for functions in the domain
of the operator. A function htx, z) in the domain of the operator can be expanded as follows:
1. nxx "
hex, z) == Z:: An(w). sm _e-
j WZ
dw.
n=l -00 Y 7ra a
By following the standard procedure we find that
/
00 10 nxx' " ,
v!1WA
n
(w) == h(x', z") sin __e
J WZ
dx'dz'
-00 0 a
and hence
1 . nxx "
h(x, z) == - sm __e-
j WZ
n=l -00 7ra a
j
00 1 n x'
x hex', z') sin dx' dz' dw.
-00 0 a
We now rewrite this last expression as
hex, z) == JOO t"h(x', z')
-ooJo
1 . nsx' . nxx -j"W(Z-Z') d ] d ' d '

x - sm -- sm --e w x Z
n=l -00 7ra a a
(71)
86
from which we can identify the delta function operator as
00]00 1 nxx' nxx . ,
o(x -x')o(Z -Z') == L - sin -- sin __e-Jw(z-z )dw.
n=l -00 7ra a a
(72)
This result can also be obtained by carrying out a formal expansion of the two-dimensional
delta function in terms of a Fourier series in x and a Fourier integral in z.
From the results given above it can be correctly inferred that the Green's function operator
and the delta function operator or unit source function can be represented in terms of the
eigenfunctions of the differential operator in a multidimensional space. When one or more of
the coordinate variables extends over an infinite interval (or semi-infinite interval) the related
eigenvalue spectrum is a continuous one rather than a discrete one. For a continuous spectrum
the sum over eigenfunctions becomes an integral and the normalization integral results in a
delta function replacing the Kronecker delta onm. In rectangular coordinates the continuous
spectrum is described by a Fourier transform. In cylindrical and spherical coordinates we will
find that the continuous spectrum is described in terms of the Hankel transforms.
2.8. THREE-DIMENSIONAL GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
The theory presented in the previous sections may be applied to three-dimensional problems
also. We will illustrate the case of the scalar Helmholtz equation in rectangular coordinates.
We have
(\72 +k5)G == -o(x - x')o(y - y')o(z - z'). (73)
The equation (\72 + k5)t/; == 0 separates into three one-dimensional equations of the form
8
2t/;x
j8x
2
+Axt/;x == 0, 8
2t/;y
j8
y
2 +Ayt/;y == 0, 8
2t/;z
j8z
2
+Azt/;z == 0 with
Ax +Ay +A
z
==k5
Consequently, the associated one-dimensional Green's function problems are
d
2G
x
,
--2 +AxG
x
== -o(x - x )
dx
(74)
(75a)
d
2G
y
,
--2 +AyGy == -o(y - y ) (75b)
dy
d
2G
z , 75
dz
2
+AzGz = -o(z - z ) ( c)
along with appropriate boundary conditions.
When (75a)-(75c) have been solved then the solution to (73) is given by
2
f f Gx(Ax)Gy(Ay)Gz(k6-AX-Ay)dAXdAy
J c, c,
== rGx(Ax)G
y(k6-i; -Az)Gz(Az)dAxdAz
J cxJc
z
= rfc fc G
x
(k6 - i; - Az)Gy(Ay)Gz(Az) dAy dAz,
y z (76)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
87
Note that there is an integration over two of the Ai and that the third Ais expressed in terms
of the two being integrated over by means of the condition (74) on the separation constants.
The contours Ci enclose only the singularities of the Gi with i == x, Y, z. The proof is readily
developed by noting that
(V
2
= [(::2 +AX) + (:;2 +A
y
) + (::2 -Ax - A
y
) ] G
f [-Gy(Ay)Gz(k6-AX-Ay)O(X-x')
J c, c,
- G
x(Ax)Gz(k6
- Ax - Ay)O(Y - Y') - Gx(Ax)Gy(Ay)O(Z - z')] dA
x
dAy.
The integral around ex of the first term vanishes while the integral around Cy of the second
term vanishes because no singularities of G
z
are included. The integral of the third term gives
- o(x - x')o(y - y')o(z - z') by application of Theorem I twice.
The above technique is applicable in other coordinate systems also. Some applications are
given in papers by Marcuvitz [2.13] and Felsen [2.14]. The method can be applied in a very
effective way to obtain the Green's function in the form of a very rapidly converging series
for the problem of diffraction by a very large cylinder or sphere [2.13]-[2.15].
2.9. GREEN'S fuNCTION AS A MULTIPLE-REFLECTED WAVE SERIES
The Green's function can be constructed in terms of the free-space waves radiated by the
source and with these waves undergoing multiple reflections at the boundaries. This technique
is useful in a number of different problems for the purpose of generating a series representation
of the Green's function that may be more rapidly converging. The method of images is a special
case of the method of multiple-reflected waves. We will illustrate it by considering a uniform
line source that is parallel to the z axis and located between two concentric cylinders of radii
a and b as illustrated in Fig. 2.13. The mathematical statement of the problem is
o(r --; r') 0(8),
r
l/; == 0 at r == a, b. (77)
We can expand l/;(r, 0) into a Fourier series in 0; thus
ex)
l/;(r, 0) == Lfn(r) cos nO.
n=O
(78)
We now substitute this expansion into (77), multiply by cos nO, integrate over 0 from 0 to
21(', and then obtain
1 8 8fn n
2
2 EOn ,
-8-
r-8
- 2
f n
+kOfn == --2,o(r -r)
r r r r l('r
(79)
where EOn == 1 if n == 0 and equals 2 for n > O. In this equation the source function can be
viewed as a uniform cylindrical sheet of current at r'. When r i= r' the homogeneous equation
is Bessel's differential equation for which the solutions are Bessel functions of order n, i.e. ,
In(kor) and Y n(kor) or combinations of these functions in the form of Hankel functions
y
r
....)I'---+-.........
lI/=O
lI/=O
Fig. 2.13. A line source radiating between two cylinders.
and of the first and second kinds where
== J n(kor) +jYn(kor)
== J n(kor) - jYn(kor).
When the argument kor is large the asymptotic forms for the Hankel functions are
These asymptotic forms show that the Hankel function of the first kind represents an inward-
propagating cylindrical wave, while the Hankel function of the second kind represents an
outward-propagating cylindrical wave. Bessel's differential equation is a Sturm-Liouville equa-
tion with p(r) == r, q(r) == -n
2
[r , and (J(r) == r, and k5 can be regarded as the eigenvalue
parameter A.
Initially we will ignore the boundaries at r == a, b. We can then choose
r < r'
r > r'
as the solution for In(r). At r == r' the solution must be continuous so
We can integrate the differential equation about a vanishingly small interval centered on r' to
obtain
r 2 1
r din I + == - On == kor' (Bn dH
n
-An dH
n
) I
dr" 21r dkor dkor"
which fixes the step change in the first derivative across the point r
'.
These two source-related
boundary conditions allow us to find the amplitude coefficients An and Bn- The solutions for
An and B; involve the Wronskian determinant
W _HI
n dkor n dkor
evaluated at r == r
'.
We can use the property that p(r)W(r) is a constant and then use the
asymptotic expressions given earlier to evaluate the constant since W(r
')
is readily found from
the asymptotic forms. Since p(r) == r we find that
I 4j
W(r) == -kI
7r or
After solving for An and B; we obtain
(80)
We now take the effect of the boundaries into account in the following way. The inward-
propagating wave, apart from a multiplying factor, is and is reflected at r = a to
produce an outward-propagating wave At r = a the reflected wave must cancel the
incident wave so the reflection coefficient r a is given by the condition
+ fa == o.
Thus the reflected wave is
H 2(k r).
n 0
This reflected outward-propagating wave is in turn reflected at r == b and generates a new
inward-propagating wave f
b
where
This new wave is again reflected at r == a. The sum of all of the multiple-reflected waves
generated by the primary inward-propagating wave is
+ + + + ...
00
= L +
m=l
(81)
The initially outward-propagating primary wave is reflected at r == b and subse-
quently undergoes multiple reflections thus creating the wave series
+ + + ...
00
= L +
m=l
(82)
The solution for the function f n(r) is a superposition of the primary solution given by (80)
and the two wave series (81) and (82) multiplied respectively by the factors - jE
on
and
Hence a solution for inis
f
JEOn HI k 2 k
n(r) == --8- n( or <)Hn( or
_jEo
n
i (raf +r + +r
8 m=l
We can use this series representation in (79) to complete the solution for the Green's function.
The method just described is quite general and can be applied to problems with other
boundary conditions by using the appropriate expressions for the reflection coefficients. If the
method is applied to the problem of a line source in a rectangular waveguide as analyzed
earlier, the x-dependent part of the Green's function is the image series.
For the rectangular waveguide problem the Green's function can be expressed as an inverse
Fourier transform in the form
1 1
00
. ( ')
G(x, x'; z, Z') == 2 f(x, x', w)e-
JW
z-z dw
7C' -00
where f is a solution of
(
d2 2) f I
- +1' == -o(x -x)
dx
2
(84)
(85)
(86)
with 1'2 == k5 - w
2
and f == 0 at x == 0, a. One solution for this Green's function is given
by (60) and also by (68). If we ignore the boundary conditions at x == 0, a, then the primary
field that is a solution of (85) can be found using Method II and is
f = -l./-hlx-x/,.
The primary field ei"(x-x') incident on the reflecting boundary at x == 0 produces the multiple-
reflected wave series
00
== e-j"(x + ej"(X)e-j"(x'
n=l
(87)
where I' == -1 and fa == _e-
2j
"(a . In a similar way the primary wave e-j"(X-x') incident on
the boundary at x == a produces the multiple-reflected wave series
ej"(x' [fa ej"(x + I'Ta e - jvx + ej"(x + ...J
00
= e
h x
+ e-hX)e
h x'.
n=l
(88)
By combining the two wave series and the primary field we find, after simplification, that the
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
solution for f is
[ 00 00 ]
It, x', w) = - f", e-h1x-x'l + -
91
(89)
where the prime on the summation sign signifies that the n == 0 term is omitted. This series
can be used in (84) to obtain the Green's function G. The series represents waves generated
by the images of the line source.
The integral in (84) over w can be evaluated by using the Fourier transform relation
(90)
By using this result the Green's function can be expressed as a series of cylindrical waves
radiated from the original line source and its images in the two side walls of the waveguide.
This representation is
00
J I
- 4: L -x' -2na)2 +(z -Z')2) +x' +2na)2 +(z -Z')2)].
n=-oo
(91)
The expansion of G in terms of waveguide modes can be obtained by using the Poisson
summation formula to transform the series in (91) into series in terms of the modes (see the
Mathematical Appendix).
It should be apparent by now that there are many equivalent expressions for the Green's
function for a given problem. Which form is best depends on the physical nature of the
problem to be solved. As a general rule, if one series representation is very slowly converging
an alternative series representation usually converges more rapidly. For example, in (91) only
the first term is singular at x == x', z == Z' and since Hij rv - (j /7r) In [(x - X
')2
+(z - ZI)2]
for small arguments the singular part of the Green's function is known explicitly.
2.10. FREE-SPACE GREEN'S DYADIC FUNCTION
The vector potential A is a solution of the inhomogeneous vector Helmholtz equation
(92)
(93)
In Section 1.9 it was shown that a particular solution is
fff -jklr-rll
A(r) = :7rjjjJ(rl)elr_rll dV
1
v
If p,J is replaced by a unit vector source (ax +a
y
+az)o(rl -ro), we find at once by substituting
into (93) that the solution is
(94)
92
and this may be considered as a vector Green's function. For a general current distribution
J, the solution would be obtained by a superposition integral provided we make the rule that
the x component of the current Jx is to be associated with the unit vector ax in the Green's
function, and similarly for Jy and Jz- This rule is readily taken account of by introducing the
dyadic Green's function, which is defined as a solution of the equation
(95)
where I is the unit dyadic or idemfactor axa
x
+ayay +aza
z.
Since multiplying the source by
I simply multiplies the solution by I also, we have the result
-jklr-rol
- -e
G(r, ro) =I I l
47r r - ro
(96)
Each component of the current gives rise to a vector field, and hence the general linear relation
between the current and the field is a dyadic relation. Therefore, for vector fields the Green's
function is a dyadic quantity. Equation (96) is the free-space dyadic Green's function for the
vector Helmholtz equation. For an arbitrary current distribution the solution for the vector
potential is
A(r) = IJ.jjjG(r, ro)J(ro)dVo
v
(97)
since the scalar product of J with G associates Jx with ax, etc. The above dyadic Green's
function is a symmetrical dyadic so that J. G == GJ. It is also symmetrical in the variables
rand roo The use of dyadic Green's functions for the vector Helmholtz equation results in a
considerable advantage in notation.
2.11. MODIFIED DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
In the presence of boundaries on which the electromagnetic field must satisfy prescribed
boundary conditions, the free-space dyadic Green's function suffers from the same short-
comings that the free-space Green's function for Poisson's equation does In the solution of
electrostatic-potential boundary-value problems. The dyadic Green's functions are, therefore,
modified so as to facilitate the solution of the given boundary-value problem. The sort of
modification we should make is best determined by an examination of the type of solution we
get by using the free-space dyadic Green's function.
Consider a region of space V bounded by a closed surface S, within which a current
distribution J exists. Let n be the unit inward normal to Sas illustrated in Fig. 2.14. Consider
the following dyadic quantities:
V'o[A X (Y'o X B)]
V'o[(V'o X A) X B]
V'o[(V'oA)B]
V'o[A(V'oB)]
(98a)
(98b)
(98c)
(98d)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
s
Fig. 2.14. Region V with source function J.
93
where B is a symmetric dyadic. By expanding the above expressions, we shall be able to
obtain a combined vector and dyadic equivalent of Green's second identity. The dyadic B
will be replaced by the dyadic Green's function later on. Although Bis a symmetric dyadic,
\70 X B is not symmetric, and special care must be taken in expanding the above expressions,
and also in the order in which the terms are written. Perhaps the easiest way to proceed is to
write the dyadic Bas the sum of three vectors associated with the unit vectors ax, a
y
, a
z
, that
is,3
Thus, for (98a) we have
\7o-[A X (\70 X B)] == \7o-(A X \70 X B
1)ax
+ Vo-(A X \7
0
X B
2)a
y + \7o-(A X \70 X B
3)az
Each term may now be expanded according to the rules of vector calculus to obtain
\7o-(A X \70 X B
1
) == (\70 X A)-(\70 X B
1
) - (\70 X \70 X B
1)-A
== (\70 X A)-(\7
0
X B
1
) - A- \70\70-B
1
+ A- (99)
and similarly for the other two terms. By arranging the terms in the expansion so that the
vector B
1
always appears on the right-hand side of each term, we may again associate B
1
with
ax, and hence we can combine the end results for all three associated vectors into a dyadic
again. Thus the expansion of (98a) gives
\7o-[A X (\70 X B)] == (\7
0
X A)-(\7ox B) -A-(\7
o\7o-B)
(l00a)
Expanding (98b)-(98d) in a similar fashion, we obtain
- - 2 - -
\70-[(\70 X A) X B] == (\7o\7o-A)-B - (\7oA)-B - (\7
0
X A)-(\70 X B)
\70- [(\7o-A)B] == (\7
o-A)(\7o-B)
+ (\70\7o-A)-B
\70- [A(\7o-B)] == (\7o-A)(\7o-B) + A- (\70\7o-B).
Adding (l00a), (l00b), and (lOOd) and subtracting (lOOc) from the sum gives
(100b)
(100c)
(l00d)
\70- [A X (\70 X B) + (\7
0
X A) X B + A(\7o-B) - (\7o-A)B]
2 - 2-
== A-(\7oB) - (\7oA)-B (101)
3Section A.2.
94
which may now be used in the divergence theorem to give us the equivalent of Green's
second identity. Integrating (101) over the volume V and converting the volume integral of the
divergence to a surface integral gives
iii[A. -
v
= -IfO.[A X (V'o x B)
s
+(V
o
X A) x B +A(Vo-B) - (Vo-A)B] dS
o
(102a)
when n is the unit inward normal to S. A term such as VijA-B may be written as B- VijA
since Bis a symmetric dyadic. The first term in the surface integral in (102a) may be written
as
(0 X A)-(Vo x B),
the second term as
[0 X (Vo X A)]-B,
and the third and fourth terms as
n-AVo-B n-BVo-A.
Hence, we obtain the following final result, which is the basic starting point for the application
of dyadic Green's functions to the solution of the vector Helmholtz equation:
iii - A av;
v
= ff [(0 X A)(V'o X B)
s
+(0 X Vo X A)-B +o-AVo-B - o-BVo-A] dS
o
(102b)
This result is also valid when B is not a symmetric dyadic.
If the dyadic Bis now replaced by a dyadic Green's function which is a solution of (95) and A
is the vector potential satisfying (92), then VijB and VijA may be replaced by -k
2B-I5(r-ro)
and -k
2
A - ILJ, respectively, in (102b). The terms in k
2
cancel, and, by using the property of
the three-dimensional delta function, we obtain the following solution for the vector potential
A:
A(r) =iffjLJ(ro)G(ro, r)dVo+If[(0 X A)(V'o X G)
v s
+(0 X Vo X A)-G +n-AVo-G - o-GVo-A] d'S. (103)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
The electric field is given by
VVA
E == -jwA + -.-- == -jwA -
}W J.L
while the magnetic field is given by
The scalar potential is related to the vector potential A by the Lorentz condition
- == VA.
95
(l04a)
(l04b)
(105)
If the boundary conditions specify that the tangential component of E vanishes on S, then
n X E == 0 on S, and hence from (l04a) we see that we must have n X A == 0 on S,
n X == 0 on S. The condition n X == 0 on S means that the derivatives of on the
surface S are zero, and hence is constant, which may be taken as zero, on the surface S. If
vanishes on S, then V0 A == 0 on S also by virtue of (105).
An examination of (103) shows that in this case the first and last terms in the surface integral
vanish. If we are able to modify our Green's function so that n X Gand V0 Gvanish on the
surface S, then the whole surface integral vanishes, and the solution for A is given by the
volume integral of J.LJ. Gonly.
Sometimes it is more convenient to deal directly with the equation
(106)
which the electric field E satisfies. In this case the Green's function is taken as a solution of
the corresponding equation
(107)
The appropriate Green's identity to use in this case is obtained by adding (l00a) and (l00b)
and converting the volume integral of the divergence to a surface integral again to get
JJJ[('\i1o X V'o X A).B - A(V'o X V'o X B))dVo
v
= - fj {[o X (V'o X A)).B + (0 X A).{V'o X B)}dSoo (l08)
s
Replacing A by E and B by G and using (106) and (107), the following solution for E is
obtained:
E(r) = -jwp. JJJJ(ro)G(ro, r)dV
o
v
+ff [(0 X V'o X E).G +(0 X E). V'o X G) as;
s
(109)
Since \7 X E == - jwp,H, the first term in the surface integral may be interpreted as a con-
tribution from a surface current of density D X H on S. The second term may be considered
a contribution from a magnetic current sheet of density E X D. If the tangential components
of E, that is, n X E, are known or specified on S, then, if possible, we should modify our
Green's function so that D X Gvanishes on S. Thus only the second term, the one which we
know, contributes to the surface integral. In practice, the particular boundary values we are
given dictate the choice of which Green's function to use.
2.12. SOLUTION FOR ELECTRIC FIELD DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTION
In this section we will derive a solution for the electric field dyadic Green's function in
free space. This Green's function is a solution of (107) and will now be represented by the
symbol G
e
to emphasize that it is the dyadic Green's function for (106). One way to obtain the
solution is to make use of the relationship between the electric field and the vector potential
in the Lorentz gauge. Since
E == -jwA -
we readily see that for a current element J(ro) and using the vector potential Green's dyadic
given by (96) that
E(r) == - jwp,oJ(ro)Ge(ro, r)
=-jWJLO [J(ro)oG(ro, r) + V'V'oG(r, ro)oJ(ro)]
[
_e-
j kOR
1 e-
j k OR
]
= - jWJLoJ(ro)
0
I 41fR + V'V' 41fR
where R == [r - roI. Note that the operation \7\7. G is equal to \7\7. 1 == \7\7 operating on the
scalar Green's function. From the above relation we find that
_ (_ 1 ) e-
j k oR
Ge(ro, r) = I + V'V' 41fR'
(110)
Another way to derive (110) is a generalization of the method used in Section 1.9 to obtain
a solution for the vector potential. The scalar Green's function g(ro, r) == e-
j k oR
/47rR is a
solution of the equation
(111)
so the left-hand side can be viewed as a representation for the delta function. The divergence
of (107) gives -k5\7G
e
== \7.lo(r-ro) == \7o(r-ro). If we expand the \7 X \7 X operator
and use the above result we obtain
or equivalently
2 2 - (- 1 )
(V' +ko)Ge = - I + V'V' o(r - ro).
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
We now use (111) to replace the unit source function; thus
2 2 - (- 1 ) 2 2
(V' +ko)Ge = I + V'V' (V' +ko)g
or
2 2 [- (- 1 )]
(V' +ko) Ge - I + V'V' g = O.
A particular solution to this equation is
97
(112)
- (- 1 )
Ge = I + V'V' g ,
If necessary, solutions to the homogeneous equation can be added to take care of boundary
conditions. In free space G
e
and g both satisfy the radiation condition at infinity; i.e., they
represent outward-propagating waves so only the particular solution is needed. Hence we arrive
at the solution given earlier by (110).
The above method of derivation was first used by Levine and Schwinger [2.16]. We can
apply it also to the case where g is represented in terms of cylindrical waves instead of spherical
waves. Consider a nonuniform line source I(z) located along the Z axis and the scalar field
which is a solution of
(113)
and represents outward-propagating waves. By means of a Fourier transform with respect to
Z we obtain (1'2 == k5 - w
2
)
For r > 0 the solution to Bessel's equation that represents outward-propagating cylindrical
waves is w) == CHij('Yr) where C is a constant to be determined. If we apply the
divergence theorem in two-dimensional form to the equation
(V'2 + = _1o(r)
t 27rf
we obtain, for a circular disk of radius a,
11
27r
(V't + ae dr
= _.l r t"o(r)dOdr
27r io io
=1
27r
+11
2
1< = -1,
When we make the radius a vanishingly small, the integral of vanishes since for r very
small H5('Yr) f'V - j(2/1f) In r. We also can use V'tCH5('Yr) == -j(2/1f)Ca,/r for r very
small and we then obtain j4C == i. The solution for l/; is now seen to be
1 foo ji(w) .
l/; == - - --H5('Yr)e-
J WZ
dw
21f -00 4
1 foo [fOO - . ]
= - I(Z') - w
2)e-
j W
(Z- z' ) dw dz'
21f -00 -00 4
from which we can identify the scalar Green's function, expressed in cylindrical coordinates,
as
1 foo .
g
== - - J H2(rJk2 - w
2
)e-
j W
(Z - Z' ) dw
21f 4 0 0
-00
If the unit source is located at x', y' then we replace r == (X
2+y2)1/2
by [(X-X')2+(y-y')2]1/2
to obtain
g(r, zlr', z') == -8 j foo Ir - r'IJk'ij - w
2
)e-
j w
(z - Z' ) dw (114)
1f -00
where r == xa, +yay and r' == x' ax +y'ay. We can apply the operation shown in (112) to
this function so as to obtain the dyadic Green's function for the electric field as a function of
cylindrical coordinates.
The solutions for the dyadic Green's functions are the solutions outside the unit dyadic point
source. These solutions are the limit of the solutions for a uniform-density source contained,
for example, within a small spherical volume of radius a as the volume shrinks to zero but
the total source strength is kept equal to unity. The limiting procedure is that described in
Section 1.9. It is important to keep this limiting aspect in mind in order to obtain a correct
interpretation of the electric field solution given by (109).
For currents contained in a finite volume V in free space the surface integral in (109) is
taken over a sphere of infinite radius. When r is much larger than all ro in V the asymptotic
form of the radiated electric field is
e-
j k o
'
E(r) f'V u. cP)-4-
1fr
where f is a vector function of the polar angle 0 and azimuth angle cP and has ao and a,
components only, i.e., is an outward-propagating spherical TEM wave. We can approximate
R == Ir - roI by r - a, ro upon using the binomial expansion and we then find that the
asymptotic form for the dyadic Green's function is
at infinity. For an outward-propagating spherical wave at infinity the magnetic field is related
to the electric field by the equation ZoH == a, x E. Since \7 X E == - jWJ.toH == - j koZoH
the radiation condition at infinity can be stated in the form
lim r(\7 X E +jkoa, X E) == 0
'---tOO
(115a)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
and for the Green's dyadic function
lim X G
e
+jk
0
8 , X G
e
) == O.
'----+00
99
(115b)
These relations are valid in any isotropic medium as well provided ko is replaced by k. With
these radiation conditions the reader can readily verify that to terms of order 1/,2 the integrand
in the surface integral in (109) vanishes. Hence in free space the solution for the electric field
is given by
E(r) = -jwlloJJJJ(ro)Ge(ro, r)dVo.
v
(116)
If the asymptotic form (115) is used for G
e
the electric field clearly has the form given earlier
for, '0.
For observation points r that are outside V there is no difficulty in evaluating the integral in
(116) since G
e
is not singular within V. However, if r is located in Vthen rand ro can coincide
and G
e
will become singular. The most singular part of G
e
is the term /47rkijR).
For Ir - roI very small the exponential function can be replaced by unity so the dominant
singular part is
111 1
411"
k
5\l\lIi = 411"
k
5\lo\loIi'
One way to overcome the difficulty in integrating this singular term is to reformulate the
problem using the finite unit source discussed in Section 1.9. Thus we consider a scalar
Green's function that is a solution of
{
-b
+ == 47ra'
0,
R == [r - roI <5: a
R == Ir-rol >a
where a is the radius of a small spherical volume V
o
centered on r. Outside the source region
the solution for g is still given by Ae-
j koR
/47rR since this is a solution of the homogeneous
equation. In this solution A is a constant to be determined. The Green's function g that satisfies
the above equation is finite everywhere so in the region R a we can choose a power series
for the solution of the Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates,
R 5:.a.
There is no dependence on the angles () and cP because of the spherical symmetry. When we
substitute the series expansion into this equation we obtain
100
By equating the coefficients of like powers of R it is readily found that for the particular
solution Co == C
1
== C
3
== Cs == ... == 0
1
C
2
== ---3'
811'"0
n == 4,6, ....
When the series is written out it can be recognized as the solution
R :S o.
3 [ sin koR ]
g\ = koR - 1 ,
A solution to the homogeneous equation that is finite at R == 0 is
_ B sin koR
go - koR'
R :S a,
We now make g and 8g j8R continuous at R == a, This allows the two constants A and B to
be determined. The final solution obtained for g is
{
3 ( sin koR _ 1) + 3 sin koR [(1 -vi ) -jkoa - 1] R :S 0
411'"0
3
k6 koR 47rk603R J 00 e ,
g == (117)
3 e-
j koR
k6
03
(sin koa - koa cos koa) 41l"R ' R a.
If we choose koo to be very small, then koR is also small in the volume V
o
and we can
approximate g as follows:
(118)
R
R ? Q.
(
3 R
2
)
g { 811'"0 - 87r0
3
'
e-
j koR
411'"R '
This approximation is obtained by using the small argument approximation for the trigono-
metric functions. The approximation for g in R :S 0 is the static field approximation used in
Section 1.9.
In (116) we now split the volume into a small spherical volume Vo plus the remainder
V - Vo. The integral over V - V
o
can be carried out since G
e
is not singular in this region.
We can choose Vo so small that J(ro) can be approximated by its value at the center. In
addition, the only term that will remain as we make V
o
shrink to zero is the term V'0 V'og and
we evaluate the integral of this term using the approximation given in (118). We now have
. rrr (_R
2
) . f a
R
\7
oR2
1
- jW/loJ(r) JJJ V'o V'o k581l"a3 d V =jW/loJ(r) k5
81l"a
3 R= dSo
Vo 0
upon converting the volume integral of the gradient to a surface integral using a vector identity
(see the Mathematical Appendix). At this point we note that V'
O
R
2
== 2RaR and then by
expressing aRaR in rectangular coordinates we readily find that the integral gives a finite
result independent of the radius of the small sphere. Hence we find that the contribution to
the electric field from the currents in V
o
is given by

- I.J(r)
lim - jWjlo J(ro)Ge(ro, ri d V == jWJ.t0--2-.
3k
o
Vo
(119)
At the end of Section 2.15 we will show that the above result can also be obtained by using
the eigenfunction expansion of the dyadic Green's function.
In classical potential theory where a scalar Green's function behaving like 1/R is involved
the integral in (109) can be successfully defined as the limit of an improper integral. This
approach has also been applied to (109) [2.20], [2.21], but as shown by the author [2.17] it
is not an entirely satisfactory method.
The classical approach is to surround the singular point r by a small volume V
o
, apply
Green's theorem to the region V - Yo, and take the limit as V
o
tends to zero. For the scalar
Helmholtz equation one term obtained from the limiting procedure is the scalar field at the
singular point. If we apply (109) with the point r excluded we obtain
- jwp,o lim rrrJ(ro)Ge(ro, r)dV
o

V-Yo
+ lim 1[(0 X \70 X E)eG
e
+(0 X E)e\70 X Ge]dSo ==0. (120)

o
It can be shown that both limits depend on the shape of the excluded volume [2.17], [2.21].
For a spherical volume the limit as V
o
goes to zero gives
2 1
- -E(r) - -\7 X \7 X E(r)
3 3k6
- jwp,o lim rrrJG
e
dV
o
= 0

V-Yo
(121)
which is not an explicit solution for the electric field [2.17]. However, if we assume that the
electric field in (121) does obey the original equation (106) then we obtain
E
. j.J(r) . 1 G- dV
(r) == jwP.0--2- - jWp.o im e 0
3k
o

V-Yo
(122)
which is the same result as that given by (119) when the contribution from the volume V - Vo
is added. Since the principal-volume approach does not yield a direct solution for the electric
field the dyadic Green's function does not serve as the inverse operator for the electric field
differential equation (106). For this reason we do not regard the principal-volume procedure as
the appropriate procedure for obtaining an inverse operator that will solve (106). The limiting
procedure using a finite unit source as given earlier does permit the integration to be carried
out over the whole volume containing J even when the field point is located in that volume.
As we will see later, the eigenfunction expansion of G
e
also enables the integral to be carried
out.
Thus (116) can be evaluated and clearly G
e
then functions as an inverse operator that solves
(106), whereasthe ptincipal-volume approach results in a new differential equation for E(r)
as given by (121).
The use of the principal-volume result (122) to evaluate the electric field also presents
difficulties that often mitigate against its use. In a cavity or a waveguide the satisfaction
of the boundary conditions is most easily accomplished by using an eigenfunction or mode
expansion of the dyadic Green's function. The use of (122) then considerably complicates
the solution procedure since the eigenfunctions are not orthogonal over the volume V - V
o
.
As a consequence, infinite series occur that must be handled carefully in the limiting process
since some of these series become divergent. When an eigenfunction expansion of the dyadic
Green's function is used there is no need to introduce an exclusion volume since no singular
integrals occur.
2.13. RECIPROCITY RELATION FOR DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
In free space, the dyadic Green's function for the vector Helmholtz equation is a symmetrical
dyadic. In the presence of boundaries on which G satisfies prescribed boundary conditions,
the dyadic Green's function is not a symmetrical dyadic in general. The nonsymmetry is
brought about by the boundary conditions that G must satisfy. Any number of examples may
be constructed to demonstrate the validity of the above statements. With reference to Fig.
2.15, let G be the Green's function for the half space z > 0 and subject to the boundary
condition n X G == 0 on the perfectly conducting plane at z == O. The Green's dyadic is a
function of the coordinates of the field point, the coordinates xo, Yo, zo of the source point,
and the coordinates xo, Yo, -Zo of the image source. It may be constructed from the free-space
Green's dyadic by using image theory. However, we will not require the analytical form of G
to demonstrate the nonsymmetry of the dyadic. A current element axJx produces an electric
field with a Z component given by JxGxz, while a current element azJz produces a field with
an x component given by JzG
zx.
If G
xz
== G
zx,
that is, if G is a symmetric dyadic, these
components of the field would be equal when Jx == Jz- For the problem under consideration,
the current axJx produces a field with a nonzero Z component, while azJz produces a field
with an x component which vanishes on the conducting plane. Therefore, G
xz
=I- G
zx,
and the
Green's dyadic is not a symmetrical dyadic in general.
Even though G is not a symmetric dyadic in general, a reciprocity principle does hold for
G. Let G(rl, r) be the Green's dyadic such that a current J1(rl) at rl produces an electric
field E
I
(r2) == J I (rl) G(rl, r2) at the point r2. Similarly, a current element J
2(r2)
produces a
field E
2
(r l) == J2(r2) G(r2, r.) at the point rl. According to the Lorentz reciprocity theorem
(Section 1.10 and assuming that the surface integral is zero),
and hence
(123)
Since J
I
and J
2
are arbitrary, we must have for an arbitrary current element
(124)
where G
t
is the transposed dyadic. Thus the Green's dyadic with the variables rand ro
interchanged is equal to the transpose of the original dyadic. If J
1
== ax and J2 == ay, we
obtain from (123) the result Gxy(rl, r2) == G
yx(r2,
rj), which is a special case of (124). A
formal proof of (124) may be obtained by using the vector form of Green's identity instead of
the Lorentz reciprocity theorem. The details are left as a problem at the end of the chapter.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
z-o
103
Image
'f source
n

V
J
Fig. 2.15. Boundary-value problem for which Gis not a symmetric dyadic.
2.14. EIGENFUNCTION EXPANSIONS OF DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
In order to find the spectral representation of the differential operator in the-vector Helmholtz
equation and the vector wave equation we need to construct the vector eigenfunctions for the
two equations
(\72 +X)1/J == 0
(\7 x \7 X - X)1/J == 0
(125a)
(125b)
where 1/J is a vector eigenfunction and Xis the eigenvalue parameter. The vector eigenfunctions
can be separated into solenoidal or transverse eigenfunctions F that have the properties
\7F == 0, \7xF#O
and irrotational or longitudinal eigenfunctions L with the properties
\7 X L == 0, \7L # O.
If we expand the curl curl operator in (125b) to get \7\7. - \72, then since \7. F == 0 we see
that
so the solenoidal functions can be eigenfunctions of both operators shown in (125). If we
substitute the longitudinal functions L into (125b) we see that because \7 X L == 0 these
nonzero functions lie in the null space of the curl curl operator and the eigenvalue X must be
zero. This is an important point that we will return to when we consider the eigenfunction
expansion for the electric field dyadic Green's function.
Our ability to construct vector eigenfunctions is limited to a relatively small number of
coordinate systems. For spherical (and conical) coordinate systems Hansen [2.23] showed that
the solenoidal functions could be obtained from the scalar functions of the scalar Helmholtz
equation
The F functions consist of two sets called the M and N functions which are given by
M == \7 X (a,rt/;)
== \7 x \7 x (a,rt/;).
The longitudinal functions can be generated from the gradient of t/;, i.e.,
L == \7t/;.
(126a)
(126b)
(126c)
The reader can readily verify that in spherical coordinates the M and N functions satisfy both
equations in (125) and that the L functions satisfy (125a). For the free-space problem the
same scalar function t/; generates all three sets of vector functions .. In cavity and waveguide
problems the scalar functions that generate the M, N, and L functions are generally different
because they are required to satisfy different boundary conditions.
In cylindrical coordinate systems such as circular, elliptical, parabolic, and rectangular
cylindrical coordinates the vector functions can be found from the operations
M == \7 x azt/; == -a
z
x \7t/;
r: at/; 2
Y AN== \7 x \7 x azt/; == \7az - a
z
\7 t/;
L == \7t/;
(127a)
(127b)
(127c)
where again t/; is a solution of the scalar Helmholtz equation. In rectangular coordinates the
unit vector a
z
can be replaced by ax or a, also.
Vector Eigenfunctions in Spherical Coordinates
The scalar Helmholtz equation in spherical coordinates is
where 0 is the polar angle relative to the z axis and 4> is the azimuth angle measured from
the x axis. We have also replaced A by k
2
as the eigenvalue parameter. If we assume a
product solution of the form t/; == f(r)g(O)h( 4, then the Helmholtz equation separates into
the following three ordinary differential equations:
d . 0dg A(j> 0 0
dO SIn dO - sin 0g +1\, SIn g ==
(129a)
(129b)
(129c)
where A(j> and A, are separation constants. The above equations are all of the Sturm-Liouville
type. For the free-space problem the angle cP covers the whole interval 0 to 211'" so h(cP) must
be periodic in cP and hence Act> == m
2
where m is an integer 0, 1,2, 3, .... The solutions for
h are cos mcP and sin mo.
The equation for g(O) is Legendre's equation. There are two independent solutions and both
are singular on the Z axis unless A
r
is chosen equal to n( n+1) where n is an integer. In this case
one solution is finite everywhere and is called the associated Legendre polynomial designated
by the symbol P':(cos 0). When m == 0 the solutions are called Legendre polynomials. These
solutions can be obtained using Rodrigues' formula
(130)
For m > n the solutions are zero. The orthogonality of the different solutions for different
values of n is with respect to sin 0 as a weighting factor. For the same n but different m the
solutions are orthogonal with respect to 1/ sin 0 as a weighting factor. These orthogonality re-
lations follow directly from the properties of the Sturm-Liouville equation. A number of useful
formulas, including recurrence relations, are summarized in the Mathematical Appendix.
The equation for the function j(r) is a modified form of Bessel's differential equation. The
solutions are called spherical Bessel functions and are related to the Bessel cylinder functions
as follows:
jn(kr) = J2;r
J n
+1/ 2(kr)
Yn(kr) = J2;r y n+l/2(kr)
== jn(kr) +jYn(kr)
== jn(kr) - jYn(kr).
( 131a)
(131b)
( 131c)
(131d)
The basic properties and recurrence relations for the spherical Bessel functions are also sum-
marized in the Mathematical Appendix.
In rectangular coordinates the continuous spectrum of eigenfunctions can be represented
by a Fourier integral. In spherical coordinates the radial eigenfunction can be chosen as the
j n(kr) function and its completeness properties are expressed through the Hankel transforms
j(r) = {f1
00
F(k)jn(kr)k
2
dk
F(k) = {f1
00
j(r)jn(kr)r
2
dr
and the completeness relations
(132a)
(132b)
( 133a)
(133b)
In view of these relations the eigenfunctions for the scalar Helmholtz equation, for free space,
can be seen to be
cos
== P'[tco O)jn(kr) mcjJ
sin
(134)
where e stands for the even function cos mcjJ and 0 identifies the odd function sin mo. These
functions remain finite at the origin and vanish at infinity.
From the scalar function given in (134) we can now construct the vector eigenfunctions
using the operations shown in (126). Thus we have
cos d'
Le,o == V_'Ie,
0
== pm
nm 'Ynm n. w d(kr) r
SIn
. cos 1 dP'::
+In . mcjJ--dOao
SIn r
m sin
=f-'-OP'::jn mcjJalj>
r SIn cos
k
sin
M
e, - n k _'le,O _ m m .
nm - v X ra''Ynm -=f-'-OPnJn mcjJao
SIn cos
1 1
N
e,
== - V X V X kra .te.o == - V X Me,
nm k r'rnm k nm
n(n + 1) m : cos dP':: cos 1 d(krjn)
PnIn . mo, + -dO . mcjJ- d(k ) ao
r SIn sm r r
m msin 1 d(krjn)
=f--
O
P
n mcP- d(k ) a",.
SIn cos r r
(135a)
(135b)
(135c)
Note that we have included a factor k in the definition of the solenoidal functions.
The vector eigenfunctions are orthogonal among themselves as well as with respect to
each other when integrated over all values of r, 0, and cjJ. Consider the product L- M ==
kV1/;- V X (r1/;a,) == kV-[1/;V X (r1/;a,)] -1/;V-V X (r1/;a,). Hence we have, upon using the
divergence theorem,
111LMdV = Ifl#M.ar dS = 0
v s
because M does not have a radial component. In a similar way we find that
111LNdV =Ifl#N.a
r
dS =0
v s
because -.f; decreases like r-1, N a, decreases like r-
2
, and the surface area of a sphere
increases only as r
2
so that for the surface of the sphere with a radius that becomes infinite
the surface integral vanishes. We have thus shown that the L functions are orthogonal to the
M and N functions.
Consider next the relation \7. (kr-.f;a,) X N == \7 X (kr-.f;a,).N - kr-.f;a,. \7 X N == MN
since \7 X N == kM and does not have a radial component. We now use the divergence
theorem to get
because a, X Na, == (a, X a.j-N == O. Consequently, we find that the M and N functions
are also orthogonal. Note that from (135c) we have k\7 X N == \7 X \7 X M == k
2M
which
is the relationship we used above.
The orthogonality of the vector eigenfunctions among themselves for pairs of values nmk
and n'm'k' follows in a straightforward way from the orthogonality properties of the P,:/,
cos mo, sin mo, and the jn(kr) functions, the latter being expressed by (133a).
The normalization integrals for the M and N functions are the same. We can prove this by
direct evaluation. The normalization integral for the N functions is not straightforward so we
will consider it in detail and follow the procedure given by Tai [2.12].
By using (135c) and integrating over c/J we readily find that
111 cP, cP, k'r)dV
v
2 r roo { [(dP
m
)2 (mp
m
)2]
= fo:10 10 dOn + sin
2n
O
X sin OdrdO.
We now use the known integrals
r [P':(cos O)f sin 0dO = _2_(n +m)!
Jo 2n + 1 (n - m)!
I' [(dP': ) 2 + sin 0dO == 2n(n + 1) (n +m)!
Jo dO sirr' 0 2n +1 (n - m)!
to obtain
211" 2n(n + 1) (n +m)! 1
00
{ ..,
- 2 + 1 ( )' n(n + l)Jn(kr)Jn(k r)
EO
m
n n - m. 0
drjn(kr)drjn(k'r)} d
+ dr dr r.
(136a)
(136b)
In order to proceed further we simplify the integrand by using the following two relations for
108
the spherical Bessel functions:
d. U 1 . .
du [uJn(u)] == 2n + 1[(n + )In-l - nJn+l]
jn(u) = 2n
U+
1Un-l +jn+1)'
The use of these relations enables us to obtain
(137a)
(137b)
:rrjn(kr)
= kk'r
2
[(n + l)jn-l(kr)jn-l(k'r) +njn+l(kr)jn+l(k'r)] - n(n + l)jn(kr)jn(k'r)
2n + 1
by eliminating the cross-product terms jn-ljn+l through use of the expansion of jn(kri]; (k'r)
and (137b). By employing the above relation the integrand reduces to
The integration may be completed by using (133a) to give the final result, which is
rr{Ne,O(O q, kr).Ne,O(O q, k'r)dV= 7r
2
2n(n + l )(n + m)! O(k _ k ' ) (138a)
JJJ nm " nm v: fo
m
(2n + 1)(n - m)!
v
The other two normalization integrals are straightforward to obtain and are
fffMe,o(} ,k kr).Me,O(} ,k k'r)dV= 7r
2
2n(n + l)(n + m)! O(k _ k ' ).
JJJ nm ,0/, nm v:> 0/, fo
m
(2n +1)(n - m)!
v
fff e 0 k e 0 k' d 271"2(n +m)! k k'
JJJ ( ,q" r) ( ,q" r) V = fOm(2n + l)(n _ m)! u( - ).
v
(138b)
(138c)
In evaluating the normalization integral (138c) the following relationship obtained from (137)
was used:
udjn(u) U. .
du == 2n +1[nJn-l(U) - (n + I)Jn+l(U)].
For later use we will define the normalization factor Qnm by the relation
271"2(n +m)!
Qnm ==
fo
m
(2n + 1)(n - m)!
(139)
Now that the complete set of vector eigenfunctions in spherical coordinates has been obtained
we are in a position to consider the eigenfunction expansion of the solutions for the vector
Helmholtz and vector wave equations. This topic is taken up next for the vector and scalar
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
109
potentials in the Coulomb gauge. The results are then used to obtain the complete eigenfunction
expansion of the electric field.
Eigenfunction Expansion of Vector and Scalar Potentials: Coulomb Gauge
In Section 1.7 it was shown that in the Coulomb gauge where \7. A == 0 the vector and
scalar potentials are solutions of the equations
\7 X \7 X A - k5A == J.toJ(r) - jW oJ.to\7ip(r) == S(r)
\72ip == _ p(r) .
o
(140a)
(140b)
The source function S(r) for A(r) has zero divergence since \7.J == -jwp so that \7S ==
-jwJ.toP -jwJ.tO 0\72ip == 0 when ip satisfies (140b). The L functions lie in the null space
of the curl curl operator but since both A and S are orthogonal to this space of functions
the solution of (140a) can be constructed using only the M and N functions. We assume that
the current and charge are contained in a bounded volume V
o
in free space. We will order
the eigenfunction labels n, m, e, and 0 in such a way that a single subscript j will denote a
particular combination. We can easily show that the projection of the source function S onto
the space of Lj functions is zero by showing that
for all j. We note that Lj . S == \71/;j. S == \7. (1/;jS) -1/;j \7. S == \7. (1/;jS). Hence by using the
divergence theorem we have
IIILj.SdV = Ill/;js.nds
v s
where S is the surface at infinity. On So, the boundary of the source volume, we have S n ==
p,oJn - jWfoJ.ton \7q,. If n-J is not zero on So, then a compensating layer of surface charge
with density
+ nJ
Ps == -fo\7nl_ == -.-
}w
exists on So where \7ip. nI! is the discontinuity in the potential gradient across the charge layer.
The two discontinuities, namely, that in n-J and that in n- \7ip, cancel so n-S is continuous
across So. For this reason we could apply the divergence theorem to the total volume V. Since
1/;j and S vanish at infinity faster than r-
2
the surface integral vanishes thus proving that S has
no projection on the functions Lj ,
We can let A be expanded as follows:
A(r) = 2;1
00
[Bj(k)Mj(O, j), kr) +Cj(k)Nj(O, j), kr)] dk.
J
We will also express M
j(8,
cP, kr) in the form Mj(r, k) and similarly for the N
j
function.
110
When we substitute this expression into (140a) we obtain
We can get a solution for Bj(k) by scalar multiplying both sides by Mj(O, cP, k'r) and inte-
grating over V. By virtue of the orthogonal properties of the vector eigenfunctions and using
the normalization integral (138b) we obtain
tk'? - + l)Qnm =111S(ro)Mj(ro, k')dV
o
v
since the volume integral, as (138b) shows, gives a delta function factor o(k - k') and the
integral over k then selects the value k == k'. The coefficient Cj(k') is obtained in a similar
way. We easily find that
A(r) = 1
00
n(n + 1)Q:m(k2 _ [Mj(r, k) 111Mj(ro, k)S(ro)dV
o
J v
+Nj(r, k). 1[1Nj(ro, k).S(rO)dvo] dk (141)
which is the eigenfunction expansion of the solution to (140a). The solution for A(r) can be
rewritten in the form
From this expression we can identify the free-space dyadic Green's function for the vector
potential in the Coulomb gauge; thus
We emphasize that the proper interpretation of this eigenfunction expansion of the dyadic
Green's function is that it is to be used in a term by term integration so as to yield the same
solution as that given by (141).
For functions F that have V'.F == 0 the vector eigenfunctions Mj and Nj form a complete
set in the domain of the operator. Consequently, in this space of functions the unit source
function has the representation
1
00 dk
Io(r - ro) = L ( 1)Q [Mj(ro, k)Mj(r, k) +Niro, k)Ni r, k)].
. 0 n n + nm
J
(144)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
111
This result can be obtained by a formal expansion of the left-hand side or by beginning with
the eigenfunction expansion of F which is
F(r) = L roo dk [Mj(r, k) (v
ir
{Mj(ro, k).F(ro)dV
o
. Jo n(n + 1)Qnm JJJ
J
+ Nj(r, k) J[JNj(ro, k).F(rO)dVo] (145)
and rewriting this in a form that will lead to the identification of the delta function operator.
Note that even though the current J and charge p are zero outside V
o
the source function
S has a nonzero term proportional to \7<P outside yo. However, \7<P and the lamellar part J,
of J have a zero projection on the functions M
j
and N
j
. Consider, for example,
Now Mj"odS.
s
This integral vanishes when S is a spherical surface since Mj-a
r
== O. A similar result holds
for the N
j
functions because <pNj-a
r
varies like r-
3
at infinity. It now follows that S can be
replaced by JLoJ in the solution given by (141) or (142).
The solution for the scalar potential can be expanded in terms of the scalar eigenfunctions
of the Laplacian operator. This eigenfunction set is the set 1/;j == Thus we let
<l>(r) = 1
00
o,o,(r, k)dk.
J
The normalization integral for the 1/;j functions is
({{I/;(r, k)I/;(r, k')dV = 211"2(n +m)! o(k <k'). (146)
JJJ J J Eo
m
k
2
(2n +1)(n - m)!
v
By following the standard procedure we obtain
We now use \7-J == -jwp, n-J == jiao, on So, and \7-(1/;jJ) == 1/;j\7-J + \71/;j-J to express
the volume integral in the form
(148)
If n-J does not equal zero on So then the volume integral in (147) must also include the
surface integral
where jwps == n-J and Ps is the charge density on So. This integral needs to be added to
(148); when this is done we obtain
We can use this result to express the solution for <l> in the form
1 1
00
27l"2(n +m)!
<l>(r) == -.-2:: (2 +1)( )' if;j(r, k) Lj(ro, k)
JWf:o . 0 f:O
m
n n - m .
J V
.J(ro)dVodk. (150)
The electric field is given by E(r) == - jwA(r) - V<l>(r). By using the solutions obtained
for the potentials we can easily write down the eigenfunction expansion for the electric field.
We will do this in a form that will allow us to identify the Green's function operator G
e
for
the electric field. From (142) and (150) we obtain
Clearly the electric field dyadic Green's function operator is
- roo dk { 1
Ge(ro, r) = 10 Qnm n(n +1)(k2 _ [Mj(ro, k)Mj(r, k)
J
+ Nj(ro, k)Nj(r, k)] - -;Lj(ro, k)Lj(r, k)} . (152)
k
o
The expansion of the electric field requires both the transverse and longitudinal vector eigen-
functions and hence the dyadic Green's function must also have both sets of eigenfunctions in
its expansion. Even though V E == 0 outside the source region the scalar potential <l> is not
zero and hence E has a lamellar part given by - V<l> outside the source region. We point out
once more that (152) is to be used in a term by term integration to yield the eigenfunction
expansion of the electric field.
If we want to obtain an eigenfunction expansion of the electric field directly we consider
the equation
V x \7 x E - k6E == -jwp-oJ.
(153)
Since the Lj functions lie in the null space of the curl curl operator and hence are not
mapped into the range space of the operator, (153) does not have a solution in terms of the
eigenfunctions of the differential operator unless J lies in the range space. But, in general,
VJ i=- 0 so J is not always in the range space of the operator. The range space only contains
functions with nonzero curl. The part of J that does not lie in the range space <R lies in the
orthogonal complement <R.l of the range space. This is the space containing the L, functions
and coincides with the null space of the curl curl operator since the latter is a self-adjoint
operator. We can overcome the difficulty in solving (153) by the simple expedient of finding
the projection of both sides on the space of Lj functions and removing this part from the
equation. Thus we split E into its longitudinal and transverse parts E, +E, and let
Similarly, we let the longitudinal part of J be represented by
From (153) we see that
v X V X E, - k5Et - k5E/ == -jwp.oJ
t
- jwp.oJ,
and thus we must have k6Cj == jwp.oDj . By following the procedure that by now should be
clear we readily find that
When we remove the longitudinal part from (153) the equation that remains can be solved in
terms of the Mj and N
j
functions which are the eigenfunctions of the curl curl operator. The
result is, of course, the same solution as that given earlier by (151).
Another way to approach (153) is to take the divergence of both sides to obtain
Now let E/ == - and use the continuity equation to get
V'2ep = _ V'.J = _!!....
k
o
o
The solution for the scalar potential can be constructed in terms of the t/;j functions and simply
returns us to our earlier solution (150) . Note that even though J may be zero outside a finite
volume V
o
the separate parts J/ and J
t
are generally not zero outside Yo. However, outside
V
o
the transverse part J
t
cancels the longitudinal part J/.
The eigenfunction expansion of the scalar Green's function for the Helmholtz equation
(154)
114
can be identified from the solution (147) for 4>(r) by inserting a factor k
2
- kij into the
denominator and keeping the k
2
factor in the normalization constant. The solution for g is
For the scalar Green's function j includes the n == m == 0 terms.
2.15. EXPANSION OF THE ELECTRIC FIELD IN SPHERICAL MODES [2.18]
In this section we will show that the eigenfunction expansion (151) for the electric field can
be converted into an expansion in terms of spherical standing waves and outward-propagating
spherical waves. The mode expansion outside the source region involves only M and N func-
tions that are derived from the scalar wave functions
cos
1/;j == P':(cos fJ) mc/Jjn(kor)
sin
cos
1/;1 ==P':(cos fJ)
sin
The N function spectrum of eigenfunctions contributes a zero frequency or "static-like" set
of modes that cancels the longitudinal eigenfunction contributions outside the source region.
Inside the source region the cancellation is not complete but the remainder can be expressed
as a delta function contribution. The mode expansion is obtained by evaluating the integral
over k in the eigenfunction expansion of the dyadic Green's function given by (152).
We will consider the mode expansion of the part of (143) involving the N
j
functions first.
If we examine (135c) for the N
j
functions we see that the basic integral over k that has to be
evaluated is
(156)
Actually, various derivatives with respect to rand ro are also involved. According to the
sequence of operations specified in (141) the derivatives should be taken before the integration
over k is carried out. However, we can keep the derivative operations outside the integral
provided due care is taken in differentiation of the resultant functions of rand ro, some of
which have discontinuous derivatives at the point r == roo
In order to evaluate the integral we convert it to a contour integral by using the substitution
when r > roo We note that when kr is very small j n(kr) behaves like (2kr)nn! /(2n +I)! while
behaves like =r:-j2(2n)!/n!(2kr)n+l. Thus the product is asymptotic
to =r:-jr8/(2n +1)r
n+1k
and has a first-order pole at k == O. In the sum the pole term
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
115
is canceled and indeed the integrand in (156) is regular at k = o. We will return to this point
shortly.
The circuit relations
can be used to replace the integral of from 11 to infinity by an integral from
minus infinity to - 11, i. e. ,
1
00 dk _ J-
oo
jn( -kr)( -dk)
k
2
k2 - k
2
k
2
11 - 0 -11 - 0
-J-
l1
dk
- 2 2
-00 k - k
o
Later on we will take the limit as 11 approaches zero. When we split the integral of
j n(k r0)[h (k r) +h (k r)] in the manner indicated we must take the resultant integral as a
Cauchy principal-value integral in order to obtain the required pole cancellation at k = O.
With these considerations the integral in (156) can be replaced by
I = !pJoo dk
2 -00 k
2
- k5
= limJ-'1 dk + lim1
00
dk. (157)
-00 2(k
2
- k5) 11 2(k
2
- k5)
We can convert the principal-value integral to a contour integral along either of the two contours
shown in Fig. 2.16, but we must then add or subtract, respectively, 21rj times one-half of the
residue at the pole k = O. This last term is 1rj(jr8/(2n + l)r
n
+
1
) = =f1rr8/ (2n + l)r
n
+
1
We can initially consider the medium to have a small loss so that k

o
= kb - j kg. Thus the
pole at k = k
o
lies above the contour. The solution must be an analytic function of the loss
parameters so consequently when we reduce the loss to zero the contour must be indented
above the pole at k
o
and below the pole at - k
o
as shown in Fig. 2.16. We cannot allow the
pole to move across the contour since this will create a discontinuity in the function equal to
21rj times the residue at the pole.
When kr is very large the spherical Bessel functions have the following asymptotic behavior:
. 1 ( n+l)
In(kr) rv kr cos kr - -2-
1r
Consequently, in the lower half of the complex k plane the product becomes
exponentially small for r > roo We can, therefore, close the contour by a semicircle in the
lower half plane; when the radius of this circle becomes infinite we do not get any contribution
to the integral from this part of the contour. We can now evaluate the contour integral using
residue theory. We get residue contributions from the two poles at k = 0 and k = k
o
when
we use the contour shown in Fig. 2.16(a). With this choice of contour we must add to the
116
(a)
(b)
Fig. 2.16. Contour for converting the eigenfunction expansion into a mode expansion. The two
alternative semi-circle contours about the point at the origin converts the principal value integral to
a contour integral.
contour integral one-half of the pole contribution at k == o. Thus we find that the integral [
has the value
It.
)
- 2
r, ro - - 7r} 4k
o
(158)
The result is valid for r == ro also since the contribution to the integral from the semicircle is
still zero when r == ro because the integrand decreases like k :" while the circumference of
the circle increases only like IkI.
When r < ro we use the substitution 2jn(kro) == + A similar analysis
then shows that the value of the integral is given by (158) but with the roles of rand ro
interchanged. For all values of r, ro we have
(159)
The contribution to G
e
from the NjN
j
terms in (152) can now be expressed in the form
_ 1 [ cos ]
Gel == 2: \70 X \70 X a'orOP':/(COS ( 0) mc/JO
. Qnmn(n + 1) sin
J
[
COS ]
x \7 X \7 X a,rP':(cos 0) . mc/J [(ro, r)
SIn
(160)
where [(ro, r) is given by (159). For convenience we will define the following functions:
cos
Nj(r) == \7 X \7 X a,rjn(kor)P':(cos 0) mc/J
sin
cos
Nj(r) == \7 X \7 X 0) mc/J
sin
(161a)
(161b)
r < r
r > ro
(161c)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
ro < r
ro > r.
117
(161d)
The subscript (J is an indicator that tells which of r, ro is to be used according to the rules
given in (161c) and (161d).
We also need symbols for the static-like modes generated from the other term in I(ro, r).
For these we will use the symbols Njo(r), Njo(r) , and Njao(r). The function Njo(r) is the
same as that in (161a) but with jn(kor) replaced by r", The function N)o(r) is the same as
that in (161b) but with replaced by r:":', The (J indicator is applied according to
the rules already given.
The function I(ro, r) is continuous at r == ro, but the derivative with respect to r or ro has
a step change across the point r == roo The operations in (161) require the derivative operation
in order to evaluate the aoo ao and act>o act> contributions to G
e
I. This operation produces delta
function terms. The delta function terms come from the second derivative of 1 with respect to
ro and r. The step change in dl ldr is
where the prime means a derivative with respect to koro. By using the Wronskian relation
we obtain
,+
dl I 0 7r 7r
dr TO = - +
so the two step changes are equal in value but of opposite sign. When dl ldr is regarded as
a function of r, the two terms undergo the above step changes as r crosses the point ro from
the region r < ro to the region r > roo But when dl ldri, is viewed as a function of ro, the
step changes are the negative of the above amounts as the point ro crosses the point r from
the region ro < r to the region ro > r. Clearly, the delta functions generated from the second
derivative cancel. If the derivative operations are retained in the integrand, then the integrand
can be rewritten in a form that will give the same cancellation of terms.
With all of the above definitions and canceling delta function terms taken into account we
can express Gel in the concise form
(162)
/('0, ,) ==
For the L, function contribution to the Green's dyadic function the integral to be evaluated
is
I = roo j n(krO)j;(kr) dk.
io -ko
By means of the same substitutions as used before, the integral can be transformed into the
same form as in (157) except that the denominator term is simply -kij. The only pole present
is that at k == 0 so the value of the integral is given by the second term only in (159), i.e.,
+ l)r;+1
The contribution to G
e
from the Lj Lj terms is
1r [ cos cos ],n
Ge2 == - L 2 \70\7 P'[tco Oo)P':(cos 0) mcPo mcP
. 2k
o(2n
+ I)Qnm sin sin r>
J
By evaluating the gradients we find that
1 1r m m cos cos 0(r - '0)
- 2:L -2QPn (cos Oo)Pn (cos 0) . mcPo . mcP 2 a.a,; (163)
ko nm SIn SIn '0
J
The derivative of a unit step function, which gives a delta function, is sometimes called a
generalized derivative. The sum of the series is equal to 0(0 - Oo)O( cP - cPo) / sin O. This
can be verified by expanding the delta functions in terms of the Legendre functions and the
trigonometric functions. By comparing (163) and (162) we see that the LjLj terms cancel the
static-like modes that are a part of the N
j
spectrum of modes outside the source region. Inside
the source region the cancellation is not complete and the residual part can be expressed by
the delta function term
(164)
The last contribution to G
e
is that from the MjM
j
terms. The integral over k that must be
evaluated for these terms is
Since the numerator has a factor k
2
, there is no pole at k == O. The evaluation of the integral
is carried out using the same procedure as before and it has the value
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
At this point we introduce the functions
cos
Mj(r) == \7 X 8,korP'::(cos 8) mf/>jn(kor)
sin
cos
Mj(r) == \7 X 8,korP':(cos 8) .
SIn
119
(165a)
(165b)
r < ro
r >'0
(165c)
with similar definitions when rand ro are interchanged. The mode expansion for the electric
field dyadic Green's function in free space can now be expressed in the form
- '"'" j 7r 8,8,
Ge(ro, r) = - ( l)Q [Mj(J(ro)Mj(J(r) +Nj(J (ro)Nj(J (r)] - -k
2
o(r - ro).
. on n + nm 0
J
(166)
This mode expansion for the dyadic Green's function was first obtained by Tai [2.24].
The eigenfunction expansion of G
e
as given by (152) clearly shows that the dyadic Green's
function has a nonzero lamellar part outside the source region. The mode expansion given by
(166) on the other hand involves only transverse wave functions outside the source region.
However, these transverse wave functions have components that are not all continuous with
continuous derivatives in the source region, and therefore do not represent purely transverse
or solenoidal fields. Consequently, G
e
as given by (166) should not be interpreted to mean
that G
e
does not have a lamellar part outside the source region.
The mode expansion for G
e
can be effectively employed to evaluate the electric field in the
interior of a small spherical volume V0 of radius a for a current density J (ro) that we will
assume can be considered as constant and in the z direction. The source point ro and the field
point r both lie within the small volume V
o
but are otherwise arbitrary points. In view of the
symmetry about the z axis, all of the terms m > 0 in 8
z
G
e
when integrated over the angle
give zero. Consequently, the M
j
functions do not contribute to the field. By referring to
(135c) it can be seen that the scalar product 8
z
Nj gives rise to two integrals over (Jo that are
given by
{'If dPn(cos (Jo) . 2 8 d8
- Jo d8
0
SIn 0 o
Since cos 8
0
== PI (COS (
0)
the first integral is zero if n i- 1 because of the orthogonal property
of the Legendre polynomials. For n == 1 the value of the first integral is, from (136a), The
second integral can be integrated by parts to give
120
The integrated term vanishes and the integral that remains has a nonzero value of 1only for
n == 1. In view of these results we can conclude that only the N, mode for m == 0, n == 1 is
needed to describe the electric field. This result is solely dependent on the fact that the current
is constant and in the Z direction and is true for any spherical volume V
o
.
Inside the volume V
o
the electric field is given by
upon using (151) and (166). After performing the integration over 8
0
and cPo we obtain
jZoJ cos 8 {+ r [ . d.]
E(r) = k
o
ar-ZOJ Nl(r)}o rO}l(koro)+rodr/O}l(koro) dr
+ Nl (r)1
0
[rohi(koro) +ro dro}.
The spherical Bessel functions of order 1 are given by
. (k ) sin koro cos koro
Jl oro == 2 -
(koro) koro
From these expressions we find-that the two integrands reduce to
ro sin koro and
The integration over ro is easily done to give
jZoJ cos 8 ZoJ.
E(r) == k a, - -2[(SIn kor - kor COS kor)Nt(r)
o k
o
+j - koa)e-jkoa - (j - kor)e-jkO')Nl(r)],
where Nt and N1 are given by
2. 1. drjl(kor)
Nl == - cos 8Jl(kor)a, - - SIn 8 d ao
r r r
+ 2 2 1. drhi(kor)
N
l
== - cos 8h
l(k
o
r)a, - - SIn 8 d ao
r r r
r<a (167)
When kor is small sin kor -kor cos kor (k
or)3/3
so the term involving Nt remains finite
at r == o. If we set r == 0 then the electric field at the center of the spherical volume is found
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
to be equal to
E(O)
== jZoJ _ jZoJ (k )2
3k
o
a
z
3k
o
0
0
a
z
121
(168)
(169)
when k00 is also small. The limit of (168) as the radius 0 tends to zero is thus a constant and
finite value as found earlier and given by (119). Outside the sphere the electric field is given
by
ZoJ . +
E(r) == --2(sin koo - koo cos koo)N
1
(r).
k
o
For koo very small (169) reduces to - (Z
oko
I / 41r)Nt (r) where I == 41r0
3
J /3. For suitable
values of k-a , which are apparent from (169), the radiated field vanishes.
2.16. DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTION EXPANSION IN CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES
In cylindrical coordinates r, et>, z the solutions to the scalar Helmholtz equation that are
finite at the origin are
where
cos
0 == In(kr)e-
j wz
net>
sin
(170)
(171)
and k
2
== A - w
2
For this problem there are two continuous eigenvalue parameters k and w
since the interval in z is infinite and that for r is semi-infinite. A general solution to the scalar
Helmholtz equation is of the form
1
00 roo 00
-oolo k) cos ncf> +Dn(w, k) sin ncf>]Jn(kr)e-
j wz
dk dw
where en and D
n
are expansion coefficients depending on wand k. The orthogonality and
normalization properties of the eigenfunctions e-
j wz
are expressed by the Fourier transform
property
I:e-jwz+jw'z dz = 21l"o(w - w').
(172)
The corresponding property for the eigenfunctions Jn (kr) is given by the Hankel transform
relations for the cylinder Bessel functions:
1
00
F(k)Jn(kr)kdk =j(r)
1
00
j(r)Jn(kr)r dr = F(k)
( 173a)
(173b)
roo fJ(k k')
Jo In(kr)Jn(k'r)rdr = ;
rooJ n(kr)Jn(kr')k dk = o(r - r') .
io r
The vector eigenfunctions are given by Ustands for a particular n, e, 0 combination)
L, == V'1/;j
Mj == V' X a
z1/;j
== -a
z
X V'1/;j
pNj == V' X V' X a
z1/;j
== V'V'-a
z1/;j
- a
z
V'21/;j
== p2
az1/;j
- jwV'1/;j == azp21/;j - jwL
j
( 173c)
(173d)
(174a)
(174b)
(174c)
where p2 == A.
In order to derive the normalization integrals the following two Bessel function differential
and recurrence relations are used:
(175a)
(175b)
The explicit forms for the vector eigenfunctions are
dJn(kr) -jwz cos,l.. n
J
(k ) -jwz sin ,I..
L, == a, dr e no/ =f= aq,- n r e no/
sin r cos
cos
- azjwJn(kr)e-
jwz
ncP
sin
N
- iw dJn(kr) -jwz cos ,I.. jw n
J
(k )
j - -ar - d e no/ ae/> - - n r
p r sin p r
. sin k
2
. cos
x e-
JWZ
ncP +az-Jn(kr)e-JWZ ne,
cos P sin
(176a)
(176b)
(176c)
Normalization
In this section we will use 1/;j with k, wand 1/;j with k', w' as the eigenvalue parameters.
By using (175) it is readily found that the scalar product Lj - Lj, after integration over cP,
equals
r
21r
{kk'
Jo Lj"Lj deb = T[Jn+l(kr)Jn+l(k'r) +In-l(kr)Jn-I(kr')]
+ww'Jn(kr)Jn(k'r) }(21r/f:on)e-j(W-W')z.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
The integral over all values of rand z, upon using (172) and (173c), is given by
]
00 1001211" 411"2 o(k - k')
Lj.LjrdcPdrdz == -(kk' +ww')o(w -w') k'
-00 0 0 EOn
4 2 k
2
2
+w o(w- w')o(k - k').
EOn k
Next consider Mj Mj and carry out the integration over cP to obtain
[27<Mj"Mj deb = 211" [kk' + n: Jn(kr)Jn(k'r)] e-j(W-W')z.
Jo EOn r
123
(177a)
By using (175) to simplify the integrand, the result is readily integrated over rand z to yield
rrr * 411"2 , k k'
JJJ Mj"Mj dr = EOn ko(w - w )o( - ).
V
In a very similar way one obtains
IIINj"Nj dr = ko(w - w')o(k - k').
v
Orthogonality
(177b)
(177c)
A volume integral of or is clearly zero if n i= n' and w i= w'
because of the orthogonal property of the cos ncP and sin ncP functions and the Fourier integral
relation (172). Hence, it suffices to consider only the case n' == nand w' == w, k i= k'.
First consider
1
211" ] <X> 411"2 ( - jW) [ 12 ,
Lj.NjdzdcP==- --,- k JnCkr)JnCkr)
o -00 P
- - ;:In(kr)Jn(k'r)] o(w -w').
When we compare the second term on the right with the normalization integral for M
j
. Mj
and also use (173c) we see that the integral over r gives a factor
(k,2 _ t2)o(k - k') =0
k
so L, and Nj are orthogonal.
After integrating over cP and z the other two scalar products, namely, Ll: Mj and Nj Mj ,
are both found to have the factor
n(k'r) +k'J .
124
The use of (175) allows this factor to be expressed as
for which the integral over r equals zero. Thus the orthogonality of the vector eigenfunction
set is established.
Dyadic Green's Function
The dyadic Green's function G
e
is a solution of the equation
2 - - ,
(V X V X - ko)G
e
== Io(r - r ). (178)
The fact that the Lj functions are in the null space of the curl curl operator does not cause
any difficulty if we simply include the Lj functions in the expansion of G
e
since this will
automatically make the projection of - k6Ge and I5(r - r') onto this space of functions equal.
Hence we let
where Aj, Bj, and C, are vector expansion coefficients. It is a straightforward matter to use
the orthogonality and normalization properties of the eigenfunctions to solve for the expansion
coefficients after the assumed solution for G
e
is substituted into (178). We will omit the details
and only give the final result which is
- , 1
Ge(r, r) == -2LJ On
47f' n=O
1
OO
J OO [Mj(k' w, r)Mj(k, w, r') +Nj(k, w, r)Nj(k, w, r')
x 2 2 2
o -00 k(k +w - ko)
k Lj(k, w, r)Lj(k, w, r')]
- - dwdk.
k5 (k
2
+w
2
)
(179)
The vector eigenfunctions are given explicitly by (176).
The eigenfunction expansion of G
e
can be converted into a mode expansion. We can carry
out the integral over w to obtain a mode expansion along z while leaving a spectral integral
over k. Alternatively, we can carry out the integration over k and then be left with an inverse
Fourier transform to be carried out to obtain the explicit dependence on z. Unfortunately, in
either case it is only possible to evaluate the first integral using residue theory. We will evaluate
the integral over k and leave it to the reader to evaluate the alternative solution obtained by
integrating over w first.
The integral over k will be converted to an integral from - 00 to 00 by using
In(kr) ==
-kr) ==
(180a)
(180b)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
Fig. 2.17. Contour for obtaining the mode expansion.
125
(180c)
The integrand in (179) does not have any singularities at k == 0 since the Mj and Nj functions
vanish for k == O. When the Hankel functions are introduced the integral from - 00 to 00
must be chosen as a principal-value integral so as to avoid introducing any pole singularity
at k == O. The Y n function which is part of the Hankel function has a part that contains a
logarithmic factor In k r and thus a branch point at the origin is introduced along with the
Hankel functions. The branch point, however, does not cause any difficulty in the evaluation
of the integrals. The Bessel function circuit relations given in (180) are valid when the phase
angle of kr is between - 7r and 7r. A branch cut along the negative real axis is introduced
and the contour of integration is chosen as in Fig. 2.17.
A typical integral to be evaluated is of the form
1
00
f(k)kJn(kr)Jn(kr') dk
where f(k) is an even function of k. For r > r' we use (180a) to replace In(kr) and then
upon using (180b) and (180c) we have
lim1
00
f(k)kJn(kr)Jn(kr') dk
'YI
f
oo l
=p -00 n(kr') dk
by following the same steps used to obtain (157) for the mode expansion in spherical coordi-
nates. The derivative operations with respect to rand r' can be brought outside the integral
and applied later with due care being taken in differentiating functions that have a discontin-
uous first derivative when r == r'. The principal-value integral can be expressed as a contour
integral along the path shown in Fig. 2.17 provided i times the residue at any pole at k == 0
is subtracted. The contour can be closed by a semicircle in the lower half of the complex k
plane since the asymptotic behavior of the Bessel functions makes the product J
behave like (l/k)e-
j k
(r - r ' ) which is exponentially decaying in the lower half plane when
r > r'. The integral over the semicircle of infinite radius does not contribute as long as the
conditions for Jordan's lemma hold. This requires that when r > r' the integrand behaves like
- n
2
kJ n(kr)Jn(kr')
(k
2
+w
2
)r r '
Ikl
T
with T < 0, apart from the exponential factor. When r == r' the integrand must decrease
at least as fast as Ikl-
1+T
with T < O. The only term for which these conditions are violated
is the ara
r,
component of the LjLj contribution. For this term the integrand is of the form
and cannot be evaluated using residue theory. However, when the derivatives with respect to
kr and kr' are brought outside the integral, a k
2
factor is eliminated and residue theory can be
used. The resultant function of rand r' has a discontinuous derivative at r == r' so the result
of applying the operator d
2/dr
dr' is a delta function term in addition to the usual terms that
arise. An alternative procedure is to express k
2/(k2
+w
2)
as l-w
2
/(k
2
+w
2).
The integrand
for the ara
r,
part of the LjLj contribution is
k dJn(kr) dJn(kr')
k
2
+;2 dr dr'
We can use (175) and the splitting of k
2/(k2
+w
2)
just noted to rewrite the integrand in the
form
kw?
2 2 [Jn+l (kr)Jn+l (kr')
2(/( +w )
+I n--1(kr)Jn-1(kr')]
+
+J n--l (kr)Jn-l (kr')].
The integral over k of the last term gives o(r - r')/r as reference to (173d) shows. The
remaining terms can be integrated using standard residue theory after the replacement of
one of the Bessel functions by a Hankel function. In general, we can justify the formal
procedure of differentiating discontinuous functions to obtain delta functions by extracting the
delta function contributions directly from the integrals by rewriting the integrands in such a
form that (173d) can be used. Of course (173d) should not be viewed as a classical function;
it is an eigenfunction representation of the delta function operator.
When r < r' the Bessel function J n(kr') is expressed in terms of the Hankel functions and
a similar evaluation is carried out. Note that the conjugation operation shown in (179) applies
only to the jw factor. The complex conjugate of the Hankel functions is not taken since these
are replacements for the real Jn functions.
For the MjMj contribution in (179) the denominator is k(k
2
+ W
2
-kij) so poles at k == 0 and
k == (kij _W
2)1/2
occur. We will show that the residue contribution at the k == 0 pole is canceled
by a corresponding contribution from the NjNj terms. For the NjNj terms the denominator
is k(k
2
+ w
2
)(k
2
+ w
2
- kij) because of the extra factor l/p2 that occurs. The residue at
the pole k == - jw in the lower half plane will be shown to be canceled by a corresponding
contribution from the LjLj term. In fact, these residue terms completely cancel the LjLj
contributions outside, as well as inside, the source region. The only remaining contribution
from the LjLj terms is a delta function term coming from the ara
r,
part as described earlier.
Thus, apart from the delta function term, the mode expansion is made up solely from the
residue contributions at the pole k == (kij - W
2)1/2
that is present in the integral for the M
j
and Nj contributions.
At this point we must verify the residue cancellations described above and also evaluate the
residual delta function term that is left over as part of the contribution from the longitudinal
eigenfunctions. In order to evaluate the singular behavior at k == 0, in the various integrals
we have to deal with, the following small argument approximations for the Bessel functions
are used:
, 1 (kr,)n 1 (kr,)n+2
In(kr) '" n! 2 - (n +I)! 2
[
.2( kr)] j (2)n
'" 1 - J;;: 'Y +In 2 Jn(kr) + ;;:(n - I)! kr
2 .2 ( kr)
Ho(kr) rv -J; l -l-In 2
(181a)
( 181b)
(18Ic)
where l == 0.5772 is Euler's constant. From these relations it is clear that the product
J is finite at k == 0 and In (kr /2) is multiplied by a k" factor. Only the n == 0
term exhibits a logarithmic singularity. We will use the notation that Lt ' Mt ' and Nt denote
the functions given in (176) but with Jn(kr) replaced by The a
z
component of the
Nj functions is multiplied by k
2
so this component vanishes at k == 0 and does not have a
residue contribution. Apart from the z- and et>-dependent factors, the parts of the MjMj and
NjNj terms that contribute nonzero residues at k == 0 are (note that these are the factors
multiplying the same sin net> or cos net> terms)
[
_ [_ dJn(kr') !!'-J (k ')]
a, d a, n r a<t>, dr' a", n r
r r r r
and
Upon using the small argument approximations these expressions become
w
2
n r'":'
2 -1i+1( a, +a,)(=t=a<t>' +a,,).
p 1r r
At the pole k == 0 the factor w
2
/ p2 equals unity since p2 == k
2
+w
2
. Thus, as is readily
apparent, the above two factors will cancel so the residues at the k == 0 pole cancel.
Next we consider the residues at the pole k == - jw that occurs in connection with the
LjLj and NtNj terms. The integrand for the NtNj term is proportional to the expression
[a
z(k
2
+ - jwi;l[a
z(k
2
+ w
2
)J n(kr') + jwi;l
as can be seen by referring to (174c). The caret above the Lj functions signifies that the
common functions of et>, et>', z, and z' are not included. The residue contributions come only
128
from the part
for the Nj functions. For the Lj functions the residues come from the factor
,,+,,*
k LjL
j
- k5 k
2
+w
2
When k == - jw the two multiplying factors are w

2
/ and jw respectively, and hence
the residue contributions are of opposite sign and cancel.
As noted earlier, the integral of the ftrB
r'
part of the LjLj contribution has to be evaluated
either by extracting the delta function part or before the operation d
2/dr
dr' is carried out.
This is not necessary for the NjNj terms. The result is that we obtain a delta function
contribution which is given by the second derivative at r == r', i.e.,
jeo foe . , cos cos d
2
I
a,.ar2: _",,e-]W(Z-Z). nq, . nq/ dr dr -jwrJn( -jwrd dw.
n 81T'4) SIn SIn > < r=r'
The step change in the first derivative with respect to r at r == r' is
J (
_ . ') -H2(_. ') dJn(-jwr) I
n jwr d n jwr d
r r' r r'
2j
- 'If'r'
upon using the Wronskian relationship for the Bessel functions involved. The step change,
when the derivative is viewed as a function of r', is the negative of this so the delta function
term that is produced is (2j j1rr')o(r -r'). We now note that the integral over wcan be carried
out to give 2'1f'o(z - z'); hence we get
o(r - r'v- (X) EOn ..
- arar,o(z - z') 2 -2(cos ncP cos ncP' +SIn ncP SIn ncP')
kor :1=0 1r
1 o(r - r') ') _ a.a, ')
== -2 U 0/ - 0/ U Z - Z BrB
r
- --2-u r - r
r
since the series is the expansion of o(cP - cP').
The final expression for the mode expansion of the electric field dyadic Green's function in
cylindrical coordinates is
, j(X) , , dw a.a, ,
Ge(r, r) == +Nju(r)Nju(r)] 2 _ k
2
- k2
o
(r - r) (182)
-(X) j 'If' woo
where the mode functions are defined by
cos
Mj(r) == \7 x BzJn('Yr)e-jwz ncP
sin
(183a)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
cos
Mj(r) == \7 X . net>
SIn
cos
koNj(r) == \7 X \7 X 8
z
Jn('Yr)e-
jwz
. net>
SIn
COS
koNj(r) == \7 X \7 X . net>
SIn
129
(183b)
(183c)
(183d)
r < r'
r > r'
r < r'
r > r'
(183e)
(1830
with 'Y == (kij - W
2)1/2.
The functions of r' are defined the same way except that e-
jwz
is
replaced by e
jwz'
. The (J indicator is also applied the same way but with the roles of rand r'
interchanged. The mode expansion including the delta function term given in (182) was also
derived first by Tai [2.24].
If the integral over wis carried out first then there will be residue terms at w == (kij - k
2
) 1/2
for the MjMj and NjNj terms and these produce a mode expansion along z. There are
residues from poles at w == -jk for the LjLj and NjNj terms also. However, these residue
terms cancel with the exception of a delta function term that arises from the 8
z
8
z
part of the
LjLj contribution. In evaluating the integrals over w the - jw factors that appear in the
expressions for the MI NI and Lj functions in (176) are brought outside the integral as
a d[dz operator so as to allow evaluation of the integrals using residue theory. The result
of such an evaluation gives the following alternative mode expansion for the dyadic Green's
function:
c,o. r') = _LL ['XJ Mju (r)M
ju
(r') + Nju(r)Nju(r') dk - o(r - r') (184)
471" j Jo k Jkfi - k
2
ko
where now the mode functions are given by
(185a)
(185b)
{
Mj(r),
Mj(J(r) == _
M
j
(r),
z >z'
z <z'
(185c)
cos
koNj(r) == \7 X \7 X 8
z
J n(kr)e-j-yz . net>
SIn
cos
koNj(r) == \7 X \7 X 8
z
J
n(kr)e
j-yz
. net>
sm
(185d)
(185e)
130
{
Nj(r), z > z'
k
oNj
(1 (r) == (185t)
Nj(r), z < z'
where v == (kij - k
2
)1/2.
The functions of r' are defined the same way but with the roles of rand r' interchanged.
The a indicator specifies the functions with superscript + or - in accordance with z' > z or
z' < z, respectively.
2.17. ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS FOR DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
For certain types of scattering and diffraction problems it is useful to have other represen-
tations for the dyadic Green's functions that may exhibit a more rapid convergence than the
series forms given in the two previous sections. This is very much the case for scattering
and diffraction by very large cylinders and spheres for which the standard mode expansions
converge very slowly.
One way to obtain an alternative representation is to synthesize an alternative form for the
scalar Green's function g that is a solution of the Helmholtz equation and obtain the Green's
dyadic function by means of the operations shown in (112). We will illustrate the method in
connection with cylindrical coordinates.
Associated with the three-dimensional scalar Green's function problem
(186)
are three one-dimensional characteristic Green's function problems which can be identified
from the separated partial differential equation. These one-dimensional Green's function prob-
lems are
Id
2
gt/> ,
dqi +"A",g", = -o(cP - cP )
d
2
g
z
,
dz
2
+Azgz == -o(z - z )
1 d dg, p2 o(r - r')
--dr-
d
+Argr - 2 gr ==
r r r r r
(187a)
(187b)
(187c)
cP < cP'
where At/> == p2, A
r
== kij - A
z
, in order that gr(r), gt/>(cP), gz(z) satisfy the homogeneous
Helmholtz equation when r i= r'.
For a specific problem to solve we choose the scattering of the field from an infinitely
long cylinder of radius a as illustrated in Fig. 2.18. On the cylinder surface we will impose
Dirichlet boundary conditions which require g == 0 at r == a. In addition, g must represent
outward-propagating waves at infinity.
The function g must be periodic in cP with a period of 21r. A useful solution can be obtained
by considering cP as a rectangular coordinate that varies from - 00 to 00. The periodicity
requirement can be met by placing unit sources at cP == cP' +2n1r, n == 1, 2, .... For the
single source at cP' we can solve (187a) by choosing
{
Cle-jPcP,
gt/> ==
C2
e j pcP
,
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
131
z
/T',!/J',Z'
a
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
"....J.- - - Y
./
x
Fig. 2.18. A cylindrical scattering problem.
where v = y'Y\;. At e/> = e/>' we require gcP to be continuous and in addition
dgcP =-1.
de/> cP'-
By imposing these source boundary conditions we find that a solution for gc/> is
This wave solution is called a creeping wave since it represents a field that propagates or
creeps around the cylinder. We can now superimpose the solutions from all the other sources
to obtain the Green's function that has the required periodicity. Thus a valid Green's function
is
00
j "'" - iv Ic/>-c/>' -2n1r1
gc/> = - 2v LJ e
n=-oo
(188)
A similar solution exists for gz so we choose
(189)
For the function gr a suitable solution is
Or = {Cl[H;(Ar)Jp(Aa) -H;(Aa)Jp(Ar)],
C
2H;(Ar),
a r r'
r r'.
This solution has the desired properties of vanishing at r = a and corresponding to outward-
propagating waves for large r. We require gr to be continuous at r = r' and also
d

gr
r dr r'. =-1.
132
.-V
m
.-V2
Fig. 2.19. Location of the complex roots JIm.
When we impose the source boundary conditions and use the Wronskian relation
J ( I}: _H2( I}: == _ 2}
v V I\,r d I v V I\,r d I I
r r
we readily find that
The spectra associated with g</> and gz arise from the branch points at the origin. In order that
the wave solutions do not grow exponentially the branches are chosen such that
Imag. A == Imag. v :::; 0
Imag. A <o.
(191a)
(191b)
The function H;( Aa) has an infinite number of zeroes for complex values of v . Hence
g, has a discrete spectrum. The zeroes are located in the second and fourth quadrants of the
complex v plane as shown in Fig. 2.19. The two sets of zeroes are the negatives of each other.
In the A</> plane only the zeroes with Imag. v < 0 lie on the Riemann sheet of interest in view
of the manner in which the desired branch was specified by (191a).
According to the synthesis method presented in Section 2.8 the three-dimensional Green's
function is given by
(192)
where we have chosen to integrate around the branch cuts in the A(j) and A
z
planes. These cuts
are placed along, but just above, the real axis so that the angle of A(j) and A
z
ranges from 0
to - This ensures that the conditions given by (191) will hold. It is convenient to change
variables according to
dA
z
== 2wdw
dA(j) == z a.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
A
z
plane
133
Br. cut
c,
(a)
v plane
Vm
(c)
____ cut
(b)
w plane
(d)
Fig. 2.20. Contours of integration for synthesizing the three-dimensional Green's function. (a)
Branch cut and contour in A
cP
plane. (b) Branch cut and contour in A
z
plane. (c) Location of poles
in v plane. (d) The contour Cz mapped into the wplane.
The new contours now become the whole real axis in the wand v planes. The various contours
are shown in Fig. 2.20.
We can express g in the following form after the above change of variables has been made:
x e-jwlz-z'l dw dv,
(193)
For a line source the solution is obtained by integrating over Z' from - 00 to 00 to give
211"o(w). The integral over w then selects the value w == o. We can close the contour by a
semicircle in the lower half of the complex u plane and evaluate the integral over v in terms
of the residues at the poles v == Vm == (Jm - ln. If we denote the residue associated with
H;( Jk5 - w
2
a) by
1
R
Jlm
== --------..,......-
d
dH; <Jkfi -W
2
0)1
v JIm
our solution for g can be expressed as
1
00 00
g(
r r') == - '""" '"""e-(ju
m
+ 7Jm) lcP - Q>' -2n1r1 J1I" R H
2
('\If )
, 211" L....J L....J 2 JIm JIm I >
J n=-oom=l
134
s
n
v
(195)
Fig. 2.21. Illustration for a field equivalence principle.
where v == (kfi - W
2)I/2.
The significant advantage obtained with this solution is that when 'YO
is large the imaginary parts 11m of Pm are large so that only a few terms in the sum over nand
m need be retained because of the rapid decay of the cP function. The evaluation of the roots
and the residues is quite complex and the reader is referred to the literature for the details
[2.15], [2.25].
We can construct a dyadic Green's function from (194) but this function will, in general,
not satisfy the boundary conditions D X G
e
== 0 on the cylinder surface. However, if we have
a z-directed electric current element the function
-,log
Ge(r, r ). 8
z
== 8
z
g + 2" \7!}
k
o
uz
will have zero tangential components on the cylinder surface and the problem of scattering
of electromagnetic waves, radiated by a z-directed electric current element, from a perfectly
conducting cylinder is solved. For the more general case it would be necessary to add solutions
to the homogeneous vector wave equation to take care of boundary conditions.
2.18. DYADIC GREEN'S FUNCTIONS AND FIELD EQUIVALENCE PRINCIPLES
Let the sources for an electromagnetic field be contained in a volume VI bounded by a
smooth closed surface S as shown in Fig. 2.21. The unit normal directed out from VI is D.
The electric field outside S is a solution of the source-free equation
\7 X \7 X E - k6E == O.
Consider also a Green's dyadic function that is a solution of
- 2 - -
\7 X \7 X G(r, ro) - koG == Io(r - ro)
and satisfies a radiation condition at infinity. We now form the scalar products
E. \7 X \7 X G - \7 X \7 X E.G == E(r)o(r - ro).
The left-hand side can be written as
- \7. [E X \7 X G+\7 X E X G]
(196)
(197)
as direct expansion of the divergence will verify. We now integrate over the volume V outside
S and use the divergence theorem to obtain
If
{
E(ro),
(0 X E \7 X G +0 X \7 X E.G)dS ==
8 0,
ro E V
(198)
where the integral over a spherical surface at infinity has been set to zero since it vanishes
because both G and E satisfy a radiation condition. From Maxwell's equations \7 X E ==
- jW/LoH, so for ro in V
E(ro) = Ifn X E \7 X CdS - jwp,oIfn X HCdS
8 8
(199)
which gives the field in V in terms of boundary values on S. This is the mathematical statement
of Love's field equivalence theorem discussed in Section 1.8. The boundary values can be
interpreted as equivalent surface currents J
ms
== -0 X E and J
es
== 0 X H. The dyadic
Green's function can be chosen as the one for unbounded free space.
A similar solution for the magnetic field can be constructed since H also satisfies (196).
Hence
H(ro) =Ifn X H \7 X CdS +jWfoIfn X ECdS.
8 8
(200)
The solutions given by (199) and (200) have the expected property that the functions of ro
given by the integrals involving \7 X Ghave tangential components that undergo a step change
equal to the boundary value 0 X E or 0 X H as the observation point ro passes through the
surface S from the exterior side V to the interior side VI. We can readily prove this property.
Let So be a very small circular disk that is a part of S as shown in Fig. 2.22. The surface
integral in (199) is split into an integral over So and an integral over S -So. The latter integral
is a continuous function of ro since r =1= ro and hence does not have a discontinuous behavior
across S. For the integral over So we choose So so small that 0 X E can be considered to be
constant on So. If we use the free-space dyadic Green's function given by (112), then
_ _e-
j koR
1 t
\7 X G == \7 X 1-- - \7 X -
41rR 41r R
since the exponential factor can be approximated by unity over the small disk and in the region
immediately surrounding it. The integral of interest is thus approximated as follows:
1 li r 1 li
1
-
-0 X E \7 X - dS == -0 X E \7- dS X I.
41r R 41r R
80 80
From Fig. 2.22 we see that \7(I/R) can be expressed as
1 aR 0 a
r
.
\7- == - - == - cos () - - SIn()
R R
2
R
2
R
2
where 8R == (r - ro)/R.
136
Fig. 2.22. A small circular area So on S.
From symmetry considerations the integral of the component along 8, over the circular disk
is zero. The remaining integral
nff C;2 () dS =nff dn =nn
So So
where 0 is the solid angle subtended by the disk at the observation point. Our final result for
the integral is thus
-0 0 0
n X Evn X 1- == (n X E) X n- == -n X (n X E)-4. (201)
411'" 41r 11'"
The solid angle 0 increases up to a value of 211'" as ro approaches S- and then jumps to -211'"
as ro passes through S. Since n X (n X E) == (n-Ejn - (nn)E == -E
tan
, we see that (201)
shows that the tangential value of E given by
lim {'in X E \7 X GdS
so-+oJJ
So
approaches a value equal to one-half of the boundary value obtained from n X E as ro ap-
proaches S from the exterior region. The other half of the total tangential electric field comes
from the sources on S - So. Note from (201) that the integral does not contribute a normal
component when So is a circular disk.
Let the z axis be oriented along n from the center of the circular disk assumed to have a
radius a. We now consider
ffnx Hoff (1+ 4:R
dS
So So
where we have again approximated e-
j koR
by one. If ro lies on the z axis at Zo and p is a
radial coordinate on the disk, then the first integral is given by
1
2
1l" l
Q
d dcP
JP = 21r[Ja
2
+zfi -Izoll
o 0 p2 +z5
This function is continuous as the point zo passes through the surface and vanishes as a
approaches zero.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
137
In order to evaluate the second integral we will orient the x axis parallel to n X H == J
es
and first find the x component of the contribution to the field. This is given by (the integral is
evaluated first and then Zo can be set equal to zero)
jW/Lo 1
211'1a
a
2
1
- --2Jes -2 odo do
411"ko 0 0 ax VP2
where p2 == x
2
+y2. The integral can be expressed as
. 1 jW/Lo
- --2Jes4 -2 dxdy
411"kO 0 0 ax .JX
2
+y2 +
Ja
2
_ y 2
= r 1 dy
411"k
o
Jo ax .Jx
2
+y2 0
. 1
a
_
/ 2 2
- jW/LOJ 4 v a - y dy
- 411"
k5
es 0 (a
2
+Z5)3/2
== jW/LOJes [YVa2 _ y2 +a
2
sin-
1
la
211"k5(a
2
+Z5)3/2 a 0
2
_ jW/Lo J a
- 4k5 es(a2 +Z5)3/2
This contribution is also a continuous function of Zo and vanishes when a approaches zero
for all finite values of zo. For Zo == 0 the tangential electric field increases proportional to
a-I. This singular behavior is an artificial one due to the line charge Pi == TJ
es
/ .jt on the
boundary C on So when the current disk is isolated. The integral over S - So produces a
compensating singularity. For numerical evaluation the patch size would be kept finite. From
a theoretical point of view the integral can be evaluated by an integration by parts to show
explicitly the line charge contribution that produces the singular behavior, as we will show
later. If we excluded the line charge contribution from both the integral over So and that over
S - So both integrals would have much better convergence properties.
By means of a similar analysis, we find that the contribution to the tangential component of
the electric field that is perpendicular to Jes is zero.
The normal component of the electric field at the center of the disk cannot be found using
the assumption that the current J
es
on the disk is constant since this is equivalent to assuming
that the charge density given by jwps == - \7
s
J
es
is zero. In order to evaluate the normal
component we consider (the limit as So approaches zero is implied)
- ff (vvk) J
es
dS
So
= ff (Vovk) J
es
dS
So
jW/Lo ({ [ (Jes) 1 ]
= V
o
V If - R
V
J es
dS.
So
138
When So approaches zero we can replace V'-J
es
by - jwps outside the integral. Hence we
obtain, upon using the divergence theorem,
jWILof 1 Ps li 1
--2 T-Jeso(ro)-V'0R- .u- 4--
0
- V'0R- dS
411"k
o
1I" 0
c
where T is a unit outward normal to the boundary of So and lies on S.
We can choose ro to coincide with the center of So. On So we can expand Jes(r) in a
Taylor series about roo The dominant contribution to the contour integral comes from the
Jes(ro) term. For this term T-Jes(ro) == \Jes(ro) I cos cP where cP is the angle between T and the
constant vector Jes(ro). When ro lies on So we have o(ro)- V'o(I/R) == cos (} /R
2
where (} is
the angle between o(ro) and aR. On C the distance R is never zero and since R is a constant
along the contour C of the circular disk the contour integral is zero because the integral of
cos cP over the range 0 to 211" is zero. The second integral equals ps(ro)O/411" 0 which is the
expected value since for Zo == 0 this makes 0 - E == Ps/2 0 at the center of the disk. There is an
equal and opposite directed electric field normal to the disk on the interior side. The sources
on S - So produce a field that will cancel the interior field, which, as (198) shows, is zero.
In principle we can construct dyadic Green's functions that satisfy one of the following
boundary conditions on S:
nxG==O
oxV'xG==O
In this instance the solutions for E( ro) reduce to
on S
onS.
E(ro) = fJn X EV X GdS
s
and
E(ro) = -jWllofJn X HGdS.
s
(202a)
(202b)
These two solutions correspond to Schelkunoff's field equivalence principles.
The two Green's functions appearing in (202) are functions of rand ro but cannot be
continued as a function of ro into the region VI. When boundary conditions are imposed on
a Green's function its region of validity becomes restricted to the region for which it was
constructed. Nevertheless, the function of ro in (202a) will exhibit the same discontinuous
behavior in its tangential value in that as ro passes through the surface S the tangential value
given by 0 X E on the exterior side is reduced to zero on the interior side. This property stems
from the boundary condition 0 X G == 0 on S. The integral in (202b) has a discontinuous curl.
The discontinuous behavior exhibited by (202a) and (202b) is consistent with the interpretation
of - 0 X E in (202a) being an equivalent magnetic surface current on a perfect electric
conducting surface and that of 0 X H in (202b) being an equivalent electric current on a
perfect magnetic conducting surface.
In practice there are relatively few problems for which dyadic Green's functions satisfying
either of the two above boundary conditions can be constructed. For those problems for which
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
139
the Green's functions can be constructed the discontinuous behavior described above can be
readily verified.
2.19. INTEGRAL EQUATIONS FOR SCATTERING
The scattering of an incident electromagnetic field by an obstacle may be formulated as an
integral equation to be solved numerically rather than by solving the partial differential equation
with boundary conditions. In order to formulate the basic integral equations for scattering,
consider a current source J
a
outside a perfectly conducting surface S (see Fig. 2.21). In place
of (199) one readily finds that the total electric field is given by
E(ro) =fin X EV7 x CdS -jw/Lofln X HGdS -jW/Lo!!!Jo.GdS.
s s v
The last integral gives the incident electric field E; in the absence of the obstacle when G is
the free-space dyadic Green's function. The induced current J
es
on S is given by n X H. The
integral equation for the unknown current J
es
is obtained by setting the tangential component
of the total electric field equal to zero on the perfectly conducting surface S; thus
n X E(ro) = jW/Lo fI n X H.C X n(ro)dS +n X E
j
=0
s
or equivalently
jW/LO fI Jes(r).C(r, ro) X n(ro)dS = -n(ro) X Ej(ro),
s
ro on S (203)
which is the electric field integral equation (EFIE).
4
This integral equation has a unique solution
provided there are no current distributions on S for which the integral on the left gives a value
of zero. In order that a solution exists the source function - n X E; must be orthogonal
to the null space of the integral operator; Le., it must lie completely in the range space of
the operator. Unfortunately, at discrete values of k
o
corresponding to the internal resonant
frequencies of the cavity formed by S the currents J
es
that correspond to those associated with
the cavity resonant modes are in the null space of the integral operator. When the scattering
object is large in terms of wavelength the resonant frequencies are closely spaced so the
numerical solution of (203) is not feasible without some modification of the integral equation.
A suitable augmentation will be described later.
The proof that the current on S that corresponds to a resonant cavity mode is in the null
space of the operator is straightforward. The application of Green's theorem in the region VI
shows that
E(ro) =jW/LoflJes.GdS - fin X EV7 X CdS,
s s
where n is still directed out from VI .
The eigenvalue equation for J
es
for a resonant mode is obtained by equating n X E to zero
4The integral must be evaluated using an appropriate limiting procedure as described in the previous section.
140
on S. This gives
jWlLoIfJes(r).G(r, ro) X n(ro)dS = 0,
s
ro on S.
But this equation is the same as the homogeneous equation obtained from (203) when n X E,
is set equal to zero. Hence, resonant mode surface currents are in the null space of the integral
operator. The eigenvalue equation has solutions at the resonant wavenumbers for the cavity.
An eigenmode current J
es
does not produce a radiated field outside S since it gives n X E ==
oon S. We can show that this current is orthogonal to the incident field E
j
For this purpose
we need to choose an appropriate scalar product. We will choose as the scalar product the
integral of E, -J
es
over the surface S for the simple reason that the results we wish to establish
later can then be obtained without introducing an adjoint integral operator. The same results
can be obtained by using Ej-J;s in the integral over S.
From a physical point of view, the resonant cavity mode current distribution on S supports
the nonzero interior cavity resonant mode field. This field has a zero tangential electric field
on the closed surface S, a finite tangential magnetic field on the interior side of S, and a zero
field on the exterior side of S.
When J
a
is the source for the incident field outside S the reciprocity theorem gives
JJJE; J
es
dV = JJJEJ
a
dV =0
v v
where E, the field radiated by J
es
, is zero outside S. The volume integral on the left reduces
to the surface integral
and involves only the tangential part of Ej. Since the integral is zero we conclude that Ej,tan is
orthogonal to the eigenmode current. For this reason a solution to the integral equation exists.
In principle, the solution can be made unique by removing the eigenmode currents from any
current distribution J
es
on S. In practice, it is not easy to accomplish this goal since neither
the eigenfrequencies nor the eigenmode currents are known.
An approximation numerical solution of the EFIE (203) can be achieved using the method
of moments [2.26]. The current J
es
may be expanded in terms of a set of vector basis functions
defined on S, i.e.,
N
Jes(r) == LInJn(r)
n=l
where the In are unknown amplitudes and the In(r) are basis functions in the domain of the
operator. These should be part of a complete set of functions on S. When this expansion is
used in (203) and the integration over r is carried out we obtain
N
jwp,oLInGn(ro) - o(ro) X Ej(ro)
n=l
(204)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
where
Gn(ro) =ifIn(r) G(r, ro) X n(ro) as.
s
141
In evaluating the Gn{ro) an appropriate limiting procedure must be used when the two points
rand ro can coincide. For example, a small circular disk area can be isolated in the manner
described earlier so that the integral is split into an integral over So and one over S - So.
When only a finite number of basis functions are used the integral equation can hold in an
approximate sense only; this is reflected in (204).
A system of N algebraic equations for determining the I n can be obtained by introducing N
weighting functions Wm{ro) that are part ofa complete set in the range space of the operator,
and equating the N integrated weights of the two sides of (204) to each other. Thus
where
N
jWJ1.oLlnGnm ==,Sm,
n=l
M==1,2, ... ,N (205)
G
nm
= ifGn(ro)Wm(ro) dSo
s
s; = -ifn(ro) X Ej(ro) Wm(ro) as
s
The reciprocity theorem shows that In(r).G(r, ro)Jm(ro) == Jm(ro)G(ro, r)Jn(r) and since
the free-space dyadic Green's function is symmetrical in r, ro, i.e., G(r, ro) == G(ro, r),
we see that if we choose Wm == J m the matrix with elements Gnm will be symmetrical.
The above system of equations can be solved provided the matrix with elements G
nm
is not
singular. However, when k
o
is equal to an interior cavity resonant wavenumber the matrix
has a zero (or near zero, for finite N) determinant because an eigenvector exists at each
resonant frequency and the eigenvalue of the operator is zero. Even if k
o
is only close to a
resonant wavenumber the inversion of (205) is numerically difficult because the matrix is ill
conditioned, i.e., almost singular. A solution can be obtained using generalized eigenvectors
[2.9] but it is preferable to find some way to avoid a singular matrix altogether.
An integral equation involving the magnetic field can also be formulated. For a source
current J
a
(r) the magnetic field is a solution of
This equation can be solved using the same free-space dyadic Green's function. The solution
is given by
H(ro) =ifn X H V' X GdS +jWEoifn X EGdS +IIIV' X JoGdS.
s s v
On the surface S we have n x E == 0, n X H == J
es
, so upon replacing the last integral by the
142
incident magnetic field Hi we obtain
H(ro) = If J
es
'V' X GdS + Hj.
S
(206)
The surface integral gives the scattered magnetic field H,;
In the formulation of the electric field integral equation (203) the observation point ro
could be placed on the surface S since the tangential component of the integral on the left
is continuous across S. In (206) the tangential component of the integral is a discontinuous
function of ro and changes discontinuously as ro crosses the surface S [see (201) for a similar
case]. For the magnetic field we have
(207)
where S+ denotes the exterior side of S.
If the integral in (206) is split into an integral over S - So and an integral over So where
So is a small circular disk, then
-oxH(ro)== lim [fr{Jes.V' X aas 0] + lim {{JesV'xGdSxo-oxHj.
} }}
S-so fO So
The first integral is called the principal-value integral even though the term principal value as
used here is not the same as the Cauchy principal value of an integral of a complex function.
5
The second integral has the value (H X 0)/2 == -J
es
/2as may be deduced from (201) which
was obtained for a similar integral. Since 0 X H(ro) == J
es
we finally obtain
Jes(ro) + lim [jrf Jes(r). \7 X G(r, ro) dS X o(r
o)]
= o(ro) X ";(ro),
2 J
S-So
which is Maue's magnetic field integral equation (MFIE).
If the derivation of (201) is examined it can be seen that
lim 0 {{ () dS = lim 0 {{ dO =211"0
R }}
So So
ro on S
(208a)
is independent of the shape of So. Thus the factor of multiplying Jes(ro) in (208a), which
stems from this integral, is independent of the shape of So.
If the unit normal o(ro) is brought inside the integral then the integrand behaves like (Ir -
ro)I-
1
as ro approaches r and it is not necessary to introduce a limiting procedure. A common
5Sancer has pointed out that the use of the phrase "principal value" implies that the integral converges only if So
is a symmetric area centered on the point fo such that in the integration negative and positive diverging contributions
cancel. In the MFIE canceling contributions are not required to obtain a converging improper integral [2.2]. The
integral, without the limiting designation, is often written If as a shorthand notation to mean that it is evaluated in
a "principal-value sense."
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
143
s
Fig. 2.23. Illustration for the magnetic field integral equation.
form of the MFIE often quoted in the literature is
Jes(ro) If
-2- +. [Jes(r) X \7g(r, ro)] X o(ro)dS == o(ro) X ";(ro)
s
(208b)
where g is the free-space scalar Green's function. The validity of (208b) is readily established.
We will not give a detailed proof but will show in a geometrical way how the proof can be
constructed.
With reference to Fig. 2.23 we note that \7g is a vector along the line joining the two points
rand ro, which lie on the surface S. We now pass a plane through the surface S which cuts
the surface along the curve joining the points r and rOe The current J
es
may be expressed as
a component Jp along the curve and a component Jt perpendicular to Ja- As the point ro
approaches r the angle cP approaches 0 and the cross product Jp X \7g has a magnitude that
approaches
. 1 [r - rol
lV'glJ
p
SID () = I 12J p-
2
-
411'" r - ro p
where p is the radius of curvature of the surface, in the chosen plane, at the point r. The
other vector component J
t
X \7g approaches o(r) in direction as ro approaches r such that
I(J
t
X \7g) X o(ro) 1is also proportional to sin O. Thus the integrand in (208b) has only the
integrable singularity Ir - ro1-1 as ro approaches r and a limiting formulation is not needed
when o(ro) is brought under the integral sign." If the cross product with o(ro) is not taken
first, then J
t
X \7g will have a Ir - ro1-
2
singularity.
The magnetic field integral equation is a statement of a necessary boundary condition. In
general, it is not a sufficient condition that will guarantee a unique solution for the scattered
magnetic field. At those frequencies corresponding to the resonant frequencies of the internal
cavity modes, the solution is not unique. An example of the failure of the MFIE to provide
a unique solution at a resonant frequency will be given later for the case of scattering by a
perfectly conducting sphere.
6For this reason the integral operator in (208b) is a compact operator (see [2.3]).
The introduction of a limiting procedure in (208a) is only for the purpose of providing
a method of evaluating the surface integral. An equivalent expression for the magnetic field
integral equation that comes directly from (207) is
Jes + lim IfJ
es
- \7 X GdS X 0 == 0 X Hi.
ro----'S+
S
If the homogeneous equation, obtained by setting Hi == 0, has a nonzero solution it follows
that the integral equation does not have a unique solution.
Equation (208), which is a Fredholm integral equation of the second kind since J
es
also
occurs outside the integral, has solutions that make the left-hand side vanish when k
o
is equal
to anyone of the resonant wavenumbers for the internal cavity bounded by S. A proof for this
is developed below.
For the interior problem Green's theorem gives
H(ro) = -Ifn x H \7 x CdS - jWfoIf n x E.CdS, ro E VI
S S
For a cavity with a perfectly conducting surface 0 X E == 0 on S. We again introduce a limiting
procedure and let ro approach S-, Le., S from the interior side. If we then use the result in
(201) and the fact that now 0 X H == -J
es
, since 0 is still directed out of VI, we obtain
(209)
for the interior eigenvalue problem. The eigenmode current that satisfies this equation is not the
solution of the homogeneous equation obtained from (208a) even though the integral operators
in the two equations are the same. However, as we will show, the two solutions are closely
related.
In order to conveniently relate the two solutions we will recast the interior and exterior
eigenvalue problems in a different but equivalent form. In place of J
es
in (209) write - 0 X H
and bring o(ro) inside the integral; thus
If H [n(r) x \7 x C(r, ro) X n(ro)] dS - H(ro) [n(ro) X I] =0
S
(210a)
where we have used 0 X H == -H X 0 == -H-I X 0 == -H-(o X I). The homogeneous
equation for the exterior problem can be written in a similar form, namely,
If H [n(r) X \7 X C X n(ro)] dS + H(ro) [n(ro) X I] = o.
S
(210b)
We can show that the scalar product H
1(r)-[0(r)
X \7 X G(r, ro) X 0(ro)]-H
2(ro)
is sym-
metric for any two vectors HI and H
2
that are tangential to S. Let J
I
(r) == o(r) X HI (r)
and J2(rO) == o(ro) X H
2(ro).
The scalar product becomes - JI(r)- \7 X G-J2(rO) ==
-J
I(r)-(\7g
X 1)-J
2(ro)
== -JI(r)- v X J2(rO) == J
2(ro)-
\7g X JI(r) where we have used
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
v X G == V X Ig == V'g X I and g is the scalar Green's function
e- jko Ir-roI
g(r, ro) == 4 I I-
1r r - ro
If we interchange the labels on rand ro and note that V'g == - Vog, then we obtain
J2(r)- V'og X J
t
(ro) == -J2(r)- Vg X J
1
(ro)
== -J2(r)- V' X G-Jt(ro)
== H
2(r)-[0(r)
X V X G X o(ro)]-HI(ro)
145
which proves that the scalar product is symmetric.
The other scalar product HI-(o X I)-H
2
is antisymmetric since H
1-(0
X 1)-H
2
HI-o X H
2
== H
2-H1
X 0 == -H
2-0
X HI == -H
2-(0
X I)-HI. Note that 0 X I is a rota-
tion operator. It rotates a vector by 90.
Let the solution for H in (210a) be expanded in terms of a complete set of vector basis
functions In(r) defined on S; thus
H(r) ==
n
We use this expansion in (210a), integrate over r, then scalar multiply by Jm(ro) and integrate
over ro. This leads to the following system of equations:
where
m==I,2, ... (211a)
G
nm
=fj fj In(r) [n(r) X V' X G X n(ro)]Jm(ro) dS as;
s s
T
nm
= fjJn(roHn(r
o)
X I]Jm(ro)dSo.
s
Note that G
nm
== G
mn
, Tmn == -Tnm and Tnn == 0 because of the symmetrical and antisym-
metrical properties of the scalar products. In (21Ia) the are the unknown amplitudes.
For the solution to (210b) we assume an expansion of the form
H(r) ==
n
By a similar procedure we obtain the system of equations
m == 1, 2, ... _ (211b)
For a numerical solution only a finite number of basis functions can be used.
Solutions for and exist only if the determinant of the system of equations vanishes.
146
The transpose of the matrixin (211b) has elements
which are the elements of the matrix in (211a). Both systems have the same determinant.
Hence, if there is an eigenvector for the interior problem there will also be an eigenvector for
the exterior problem. We can express (211a) and (211b) in matrix form as
[0 - [il =0
[0 + Wl =0 =Wlt [0 - .
By subtracting the two equations we get
(212a)
(212b)
If we assume that [Ii] == [Ie], then since [1] is a nonzero matrix we would get [Ii] == [Ie] == o.
Hence we conclude that [Ii] =I [Ie]. We see that if [Ii] is a right eigenvector of [0 - !T] then
[Ie] is a left eigenvector. Thus the interior and exterior eigenvalue problems have solutions at
the resonant wavenumbers for the internal cavity but the two current distributions on S are not
the same. This result is a very important one since it allows us to combine the electric field
and magnetic field integral equations into a combined field integral equation that does not have
any nonzero solutions in the null space.
Yaghjian has given a physical description of the current which is a solution of the homo-
geneous MFIE [2.29]. We will present the same results from a somewhat different approach.
Let Fn(r) be a solution inside S of \7 X \7 X Fn - k5Fn == 0 with the boundary condition
n X Fn == 0 on S. Thus Fn corresponds to the electric field of an interior cavity resonant
mode. The corresponding magnetic field and current on S are
j
H= koZ
o
v x r,
j
Jes = Jen = -0 X H = - koZ
o
0 X V' X F,
where the unit normal n is directed outward from S. By duality, a solution of Maxwell's
equations with H == Fn also exists and represents the resonant mode in a cavity with perfectly
conducting magnetic walls. The electric field of this mode has a tangential value on S given
by
j j
n X E == -k y n X \7 X H == -k y n X \7 X r, == -Jen
o 0 0 0 EO
The tangential component of H is zero on S. We can construct a unique solution for the
electric field outside S such that this electric field has tangential components that match those
of the interior electric field on S. From this electric field we can find the magnetic field using
Maxwell's equations. We will call the external field E
s,
Us. In order to support the external
magnetic field a current 0 X Us must be placed on S. This current is also given by
j
Jes = 0 X H, = koZ
o
0 X V X E,
and is different from J
en
. We will now show that the current J
es
as specified is a solution of
the homogeneous MFIE.
By means of an application of Green's theorem, the magnetic field exterior to S is given in
terms of boundary values on S by (200) and is
n, =fjOX Hs'Vx GdS +jkoYofjO x EsGdS.
s s
On the surface S we have
n X Us + lim fjo X Us \7 X GdS X o(ro) == -jkoYofjO X EsGdS X o(ro).

S S
The integral on the right side of this equation equals zero because on S we have n X E, ==
(JJ.o / fO)J
en
so the integral gives the tangential value of the electric field radiated by the resonant
cavity mode current J
en
and the latter is zero. If we now replace 0 X Us by J
es
we obtain the
homogeneous MFIE.
In order to be a valid solution of Maxwell's equations, the solution of the homogeneous
MFIE would require that an actual physical current J
es
be placed on S. In a scattering problem
such a current distribution does not exist on S. Hence the solution for the homogeneous MFIE
is spurious. It corresponds to an undamped external oscillation; such undamped oscillations
can only be maintained by an impressed source since energy is lost by radiation. In addition,
this homogeneous solution has an internal cavity electromagnetic field associated with it.
As we have noted, the solutions to the homogeneous EFIE and MFIE represent different
current distributions on the surface of the scatterer, but at the same frequency. Neither current
distribution can satisfy the homogeneous equation that results from the combination of the two
field integral equations.
The combined field integral equation is, upon combining (203) and (208) [2.27]:
. fj - 1'J
es
(ro) # G- dS
-]koZ
o
JesGxn(ro)dS+ 2 +1' Jes\7x xo(ro)
S S
(213)
where l' is an arbitrary constant. Since IZoD; I is equal to lEd for an incident plane wave, l'
is commonly chosen equal to Zoo
Another procedure that can be used to obtain an integral equation that does not have a
resonant mode solution gives the combined source integral equation [2.28]. In this formulation
the scattered electric field is expressed as a field produced by a system of electric and magnetic
currents on S. This integral equation is obtained from Love's field equivalence theorem as
stated by (199). The combined source integral equation is
n X E, == -0 X E
i
== lim 0 X fjJmse \7 X GdS - jkoZoo X fjJeseGdS

S 8
or
J;s + X 11Jms \7 X GdS - jkoZon X fj JesGdS = -n X E; on S.
8-80 8
(214)
In obtaining (214) we replaced 0 X E by - J
ms
and 0 X H by J
es
in (199). Mautz and
Harrington chose J
ms
== Zoo X J
es
and then showed that the homogeneous equation obtained
from (214) does not have a solution [2.27]. The two sources in (214) are equivalent sources
only. The actual current induced on S has to be determined by finding the total tangential
magnetic field at the surface S.
Yaghjian has reviewed the various integral equation formulations and the reader is referred
to [2.29] for more details on methods that can be used to circumvent the problem associated
with the cavity resonances. Yaghjian has also shown that the electric field and magnetic field
integral equations can be made unique by imposing a condition on the normal components of
the field at the surface S [2.29]. This latter method has the advantage of keeping the resultant
integral equations relatively simple, whereas the combined field and combined source equations
are quite complex. The resonant mode currents can also be eliminated by requiring that the
total field inside S vanish at a number of selected points. A review of the literature using this
approach has also been given by Yaghjian [2.29].
The solution of the integral equations can be developed in terms of the eigenvectors of the
matrix operators shown in (205) and (211b). These eigenvectors are called the characteristic
modes and can be used as a basis to expand the current or tangential magnetic field respectively
on the surface S. A treatment of the characteristic modes associated with scattering can be
found in [2.30].
The magnetic field integral equation cannot be used to solve the scattering problem involving
an open surface where the surface consists of an infinitely thin perfectly conducting metal
surface. The reason is that the incident magnetic field has a tangential component with equal
values on the two sides of the surface and hence the boundary condition 0 X H;- - 0 X H; ==
J
es
does not involve Hi.
In recent years a large amount of work has been done on transient or pulsed electromagnetic
field scattering from perfectly conducting obstacles using Baum's singularity expansion method
(SEM). An extensive bibliography of the relevant literature is given in a recent volume of the
Electromagnetics Journal [2.4]. A conducting body supports an infinite number of external
natural damped oscillations corresponding to complex resonant frequencies. The scattered
field may be described in terms of these natural modes [2.31]. The spurious solution that is
obtained for the homogeneous MFIE with steady-state sinusoidal excitation is not part of the
spectrum of natural modes because it is an undamped solution. Undamped natural oscillations
exterior to a scattering body do not exist because the oscillating modes must lose energy by
radiation. In the exterior transient problem the pure imaginary js axis poles do not contribute
when the Laplace transform solution is inverted so the spurious modes are eliminated." Sancer
7In actuality the j w axis poles in the eigenfunction expansion are canceled by numerator mode coupling coefficients
that vanish at the same frequencies.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
149
et ale have shown that current distributions on the scatterer that arise at the interior cavity
resonant frequencies are not excited [2.32]. Thus the transient scattering problem is a better
posed problem than that of scattering by a time harmonic incident field.
Example: Scattering from a Perfectly Conducting Sphere
The problem of scattering of an incident field by a perfectly conducting sphere of radius a
can be solved exactly. Thus this problem provides an instructive example of the application of
the EFIE and MFIE and insight into the effects of the homogeneous integral equation solutions
on the determination of unique solutions for the scattered fields.
We will assume that the source for the incident field is located at a distance r > R > a away
from the sphere. In the region r :S R the incident field can then be expanded in terms of the
M
nm
and N
nm
functions given by (135) with k == k. We will assume that the incident field
can be represented by a finite number of modes; thus"
N M
E; == L L +
n=l m=O
N N
H; ==
n=l m=O
(215a)
(215b)
The magnetic field is obtained by using V X E == -jwp,oH, V X M
nm
koN
nm,
and
V' X N
nm
== koM
nm.
For simplicity we choose the cos mcP and sin mcP functions in the
expressions for M
nm
and N
nm
given by (135) so that E;8 is an even function about cP == O. For
the scattering problem we also need the outward-propagating modes and These
mode functions are also given by (135) with k == k
o
and jn(kor) replaced by
The classical method to solve the scattering problem is to let the scattered field be described
in terms of a series of outward-propagating modes in the form
N M
Es == L L
n=l m=O
(216)
The coefficients Cnm Dnm are found by requiring that a
r
X E
s
== -a
r
X E; at r == a. This
gives, in view of the orthogonal property of the modes,
x ar == x a,
at r == a
at r == a. (217)
We will now assume that j 1(koa) == 0 so that l' and Mf1 represent degenerate
resonant modes inside the sphere. Thus, part of the incident field will have an electric field
with a zero tangential component on the surface of the sphere. The sphere will not scatter the
+ mode as is quite clear from the solutions for Cnm and D
nm;
i.e., C11 == 0 because the
functions have a jn(kor) radial dependence and jl(k
o
a) == O.
In order to implement the EFIE we use the dyadic Green's function given by (166) and note
8For an incident plane wave an infinite number of terms is needed in the expansion.
(218)
that the field point ro approaches the spherical surface from the exterior. Thus the EFIE is
cx:>nfj { Z
E
j
X a
ro
= s Jes(r). 2n(n: +
+ + X a
ro
dS
where , = '0 = a.
At this point we will introduce the following surface vector functions:
mpm sin dpm cos
Se, 0 _ n A. n A.
nm - =f-'-(J mo/ao - -d(J mo/a(j>
SIn cos sin
dpm cos mpm sin
= d(Jn mcPa(j>.
sin SIn cos
(219a)
(219b)
Note that = X a, and = X a,. These vector functions are all mutually
orthogonal with respect to integration over the surface of a sphere. They have the same
normalization values which can be found using (136b); thus
1
21(" 1 1(" Te, o. T
e,
0 sin (J d(J dA. = 1
21("11("
se, . se, 0 sin (J d(J dA.
nm nm 0/ nm nm 0/
o 0 0 0
= 2n(n + l)(n +m)! 21r = 2n(n +1) Qnm
(2n +1)(n - m)! om 1r
(219c)
where Qnm is given by (139). These vector functions may be used as a basis set to expand the
current on the sphere. Note that the M
nm
functions are equal to Snm multiplied by a function
of r and that the () and cP components of N
nm
are given by T
nm
multiplied by a radial function.
The vector functions given by (219) are the characteristic modes for a sphere. Note that the
Slo and T
lo
modes do not exist.
The current on the sphere can be expanded in the form
Jes =
n. m
(220)
The and are unknown amplitude constants. When we use this expansion in (218) and
then scalar multiply (218) by the basis functions used to expand J
es
it is clear that the matrix
multiplying the I nm and J nm will be diagonal and the matrix elements corresponding to the
Ill' and terms will be zero. Thus the determinant of the matrix is zero. However,
the term E; X a,o when scalar multiplied by S11 and integrated over S is also zero.
When the expansion (220) is used in the EFIE (218) the following system of equations is
obtained:
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
151
m=0,1,2,,n;
n = 1, 2, ... , 00.
From these equations we readily see that and are unspecified when i, (koa) = O. Thus
the currents and 1 1 are solutions of the homogeneous EFIE.
9
All the other
and coefficients are zero (except at the resonant frequencies where jn(koa) or [koajnl'
vanish). The solutions for and for n = 1, ... ,N, m = 1, ... ,M, are
provided we cancel the common factors on both sides of the equations for and
All of the other and are zero. If we do not cancel the common factor jl(koa)
then the equation for IYl is indeterminant. Consequently, we do not obtain a unique so-
lution for IYl; this is consistent with the fact that Sfl is also a solution of the homo-
geneous EFIE. Apart from the lack of uniqueness for the solutions for IYl' and the
results agree with those obtained by the classical method. The current modes Sfl' and
1 do not radiate because they do not couple to the mode spectrum outside the sphere since
the l' and 1 factors in the Green's function are zero at r = a.
If the surface integrals were evaluated on a computer, then because of the finite precision
of the computer the matrix element and the coupling of the incident field to the 1 current
mode would be small but not zero. As a consequence, the Mfi + mode would appear as part
of the scattered field. If the current were expanded in terms of a set of basis functions that do
not lead to a diagonal matrix we would have an ill-conditioned (almost singular) matrix and
would not be able to easily identify the current that is a solution of the homogeneous integral
equation. The same difficulties would occur if j 1(koa) were very small but not equal to zero.
From an analytical point of view the EFIE gives the correct solution for the sphere problem,
but the solution is not unique because the homogeneous integral equation has a nontrivial
solution.
If we examine the expression for the incident magnetic field as given by (215) we find that
the modes jY and equal zero at r = a because i, (koa) = O. From the
classical solution to the scattering problem as given by (217) we see that the scattered magnetic
field modes and + do not have zero amplitudes. Consequently, we
can anticipate that it might be difficult to determine the scattered magnetic field modes from
the MFIE.
The MFIE based on (207) can be expressed in the form
a., X Hi =Jes + f t fjJese [2 ( - ] +
n=l m=O S n n + nm
+ + dS X 8
ro
(221)
A complete expansion for the current is given by (220). We can simplify (221) by introducing
9The origin for 4> can always be chosen so that the incident field does not have the 1 mode (Problem 2.33).
152
the surface vector functions and using (219). Thus we find that (221) can be expressed as
N M
L L [- +jYo(koajn)B
nm

n=1 m=O
00 n
== s; - jaL L [(koaj +
n=1 m=O
where the prime denotes a derivative with respect to koa. We now scalar multiply these
equations by the various basis functions and integrate over () and cP. This procedure yields the
equations
m ==0,1,2, ,n; n == 1, 2, ... , 00.
We make note of the following Wronskian relationship:
d[a
j t(k
oa)]h
2(k ) _ [dahf(koa)] . (k ) == d[a
j 1(k
oa)]h
2(k ) == L
d
1 oa d J 1 oa d 1 oa ksa'
a a a oa
The formal solutions for and are
10 == - jYoAnm(koajn)' A nm
nm a[1 - -
e jYoBnm(koajn) Bnm
J
nm
= a[1 + -
(222)
upon using (222). These solutions are the same as those obtained using the EFIE. The solutions
remain finite even at the resonant frequencies. However, if we had not used the Wronskian
relation (222) the solutions for would have taken the indeterminate form of zero divided
by zero and would have required a limiting procedure for evaluation. From a numerical point
of view indeterminant forms cannot be easily evaluated on a computer.
The solutions to the homogeneous MFIE are the current modes JY1 l' J10 and J11 1
at the frequency where jl(k
oa)
== O. These solutions are different from those for the homo-
geneous EFIE at the same resonant frequency. The coefficient al'[, == -jY
O(koajl)'All
and
the current IY1SYl supports the incident jY
OA llNYl
== jYoAll(koajl)'a-1TYl mode. All of
the coefficients for n up to Nand m up to M can be solved for, but the solutions for
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
153
and are not unique because the equations for them have a zero factor on both sides.
It is seen that the MFIE also gives a correct solution for the sphere problem but the solution
is not unique at the resonant frequencies. Furthermore, the solutions to the homogeneous
MFIE give rise to spurious radiated modes since the and mode functions are
not zero at j 1(koa) == O.
As a final comment we point out that if the scattered magnetic field inside the sphere
is desired then in the Green's dyadic function the modal functions representing outward-
propagating waves will appear on the left. By using the Wronskian determinant one can then
readily show that
fj sJes V' X CdS X a,
has the correct discontinuous behavior as the observation point fO passes through S from
the exterior side to the interior side. Of course, this is not a surprising outcome since the
correct discontinuous behavior is a built-in feature of the eigenfunction expansion of the
dyadic Green's function. One also readily finds that for the interior homogeneous MFIE the
solution is 1 1 +IY1 1 + which is the current associated with the l' and
electric field modes.
2.20. NON-SELF-ADJOINT SYSTEMS
Let cC denote a differential operator and consider the equation
cCt/! +At/! == f(x). (223)
The variable is x where 0 :S x :S a. The domain of the operator cC is the domain of functions
t/! that satisfy certain continuity conditions and specified boundary conditions. We can define
a scalar product in more than one way- for example,
or
or
(cP, 1/;) = 1
a
cP(x)1/;(x)dx
(cP, 1/;) =1
a
cP(x)1/;(x)u(x) dx
(cP, 1/;) = 1
a
cP(x)1/;*(x)dx
(224a)
(224b)
(224c)
etc. The definition (224c) is used in quantum mechanics (Hilbert space), while (224b) is used
if (223) has the function a as a factor with A.
Once the scalar product has been defined the adjoint operator cC
o
is defined to be that
operator which satisfies
(225)
If cC == cCo and the domain of cC
o
coincides with the domain of cC, then cC is called
a self-adjoint operator. Sometimes and 5)0 differ even though cC == cC
o
and in this case cC
is only formally self-adjoint. In practice cC
o
is determined by integration by parts to transfer
differentiations on t/; to differentiations on c/>.
Example
x==O,a.
t/; may be expressed in terms of the eigenfunctions of d
2t/;
/ dx? +Xt/; == O. It is easily verified
that t/;n == sin (n-xxfa) - j(n1r fa) cos (nsxfa). If we choose (224a) for the scalar product
then
n =1= m.
The domain of cC is the domain of functions that satisfy t/; +j(dt/;/dx) == 0 at x == 0, a.
With (224a) as the scalar product we have
The integrated terms vanish if c/> +j (dc/> / dx) == 0 at x == 0, a. Hence cC
o
== cC; since 5) == 5)0
also, the operator is self-adjoint.
However, if we choose (224c) as the scalar product then
The boundary terms which can be written as
[(
cJ> _ j dcJ dt/;* _ (l/;*_jdl/;*) dcPJl
o
dx dx dx dx 0
vanish if c/> - j(dc/>/dx) == 0 at x == 0, a. In this case cC
o
== cC but 5)0 =1= so the operator is
not self-adjoint. Note that the adjointness properties of an operator are dependent on the choice
of scalar product. When an operator is not self-adjoint the eigenfunctions are not orthogonal
with respect to the scalar product used.
With the scalar product (224a) cC is self-adjoint and J; t/;nt/;m dx == 0, n =1= m. With the
scalar product (224c) cC is not self-adjoint and this implies J; t/;n t/;;" dx =1= 0 for n =1= m. In a
non-self-adjoint system the appropriate orthogonality principle is instead
n =1= m. (226)
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
155
We may show this as follows: Let cPn, J.tn be the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of 0; then
ocPn + J.tncPn == O. Since 1/;m +'A
m1/;m
== 0 also, we have (cPn, 1/;m) == -'A;"(cPn, 1/;m) ==
(ocPn, 1/;m) == -J.tn (cPn, 1/;m) if (224c) is used for the scalar product [if (224a) is used, replace
'A;" by 'Am]. If 'A;" i= J.tn, then (cPn, 1/;m) == o.
The eigenvalues of the adjoint operator are related to those of the original operator. We
have (0 + J.tn)cPn, 1/;) == 0 for all 1/; in But this also equals (ocPn, 1/;) + J.tn (cPn, 1/;) ==
(cPn, 1/;) + (cPn, == (cPn, ( + == O. Since cPn is not zero ( + == 0 so is
an eigenvalue of when (224c) is used for the scalar product. When (224a) is used J.tn is an
eigenvalue of both 0 and . With proper indexing J.tn == (or J.tn == 'An).
In our example if we use (224c) for the scalar product then cPn == 1/;; and the orthogonality
relation is (1/;n, cPm) == 0, n i= m. But this equals J; 1/;ncP;" dx == J; 1/;n1/;m dx == 0 in agreement
with the results obtained if (224a) is used for the scalar product.
For the Sturm-Liouville equation we choose == (l/a)(d/dx)p(d/dx) + q/a so the
equation becomes 1/; +'A1/; == f [o . We now use (224b) for the scalar product. For (cP, cC1/;)
we get
t' ucP [!!!..-Pdy; + dx == [PcP dy; _py; d
cP]
1 + t"uy; [!!!..-PdcP + dx
io a dx dx a dx dx 0 io a dx dx a
upon integrating by parts twice. If K I1/; +K 2 d1/;/ dx == 0 on the boundary then the integrated
terms vanish if K1cP +K2dcP/dx == 0 on the boundary. Hence == 0 and f) == f)o so the
Sturm-Liouville equation is self-adjoint.
Many people, outside the field of quantum mechanics, use (224a) for the scalar product.
We can use this for the Sturm-Liouville equation also if we choose (d jdx)p(djdx) +q as
the operator cC. The orthogonality condition is then expressed as (cPn, acPm) == 0, n i= m. In
the next section on Green's function we will follow this convention.
Green's Function
Consider the Green's function for a self-adjoint system with
G(x, x') +'AG == -o(x - x'),
We then have
(227)
(G(x, G(x, - (G(x, cCG(x,
+'A (G(x , G(x, - 'A (G(x , G(x,
== -(G(x, o(x + (G(x, o(x
But (G(x, G(x, == (cCG(x, G(x, for a self-adjoint system so the left-
hand side vanishes. Thus (G(x, o(x == (G(x, o(x or
==
i.e., the Green's function is symmetrical in
For a non-self-adjoint system we consider (227) along with
cCoGo(x, x') +'AGo == -o(x -x').
(228)
(229)
156
We can now write
(G(x, oGo(x, +A(G, Go) - (Go(x, G(x, - A(G
o,
G)
== -(G(x, o(x + (Go(x, o(x == 0
since (G, oG
o)
== (G, Go) == (Go, G). Hence
For a non-self-adjoint system the Green's function is not symmetric.
Consider now a linear system
l/; +Al/; ==1
(230)
(231)
If we solve (227) and make G satisfy the same boundary conditions as l/; does, then by
superposition the solution for l/; is
!/;(x) = -LaG(x, x')f(x') dx' (232)
since G(x, x') is the field at x due to a unit source at x'. From (230) we see that this solution
can also be written as
!/;(x) = -LaGa(x', x)f(x')dx'. (233)
If l/;n, An are the eigenfunctions and eigenvalues of , and cPn, An, those of 0' then
and
G(
') == _ l/;n (x)cPn (x')
x,x c: A-A
n n
G (
') == _ l/;n(x')cPn(x)
a x,x L-t A-A
n n
(234a)
(234b)
For the purpose of obtaining eigenfunction expansions and expressions for Green's functions
the choice of scalar (inner) product to use is often dictated by what is most convenient for
the problem at hand. For many problems in electromagnetic theory the use of (224a) as the
scalar product makes it unnecessary to introduce an adjoint operator. The standard reciprocity
theorems are based on (224a) as the scalar product, e.g.,
On the other hand, if we wish to investigate convergence properties of series expansions
that involve complex functions the scalar product shown in (224c) is used. In a linear vector
space of complex functions the concept of length or norm of a function is a positive quantity.
Thus if l/;n(x) is a complex eigenfunction and we want its length to be unity we normalize this
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
function by dividing it by the scalar quantity
157
(235)
A complete linear vector space of complex functions with the metric (measure of distance)
defined by (224c) as the scalar product is called a Hilbert space. In this space the distance
between two functions 1/; and tP is given by
[
f a ] 1/2
(111P - <1>11>1/2 = (1P - <1>, 1P - <1 1/2 = io (1P - <1(1P - <1* dx
when the functions are defined on the interval 0 x a. If 1/; is a sequence of functions 1/;N,
which might be generated by a Fourier series,
N
1/;N == LCntPn
n=1
then we say that 1/;N converges to tP as N tends to infinity if the distance between 1/;N and tP
vanishes as N tends to infinity.
The use of the scalar product (224c) is important if we want to make use of the well-
developed mathematical theory of linear operators in a Hilbert space [2.9], [2.11].
The condition for a system such as (231) to have a solution is that the source function be
in the range of the operator. For a unique solution the equation should not have any solutions
for the homogeneous equation obtained by setting! equal to zero. If cC is not a self-adjoint
operator the solvability condition can also be stated as the requirement that! be orthogonal to
the functions in the null space of the adjoint operator [2.11].
2.21. DISTRIBUTION THEORY
In this section we will give a brief introduction to distribution theory for the purpose of
showing how this theory gives a mathematical structure within which the delta function can
be treated in a rigorous manner.
In distribution theory a function !(x) is characterized by a functional mapping. As a func-
tion, f(x) is characterized by the scalar numbers y == f(x) for each assigned value of x. In
the Fourier integral of !(x), i.e.,
F(w) = f:e
j wx
!(x) dx
the function !(x) is characterized by the scalars F(w) for each value of w. This is an example
of a functional mapping and !(x) is viewed as a functional on the space of e
j wx
functions.
Consider now a space of continuous functions cP(w, x) with continuous derivatives of all
orders and with bounded support [all cP(w, x) vanish for IxIgreater than some finite number].
The members of the set of functions cP(w, x) are identified by the parameter w. The cP(w, x)
are called testing functions. An example of a testing function that vanishes for IxI 2: 1 is
1
Ixl < 1
cP(x) == x-I
0, Ixl 2: 1.
This function has continuous derivatives of all orders and they all vanish at x == 1.
(236)
If I (x) is an integrable function it can be characterized in terms of the distribution F (w)
defined by
F(w) = i:cf>(w, x)!(x)dx.
(237)
It is common practice to simply write I(x) for the distribution F(w), it being understood that
I(x) viewed as a distribution is given by (237). We will deviate from this practice and use
a subscript d to denote the distribution given by (237), i.e., Id(X) = F(w). The functional
mapping given by (237) is unique. All functions that have or generate the same distribution
are identical with the exception of possible values assigned at a number of discrete points. For
example, the two functions
o:::;x <1
O:::;x<!, !<x:::;1
_1
x-
2
have the same distribution. For physical problems functions such as 12 do not arise. The
distribution I d(X) is not a function of x. The notation is merely a reminder that the distribution
was generated from a function I(x) of x. The definition (237) characterizes I(x) as a functional
on the space of all testing functions. The derivative of a distribution Id(X) is defined as
/
00 dl /00 dePew, x)
!d(X) = -00cf>(w, x) dx dx =!(x)cf>(w, x) - _oo!(x) dx dx
= _/00!(x) x) dx. (238)
-00 x
The integrated part vanishes since eP has a bounded support.
Since eP(w, x) has a bounded support the Heaviside unit step function hex) given by
{
O,
h(x) =
1,
can be characterized as a distribution
x <0
x >0
hd(x) = /00 h(x)cf>(w, x)dx = roocf>dx.
-00 io
(239a)
By means of the definition (238) we can also define the derivative of hex) in a distributional
sense; i.e., we write
= dhdd(X) = _/00 x) dx = _ (OOddcf> dx = cf>(w, 0).
X -00 x io x
(239b)
The derivative does not exist in the classical sense but does exist as a distribution since
- deP/dx is also a testing function, as is any derivative of eP. In (239b) a knowledge of all
dePew, x)/dx defines the functional h
d
.
The delta function distribution Od(X-x') is defined as follows (the integral is only a formal
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
intermediate step):
159
(240)
Od(X - x') = i:o(x - X')c/J(W, x) dx = c/J(w, x'),
Consequently, the distribution Od(X) = cJ>(w, 0). But this is equal to (239b) so in a distributional
sense the derivative of the Heaviside unit step distribution is the delta function distribution.
Consider the potential 1/I(r) from a unit point charge. It is given by 1/41rr and is a solution
of Laplace's equation for r > 0
=0,
ar ar 41rr
r #0.
The derivative of 1/ r is not defined at r = 0 in a classical sense. From a distributional point
of view
(
a 2 a 1) roo ( 2 8 1) 8cJ>
arr ar 47rr d = - 10 r ar 47rr ar dr
= _ (
r
28
cJ _1_1
00
+ dr
8r 41rr 0 io 41rr8r 8r
= dr.
io 41rrar Br
We can rewrite this integral in the form
. 1
00
1 8 28cJ>
I=hm --r -dr
0-+0 0 41rrar 8r
since the derivatives of cJ> exist and are bounded at r = O. Thus the limit exists. We now
integrate by parts to reverse our equation back to the original form, Le.,
I = lim acJ> 1
00
-1
00
r2acJ> (_1) dr]
0-+0 41r ar 0 0 ar Br 41["r
[ 2 8 ( 1)1
00
1
00
8 2 8 ( 1) ] = lim -cJ>r - - + cJ>-r - - dr .
0-+0 8r 41rr 0 0 8r 8r 41rr
The first integrated part vanishes as a ---+ 0 and for r = 00. The last integral vanishes since
for all finite r, (8/8r)r
2(81/1/8r)
= O. Also 8(I/r)/8r = -1/r
2
so
I = lim [cJ>(W, r) 1
00
] = _ cJ>(w, 0) = _ od(r)
0-+0 41[" 0 41[" 41r
by comparison with (240). Hence in a distributional sense
8 281/1 o(r)
-r -=--.
ar ar 41r
The potential 1/1 is now viewed as a distribution. The source for 1/Id can be regarded as a
delta function distribution. The factor of 41[" in the denominator arises because we used a
one-dimensional form of Laplace's equation. The total source strength is unity since
1
1r
1
2 1r
1
OO
o(r)
--2r2 sin 8drdcPd8 == 1.
o 0 0 47rr
The above examples clearly show that distribution theory does provide a mathematical frame-
work in which entities such as the delta function and the derivative of a step function can be
defined in a rigorous manner.
When we represent o(x - x') in terms of an infinite series of eigenfunctions that series
should be viewed as a distribution. The series may be differentiated and integrated term by
term in a distributional sense.
Consider the space of testing functions with support 0 ::; x ::; a. The distribution
00 10 2 nxx' nxx
Od(X -x') == L .. - sin -- sin -cP(w, x)dx
o a a a
n=l
(241)
is a distribution depending on x' as a parameter and represents the delta function as a distri-
butional series. A function j(x) has the distribution
h(x) =1
Q
x') dx'
when j(O) == j(a) == O. We can also express this in the form
1
0 00 2 n7rx'l nxx
j(x')L - sin -- cP(w, x) sin - dx dx'
o n=l a a 0 a
(242a)
(242b)
upon introducing a Fourier series representation for cP(w, x'), which always exists. By com-
parison with (241) we see that the distribution fd(X) is also given by
where Od(X - x') is regarded as a distribution. We can also write
1
0 [00 2 n7rx1 n7rx']
fd(X) == cP(w, x) L - sin - f(x
')
sin --dx
'
dx
o n=l a a 0 a
(242c)
(242d)
which is clearly the distributional definition of the Fourier series representation of f (x).
Note that in (242a) to (242d) fd(X) as a distribution is not a function of x. The convention
of representing the function and its distribution by the same notation f(x) requires careful
attention to the context. To assist the reader in this regard we have attached the subscript d to
the distribution.
As a final example consider the Fourier series for the triangle function
{
2x / a,
f(x) ==
2(I-x/a),
o<x <a/2
a/2::; x ::; a
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
which is
f
L:
oo 8 . nx . nxx
(x) == -- SIn - SIn --.
n=l (n1r)2 2 a
161
(243)
This series is uniformly convergent. The derivative of f(x) is the piecewise continuous function
2/a for 0 x < a/2 and - 2/a for a/2 < x a. The second and higher order derivatives
of f(x) do not exist at x == a/2 in the classical sense. In a distributional sense derivatives of
f(x) of any order have a meaning. The distribution for d
2f
[dx? is
i
" 1a 8 . nt: . nxx 4 /
d(X) == LJ - 2" SIn -2 SIn -cP(w, x)dx == --Od(X - a 2)
o n=l a a a
(244)
by comparison with (241). We note that the step discontinuity at x == a/2 is - 4/a so
formally we would expressf"(x) as -4/a multiplied by the delta function. The distributional
representation of the third derivative is
4 dOd(X - a/2) f"'() 1
a
8 . nr . nxx dcP d
- - == d X == LJ - SIn - SIn ---- x
a dx 0 n=l a
2
2 a dx
fa 8n1r . nt: nxx
= -}o LJ 7 sin 2 cos a(w, x)dx
o n=l
(245)
with the latter obtained by an integration by parts. This example shows that distribution theory
gives a meaning to highly divergent series when these are viewed as distributions.
It is not necessary to know the explicit form of the testing functions cP(w, x). It is sufficient
to know that they exist in order to apply the theory.
The above discussion of distribution theory is only a sketchy outline and is presented mainly
for the purpose of showing in a heuristic way how distribution theory deals with delta functions
and divergent series that occur in boundary-value problems and the eigenfunction representa-
tion of Green's functions. The reader should consult the references for a rigorous development
of the theory. For most problems of engineering importance one can use the operational ap-
proach followed in this chapter with the assurance that a rigorous approach exists that justifies
the formal procedures.
REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
[2.1] J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1941, ch.
3.
[2.2] M. I. Sancer, private communication. (See also: M. I. Sancer, "The magnetic field integral equation singu-
larity and its numerical consequences," Tech. Dig., URSI National Radio Science Meeting, Boulder, CO,
Jan. 1981.)
[2.3] D. S. Jones, Methods in Electromagnetic Wave Propagation. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1979, sect.
6.16.
[2.4] Electromagnetics, vol. 1, no. 4, 1981.
General Mathematical Theory
[2.5] P. M. Morse and H. Feshbach, Methods of Theoretical Physics, parts I and II. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953.
[2.6] A. G. Webster, Partial Differential Equations of Mathematical Physics. New York, NY: Hafner Pub-
lishing Company, 1950.
[2.7] R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methods of Mathematical Physics, vol. 1, English ed. New York, NY:
Interscience Publishers, Inc., 1953.
[2.8] A. Sommerfeld, Partial Differential Equations in Physics. New York, NY: Academic Press, Inc., 1949.
[2.9] B. Friedman, Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1956.
[2.10] E. C. Titchmarsh, Eigenfunction Expansions Associated with Second Order Differential Equations.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946.
[2.11] I. Stakgold, Green's Functions and Boundary Value Problems. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1979.
[2.12] C. T. Tai, Dyadic Green's Functions in Electromagnetic Theory. Scranton, PA: Intext, 1971.
Special Topics
[2.13] N. Marcuvitz, "Field representations in spherically stratified regions," Commun. Pure Appl. Math., vol.
4, pp. 263-315, sect. 5, Aug. 1951.
[2.14] L. Felson, "Alternative field representations in regions bounded by spheres, cones, and planes," IRE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-5, pp. 109-121, Jan. 1957.
[2.15] S. Sensiper, "Cylindrical radio waves," IRE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-5, pp. 56-70, 1957.
[2.16] H. Levine and J. Schwinger, "On the theory of electromagnetic wave diffraction by an aperture," Commun.
Pure Appl. Math., vol. 3, pp. 355-391, 1950.
[2.17] R. E. Collin, "The dyadic Green's function as an inverse operator," Radio Sci., vol. 21, pp. 883-890,
1986.
[2.18] R. E. Collin, "Dyadic Green's function expansions in spherical coordinates," Electromagnetics J., vol. 6,
pp. 183-207, 1986.
[2.19] L. Wilson Pearson, "On the spectral expansion of the electric and magnetic dyadic Green's functions in
cylindrical coordinates," Radio Sci., vol. 18, pp. 166-174, 1983.
[2.20] J. Van Bladel, "Some remarks on Green's dyadic for infinite space," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,
vol. AP-9, pp. 563-566, 1961.
[2.21] A. D. Yaghjian, "Electric dyadic Green's functions in source regions," Proc. IEEE, vol. 68, pp. 248-263,
1980. (See also: A. D. Yaghjian, "Maxwellian and cavity fields within continuous sources," Amer. J. Phys.,
vol. 53, pp. 859-863, 1985.)
[2.22] W. A. Johnson, Q. Howard, and D. G. Dudley, "On the irrotational component of the electric Green's
dyadic," Radio Sci., vol. 14, pp. 961-967, 1979.
[2.23] W. W. Hansen, "A new type of expansion in radiation problems," Phys. Rev., vol. 47, pp. 139-143,1935.
[2.24] C. T. Tai, "Singular terms in the eigenfunction expansion of the electric dyadic Green's functions," Tech.
Rep. RL-750, Rad. Lab., The University of Michigan, Mar. 1980.
[2.25] J. R. Wait, Electromagnetic Radiation from Cylindrical Structures. New York, NY: Pergamon Press,
1959.
[2.26] R. F. Harrington, Field Computation by Moment Methods. Malabar, FL: Kreiger Publishing Co., Inc.,
1968.
[2.27] J. R. Mautz and R. F. Harrington, "H-field, E-field, and combined field solutions for conducting bodies of
revolution," A.E.U. (Germany), vol. 32, pp. 157-164, 1978.
[2.28] J. R. Mautz and R. F. Harrington, "A combined-source solution for radiation from a perfectly conducting
body," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-27, pp. 445-454, 1979.
[2.29] A. D. Yaghjian, "Augmented electric and magnetic field integral equations," Radio Sci., vol. 16, pp.
987-1001, 1981.
[2.30] R. F. Harrington and J. R. Mautz, "Theory of characteristic modes for conducting bodies," IEEE Trans.
Antennas Propagat., vol. AP-19, pp. 622-628, 1971.
[2.31] L. Marin, "Natural-mode representation of transient scattered fields," IEEE Trans. Antennas Propagat.,
vol. AP-21, pp. 809-818, 1973.
[2.32] M. Sancer, A. D. Varvatsis, and S. Siegel, "Pseudosymmetric eigenmode expansion for the magnetic field
integral equation and SEM consequences," Interaction Note 355, Air Force Weapons Laboratory, Kirtland
Air Force Base, NM, 87117, 1978.
[2.33] J. Van Bladel, Singularities of the Electromagnetic Field. London: Oxford University Press. To be
published.
PROBLEMS
2.1. Make a Fourier series expansion of (29b) in terms of the eigenfunctions # sin (ns: fa) and show that
(29a) is the result obtained.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
163
2.2. Consider the equation d
2l/;/dx2
+ Xl/; = 0 with boundary conditions l/; + 2dl/;/dx = 0 at x = 0 and l/; = 0
at x = a, Show that the eigenvalues are determined by the transcendental equation tan = 2 and that the
eigenfunctions (unnormalized) are sin ';>;:;'x - 2';>;:;' cos .;>;:;,x, with X
n
the nth eigenvalue.
2.3. Consider the lossless transmission-line circuit illustrated in Fig. P2.3. The line has inductance L and capac-
itance C per meter. At the end Z = 0 the line is terminated in a reactance jX, while at Z = 0 it is short-circuited.
At z = z' the line is excited by a time harmonic current generator with output I g el'", Because of the current source
at Z' the current on the line undergoes a step change I g at Z' as shown in the figure. Consequently, 8I/8z has a
delta function change I gO(z - z') at z'. The voltage is continuous at Z' but its slope, proportional to I, has a step
change as shown. The equations describing the line are 8V/8z = - jial.L, 8I/8z = - jwCV + I gO(z - z'). Show
that 8
2
V/8z
2
+ w
2
LCV = - jtal.IgO(z - z'). Find two solutions for V (Methods I and II). Note that at Z = 0,
V = 0 and at z = 0, V = jXI = -(X/wL)(8V /8z) or V + (X/wL) (8V/8z) = O. Note that the poles determine
the resonant frequencies.
Answers:
Method I.
00
jwLIg sin knz< sin knz>
V= L..J
_ (X _ k 2) _ sin 2knO )
n-l n 0 2 4k
n
where X
n
= and tan kno = -knX/wL.
Method II.
V = jZc
I
sin koz<[XYc cos ko(o - z +sin ko(o - z]
g sin koo +XY
c
cos koo
where k5 = w
2LC
and = C/L.
Resonant frequencies are given by tan k; = -XYc where k
n
=W
n
VEe.
z'
z=a

_+-- .........1- .. Z
z'

I(z)
.r
I
I
z'
dI
liZ
JCafunction
I
I
V(z)

z'
Fig. P2.3.
dV
dz

2.4. For the above problem let X = w
2LC.
The boundary condition is then (tan = -X/wL =
- XYc / at Z = 0 and the eigenvalue is now part of the boundary condition. This is no longer a standard boundary-
value problem. A solution can be obtained by extending the definition of the operator and that of its domain. The
procedure to follow is given below.
Let U be the two-element column matrix
U == [W(Z)]
(z)
and define .cU by
[
d(z)/dz ]
.cU-
-dw(z)/dz
Show that the system
w(O) == 0 dw(a) == _ koZ
c
w(a)
, dz X
is equivalent to
[
d/dz ] [W]
.cU - -k
o
-dw/dz 
with boundary conditions w(a) = XYc(a) and '11(0) = d(O)/dz == O.
Consider the eigenvalue problem
Show that for two solutions U, and Um
so the eigenfunctions are orthogonal. Choose w
n
== sin knz and n = -cos knz. You will need to use tan kno =
-XYc.
Show that (Un, Un) == a which is the normalization constant.
Show that if V satisfies the same boundary conditions as U, (V, cCU) = (U, cCV) so the operator cC is self-adjoint.
Show that
is equivalent to
Let
[
V] == Len [ sinknz ]
 -cos knz
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
and use the orthogonality of the eigenfunctions to show that a third solution for V(z) is
165
Note that this solution involves different eigenvalues and eigenfunctions than the solutions for Problem 2.3. (See B.
Friedman, Principles and Techniques of Applied Mathematics. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1956,
p. 205.)
2.5. Verify the equivalence of the solutions obtained in Problems 2.3 and 2.4. Evaluate the following integral
using residue theory
-1-1 jZJgwVLCsinwz< dw
21rj 2 2 ( wX )
c (w -w LC) SInwa + wL cos wa
and show that the residue series from the poles at w = v1w gives the Method II solution in Problem 2.3 and
the residue series from the poles at tan wna = -w,x/wL, i.e., w = vXfi, gives the negative of the Method I
solution. The residues can be found by evaluating the derivative of the denominator at the poles. You will need to
use the eigenvalue equation to simplify the results. Show that on circle C with infinite radius, with w = u + jv the
integrand behaves like {exp [-IvI(z> - Z<)] } [w and hence the integral is zero and solutions 1 and 2 in Problem 2.3
are equivalent. Consider next the integral
1 1jZCIg sin wz<[XYc cos w(a -z + sin w(a -z]
-- dw
21rj C (w - wVLC)(sin wa +XYc cos wa)
and show that the residue evaluation demonstrates that solutions 1 and 3 are equivalent. Thus all three solutions are
equivalent.
2.6. Use (48a) and (49) in (44) and integrate around a contour C; enclosing the poles of Ox and show that (47)
is the solution obtained for O.
2.7. Consider an infinitely long transmission line excited by a current source I ge':" at Z' (see Fig. P2. 7). Solve
d
2
V/dz
2
+kk5 V = - jol.IgO(z - z') by means of a Fourier transform.
HINT: Assume that there is a small shunt conductance so that k5 = w
2
LC(1 - jO/wC) and k
o
= - This
will displace the poles away from the real axis. Note that for Z > z' the inversion contour can be closed in the lower
half plane, and for Z < z' it can be closed in the upper half plane. Thus the inverse transform can be evaluated in
terms of residues.
., z
z'
Fig. P2.7.
2.8. Consider an axial line source inside a rectangular pipe as shown in Fig. P2.8. Find the Green's function
which satisfies
o = 0 on boundary
in terms of a double Fourier series of eigenfunctions for the equation
1/;nm = 0 on boundary.
y
Line
source
x', y'
bt------------.
X
a
Fig. P2.8.
2.9. Find G for Problem 2.8 in terms of an eigenfunction expansion along x but as a closed form in the y variable,
Le., in the form
2.10. Find the Green's function for Problem 2.8 in terms of a contour integral of Gx(Ax)Gy(Ay) where
a
2
G
y
,
-2- + AyGy = -o(y - y ).
ay
Verify your result with those obtained in Problems 2.8 and 2.9.
2.11. Determine the Green's function of the first kind (G = 0 at r = 0) for Poisson's equation for a line source
parallel and outside a conducting cylinder of radius a. The source is at r' > a, Use (a) the method of images and
(b) expansion in a suitable set of eigenfunctions.
2.12. For the line source in a rectangular waveguide use Method II to show that an equivalent solution for Gx is
Use this solution in (59) and make the variable change A
z
= w
2
to show that
where 'Y = Jk5 - w
2
Evaluate the integral by closing the contour in the lower half plane and using residue theory.
Note that the contour runs above the pole at w = 'Y and below the pole at w = -'Y.
2.13. By using Laplace transforms, find the Green's function for the following differential equation:
(
d
2
G R dG 1) ,
L - + - - + -G = 0(1- t )
dt
2
L dt LC
G = dG =0
dt
at t =O.
This Green's function represents the charge flowing in a series RLC circuit with a unit voltage impulse input at time
t = t',
Answer:
1 I
G(t It') = -e-a(t+t ) sin w(t - t'), t > t'
wL
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
where
2.14. For Problem 2.13 show that
(
2) 1/2
W =(LC)-lj2 1 -
167
gives the usual steady-state solution for the charge in the circuit due to an impressed voltage source e
j wot
2.15. Let G(rlro) be a solution of \7 X \7 X G - k

2
G= Io(r - ro) in a volume V. On the surface S surrounding
V let Gsatisfy one of the boundary conditions, n X Gor n X \7 X G= O. Use the vector form of (108) to show
that
HINT: Replace the dyadic jj in (108) by a vector function B. Next choose for A and B the following:
A = G(r, rl)JI(r.)
B = G(r, r2)J2(r2).
2.16. Derive the normalization integrals (138b), (138c).
2.17. Derive the solution for the scalar Green's function g given by (155).
2.18. Evaluate the integral over k in (155) and show that
'k 00 n
e-
J
oR ",,,,eom(2n + 1)(n - m)! m m' , . h
2
k
g = 41rR = -JkoL....tL....t 41r(n +m)! Pn (cos 8)Pn (cos 8 ) cos m(j> - (j> )In(ko' <) n( 0''
n=O m=O
2.19. Show that the Green's function for Poisson's equation in free space, which is a solution of
0(' - ")0(8 - 8')0( (j> - (j>')
,2 sin 8
is given by
00 n 1
00
g = 4 lR = LL f
om
(2n
2
+ l)(n - m)! P:;'(cos 8)P:;'(cos 8') cos m(t/> - cJ/)jn(kr)jn(kr') dk.
1r n=O m=O 0 21r (n +m)!
HINT: Expand the solution in terms of the eigenfunctions of the Laplacian operator.
2.20. Evaluate the integral over k in Problem 2.19 and show that another solution is
00 n
1 LLeOm(n - m)! m 8 m' ,
g = 4-R = 4 ( )' P
n
(cos )P
n
(cos 8 ) cos m(j> - (j> )--n+f'
1r 1r n +m . '>
n=O m=O
Take the limit of the solution in Problem 2.18 as k
o
approaches zero and show that the same result is obtained.
2.21. Find a solution for the Green's function in Problem 2.19 using the following method: Expand g in the form
00 n
g = LLfn(')PZ'(COS 8) cos m(j> - (j>').
n=O m=O
Substitute this into the differential equation and make use of the orthogonal properties of the P,:/ and cos m( c/> - c/>')
functions to show that
Om(2n + 1)(n - m)! pm(cos 8) o(r - r') .
41r(n+m)! n r
2
Use Method I and a Hankel transform to find a solution for In; i.e., let
Also use Method II and let
r :::; r'
r 2:: r'
to find a solution. Verify your solutions by comparison with those given in Problems 2.19 and 2.20.
2.22. In cylindrical coordinates show that a solution of
o(r - r')o( c/> - c/>')o(z - z')
r
for the free-space scalar Green's function is
,
= '"' (,I,. _ ,1,.') -jw(z-z') kJn(kr)Jn(kr ) dk d
g 2 cos n 0/ 0/ e 2 2 2 W.
n=O 0 41r k +w - ko
Evaluate the integral over k and show that
where)' = Jk5 - w
2
. Show that when r' = 0 the solution reduces to
where R = Jr
2
+(z - Z')2. Note that a useful inverse Fourier transform has been evaluated.
2.23. For Problem 2.22 expand g in the form

g = L In(r) cos n(c/> - c/>')e-
jwz
dw
n=O
and by Fourier analysis show that
Assume that In = CnJn()'r and use the Wronskian relation W = - = -2j /1r)'r' to show
that C
n
= -j( on/81r)ejWZ' and that the solution given in Problem 2.22 is obtained.
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
2.24. Consider the scalar Green's function within a sphere of radius a that is a solution of
169
g(a) = O.
Show that two solutions for g are
where k, are the roots of jn(ka) = O. The Wronskian determinant is W = - = l/u
2
Show
that when k
o
approaches zero the limiting solution is
-:
<
g = (2n + l)a
n
The series that represents this function can be found by putting k 0 = 0 in the above series.
2.25. For Problem 2.24 let a become infinite and use Hankel transforms to show that g is given by
= 3.1CX) jn (kr)jn (kr') k 2 dk.
g 7r k
2
- k
2
o 0
Evaluate the integral over k to show that
2.26. Show that when the boundary condition in Problem 2.24 is changed to d(rg)/dr = 0 at r = a the two
solutions for g are
where l, are the roots of d[rj n(kr)]/dr = 0 at r = a. Show that the limiting form as ko tends to zero is
[(n + l)a
n
+ ].
g = (n + 1)(2n + 1) a
n
+
1
Derive a series representation for this function.
2.27. Show that the two solutions for g given in Problem 2.24 have the same residues at k
o
= k..
HINT: Expand jn( in a Taylor series in about the point = kr. Use the Wronskian determinant
to evaluate Yn(kia) to obtain Yn = -(k;a
2
Show that g vanishes when k
o
becomes infinite. Note that two
functions with the same pole singularities in the complex plane and that vanish at infinity must be identical. Hence
the two solutions represent the same function.
2.28. A point source at r' > a radiates in the presence of a sphere of radius a. Find the solution for the scalar
Green's function that satisfies the Dirichlet boundary condition g =0 at r =a.
HINT: Use the mode solution in Problem 2.18 and superimpose outward-propagating waves that cancel the incident
field at r = a.
2.29. In the solution given in Problem 2.18 let r' tend to infinity, use the asymptotic value of and derive
the following expansion for a plane wave:
CX) n
ejkor.a,o = L Lj" m)! P::'(cos O)P::'(cos 0') cos m(</J - </J')jn(kor)
n=O m=O
for r finite.
170
HINT: Express e-
j koR
/41rR in the form
e - jkoIr-ro I ejkoro.
rv __elkor-sro
41r [r - roI 41rro
If the point source is located on the Z axis only the terms for m = 0 are needed.
2.30. A dyadic Green's function for the electric field may be obtained from (155) by applying the operator shown
in (112). Comment on this solution with respect to the decomposition of the dyadic Green's function into transverse
spherical TE and TM waves, longitudinal waves, and orthogonality properties.
2.31. Take a three-dimensional Fourier transform of
(V x V x - k5)G = o(r - r')1
to obtain
To invert the dyadic assume that
0-
1
= [(k
2
-k5)1 - kk]-1 =Akk +BI
and use O(A kk +BI) = I to find A and B. Thus show that
00
G(r r') = _1_ fff - kk e-jk-(r-r') dk.
, 81r
3
JJJ -
-00
In order to evaluate the integral, change to spherical coordinates in k space. Choose the polar axis to lie along r - t' .
Then
The integration over () and cP is readily carried out after bringing kk outside the integral as the operator - VV. The
final integral over k can be expressed as an integral from - 00 to 00 and evaluated by residues. Complete the details
of this evaluation and show that the solution given by (112) is obtained.
The solution for G given above is an eigenfunction expansion in terms of plane waves_ It can be split into
longitudinal and transverse waves. The longitudinal waves can be obtained by taking a scalar product with k / k. Thus
show that
The first integral is well behaved and can be evaluated by bringing k
21
- kk outside the integral sign as the operator
(VV - V
2
)1. Show that the contribution to the Green's dyadic is
If in the second term kk is brought outside the integral sign as the operator - VV show that the contribution is
GREEN'S FUNCTIONS
171
However, the second integral is not a convergent one so replacing kk by - \7\7 cannot be justified. What this means
is simply that the eigenfunction solution for the Green's dyadic "function" cannot generally be summed to give a true
function. However, the above solution can be used in the usual way by scalar multiplying with the source function
J(r
/)
and integrating over t' before completing the integration over k.
A mode expansion in terms of waves propagating along z can also be obtained by integrating over k z first. Show
that in the expansion of Gthe longitudinal modes are canceled by contributions from the transverse modes apart from
a residual delta function term - azazo(r - r/)/k5' Show that the remaining transverse mode contribution is given by
+00
- j {{ [
Ik
5- (axkx + ayky + azkz sg (z - Z/2] e-jk/.(r-r')-jkz Iz-z' Idk
811'2 )} k5kz t
-00
where k
t
== axk
x
+ayky and k
z
== Jk5 - k;. ,
Note that the longitudinal modes have the factor e-
k t
Iz-z I in the integrand and are nonpropagating modes along
z. An often overlooked point in connection with the above Fourier transform solution for Gis the fact that Gin the
form
cannot be Fourier transformed if the differentiations are carried out because of the 11R
3
singularity. Hence the
solution given above should be interpreted as the plane wave eigenfunction expansion of the Green's dyadic operator
and integration over the source coordinates is to be performed first before inverting the Fourier transform.
2.32. Consider the one-dimensional Green's function problem for the interior of a cylinder
Show that two solutions are
! r dg +k 2g == o(r - r ') ,
r dr dr r
dg
dr == 0 at r == a.
00 I
L
2JO(qmr la)Jo(qmr la) 2 11'
g == 2 2 2 1 2 + 22 == 2J (k )Jo(kr<)[JI (ka)Yo(kr - Jo(krYI(ka)]
a Jo(qm)[k -(qm a)] a k I a
m=1
where qm are the roots of dJo(kr)/dr == 0 at r == a. Note that because of the Neumann boundary condition at r == a
there is an m == 0 eigenfunction with a zero eigenvalue.
2.33. Let the incident electric field given by (215a) contain the additional mode Show that the follow-
ing current is induced on the sphere (assume that the common factor jl(koa) is canceled): +
[aZo(koahi)] Let All == JAil + cil cos a and Cll = JAil + Cil sin a and show that the induced current is
proportional to JAiI +CiI I (cP +a). Show that I (cP +a) is an orthogonal current distribution and a solution
of the homogeneous integral equation in the limit as i, (koa) approaches zero.
2.34. Consider the radiation condition given by (115) and the solution (109) for the electric field where S is
chosen as a sphere of infinite radius. Use (115) to eliminate lim, ---+00 r \7 X E and lim, ---+00 r \7 x Gand show that
the integrand in (109) vanishes when the radiation condition holds.
2.35. Let E, H be the difference field in VI as discussed in Section 1.8 where the sources for the field are
contained in V2. Then on S and the sphere of infinite radius
fj
E X HodS + lim fjE X HodS == 0
'---+00
S Soo
since 0 X (E
I
== 0 X E == 0 and 0 X (HI - H2) == 0 X H == 0 on S and the difference field satisfies the
radiation condition.
Consider a field E
/,
H' that is a solution of Maxwell's equations due to an arbitrary source J in VI and which
satisfies the radiation condition. Then
fj (E X H' -E' X H)DdS =0
S
172
and according to an extension of the results of Problem 1.17 J(r
/).
E( r') == 0 for all t' in VI. Hence E == 0 in VI
and therefore the two solutions E
I
and E
2
are equal throughout VI. Maxwell's equations then require that 8 I == 8
2
and hence the solution to the external radiation problem is unique if the radiation condition is satisfied and n X EI
and n X HI are given on the surface S. If only n X E
I
is given on S then E
/,
H' can be chosen so that n X E
'
= 0
on S and the reciprocity theorem as used above will again show that E is zero throughout VI because the surface
integrals over S and the sphere at infinity are zero.
For scattering from a perfectly conducting object the two candidate solutions EI and E
2
are required to satisfy the
boundary condition 0 X E
I
== 0 X E
2
== -0 X E; where E; is the incident field. Thus on S we have 0 X (E
I
- E
2
) ==
n X E == 0 but 0 X H is left unspecified. As noted above, the solution is unique. When the scattering problem is
solved using either the EFIE or the MFIE the lack of uniqueness is a fault of the method of solution and is not due to
an intrinsic nonuniqueness in the problem. (A much longer and detailed proof of uniqueness based on the properties of
the spherical vector wave functions may be found in: C. Muller, Mathematical Theory of Electromagnetic Waves.
New York, NY: Springer-Verlag, 1969.)

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1 . nsx' . nxx -j"W(Z-Z') d ] d ' d '

We can initially consider the medium to have a small loss so that k

When k == - jw the two multiplying factors are w

2.15. Let G(rlro) be a solution of \7 X \7 X G - k

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2

1 . nsx' . nxx -j"W(Z-Z') d ] d ' d '

We can initially consider the medium to have a small loss so that k

When k == - jw the two multiplying factors are w

2.15. Let G(rlro) be a solution of \7 X \7 X G - k

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