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Map Projections

Map projection is the process of translating the
coordinates and features of a spherical object onto a
flat plane. As it is impossible to accurately portray the
surface of a sphere on a flat plane without distortion,
different map projections are used to maintain an
accurate depiction of a given area. There are three
major types of projections:

Conic Projection Conic projections use a line of
latitude (also known as parallels) to form a base
around which the map will be focused. This line of
latitude is referred to as the standard parallel. Once
the standard parallel has been selected, a point above
the north or south poles of the earth is used to form the tip of a cone. The cone can be split
along lines of longitude (meridians) to focus on specific regions of the earth. Distance is
distorted the farther the map is focused from the poles, as the conic shape of the projection
tends to stretch the areas around the standard parallel.

Planar Projection Planar projections focus on a specific point on the surface of the earth and
use it to essentially cut a circle out of the earths surface. This type of projection is used for
identifying a specific point on the earths surface. Higher scale maps will become more
distorted as distance from the focus point becomes greater. Maps that use a planar projection
are reserved for smaller scale maps, as a larger scale tends to show distortion in every
direction. Planar projections can be used without regard to the north or south poles.

Cylindrical Projection A cylindrical projection transfers the entire surface of the earth onto the
rounded section of a cylinder. Cylindrical projections use the equator as a base to the map,
running along the center of the cylinder. Lines of longitude are equally spaced. However,
stretching will occur as the map reaches north and south to the poles. This causes lines of
latitude to be spaced farther apart the farther away you get from the equator. Cylindrical maps
tend to be the most commonly used form of projection, as it creates a grid with 90 degree
angles between the lines of latitude and longitude.

Each major type of projection can be further defined into specific projections, such as the
cylindrical Transverse Mercator projection, or the planar polar azmimuthal projection.
Depending on the location that a map focuses on, changing the projection will either raise or
lower the amount of distortion displayed in a given area. Map scale (the relationship between
distance on a map and distance on the earth) will also play a major part in how accurate or
distorted each projection will be.

Figure 1: creating a cylindrical projection
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Distortion in Map Projections

Map projection can have a profound effect on the visual
accuracy of a map. Visual accuracy can be measured by the
amount of distortion within a given area. Features on a map
can be distorted in four ways:

Area distortion results in a map misrepresenting surface
area. The most common example of a map projection with
a large amount of area distortion is the Transverse
Mercator projection. A Transverse-Mercator map displays
extreme area distortion toward the poles, which results in
land masses with smaller measured surface areas to appear
as a much larger landmass.

Shape distortion results in a loss of the physical shape of a landmass. Projections that create in
area distortion also include instances of shape distortion.

Distance distortion involves the physical distances between points on a map. Distance
distortion compares distance between multiple points on a map to physical distance between
the same geographical points on the earth. Using the scale in which the map is displayed,
stretching or shrinking that occurs during projection causes map distances to appear longer or
shorter than the real world physical distance between two points on the earth.

Direction is a measure of degrees from a single point on a surface,
usually in the form of a line protruding from the point. As any
measurement of shape, area, or distance distortion can alter direction,
direction distortion exists in every map projection. The only exception to
this rule is an azimuthal projection, a planar projection which preserves
direction of straight lines that pass through a single point; any other
point on an azimuthal projection contains all four types of distortion.

Each type of distortion must be taken into account when choosing a
specific projection for a map, as no single map projection can eliminate all four types of
distortion. It is impossible to eliminate distance or directional distortion using any map
projection, although both can be drastically reduced by basing a projection on a single point.
Either area or shape can be preserved for the majority of the planet in a map projection, usually
at the cost of extreme distortion in the other three distortion types.

Fig. 1 Esri
Fig. 2 - Department of Geography, The Pennsylvania State University
Fig. 3 - Mathworks


Figure 2: Mercator map highlighting area
distortion
Figure 3: polar azimuthal projection