Contents

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................... 2
TYPES, OPERATIVE PRINCIPLES AND LIMITATIONS ............................................................................................. 2
A. LCC: Current-Source Converters.............................................................................................................. 3
B. SCC: Voltage-Source Converters.............................................................................................................. 4
SPECIFICATIONS AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES .......................................................................................... 5
FUTURE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT TRENDS.................................................................................................... 7
CONCLUSION....................................................................................................................................................... 8
APPENDIX I: HVDC Benefits and Further Converter Operative Elaboration ........................................................ 9
APPENDIX II: HVDC Demonstrative Projects List ............................................................................................... 12
REFERENCE WORKS ........................................................................................................................................... 13
Report Statistics
Main critical text of this report contains a total of [1537] words; this excludes content matter of headings,
figures, data tables, footnotes, appendices and bibliography.
The report additionally contains:
[15] figures
[03] tables
[02] appendices
[28] footnotes
[44] bibliography references
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 2 of 16
INTRODUCTION
The advent of commercialized electricity saw small DC networks around 1882 [1]; since then however, the
transmission paradigm has always been one based on AC [2]. In recent years the concept of super-grid has
emerged in Europe [3], whereby HVDC
1
transmission is being developed to again play a central role in power
connections across the world (refer to Appendix II).
Amongst others, a key component of this infrastructure is the Source Converter at HVDC Stations. This report
investigates major categories, operative principles and limitations of these converters. It then reviews
specifications and comparative advantages
2
. The work concludes with a view of likely futuristic trends and
industrial topologies.
TYPES, OPERATIVE PRINCIPLES AND LIMITATIONS
This section presents device configurations popular in the industry; for further elaboration and variant
arrangements, the reader is directed to Appendix I.
There are two major categories of DC converters (Figure 1). The classic type
3
uses SCR
4
valves and is referred
to as line-commutated conversion (LCC). A later version
5
, introduced commercially in 1997 by ABB [4], uses
IGBT switches
6
and is labelled self-commutated conversion (SCC). Whilst the latter improves harmonic
performance and power flow controllability, the former allows greater power transfers and loss efficiency [5].
1
High-Voltage Direct Current
2
Example being uni-directionnal power flow optimization vs. bi-directional efficiency
3
Till 1970, mercury arc valves were used
4
Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (also known as Thyristor)
5
Referred to as HVDC Light by ABB, HVDC Plus by Siemens and HVDC MaxSine by Alstom
6
Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
ANNOTATION
TxAC transmitting AC network
RxAC receiving AC network
Xfmr transformer
X link control reactance
C link control capacitance
DCL DC link
SCR thyristor converter station
IGBT transistor converter station
Q reactive power flow
P real power flow
CSC current-source converter
VSC voltage-source converter
Figure 1: Single-line configuration of LCC vs SCC systems
(adapted from ABB [44])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 3 of 16
A. LCC: Current-Source Converters
The HVDC Classic approach utilizes line-commutation that leads to uni-directional DC current flow
7
injection
into the receiving AC network; hence the term CSC
8
because the output current is pinned to a constant level.
In case reversal of power flow direction is required, it is achieved by inversion of DC polarity on both stations.
The circuit configuration is known as Graetz bridge, which is a 3-phase version of the single-phase wheatstone
rectifier (Figure 2).
It can be observed that each thyristor conducts for a third (120
o
) of the full AC cycle, and at any time 2 switches
are in conduction (one from upper and one from lower half of bridge)
9
. Every 60
o
a different VLL combination
arises, resulting in 6 ripples for the DC output, which is a rectification resulting from subtraction of the negative
AC curve from the positive one as VDC = VP - VN or a consecutive addition of 6 possible permutations of VLL
phasors (Figure 3).
The DC side current flow can be considered stable and constant due to introduction of smoothing inductance
of DC link (XDC in circuit layout above) [6].
7
Source to sink side
8
Current-Source Converter
9
Except at commutation, 2 switches from same half (hence total 3) can conduct simultaneously; refer to Appendix I
Figure 2: 6-pulse Graetz thyristor rectifier bridge (adapted from Rashid et al [10])
ANNOTATION
1 primary-side phase ()
2 secondary-side phase (Y)
X link inductance
AK thyristor drop (V)
A,B,C phase sequence (V, I)
n neutral point on Y side
VP +ve common wrt neutral
VN ve common wrt neutral
DC resultant DC
T thyristor
60
o
Vcb
Vab
Vac
Vbc
Vba
Vca
Figure 3: Waveform and phasor for 6-pulse converter (adapted from Mohan et al [32])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 4 of 16
In practice, the converters DC power
output (IV) can be decreased by
increasing firing delay () of the valves
through an active pulse generator; this
cuts out portions of VP but prolongs VN
[7]. Not only does that reduce DC
voltage value, it also makes the
waveform less uniform (hence higher
harmonics) as shown in Figure 4. While
each thyristor still conducts for 120
o
, its
conduction current now lags behind source AC phase; hence CSC converter always consumes reactive power
whether in rectifier or inverter mode. Beyond = 90
o
, net DC voltage becomes negative and systembecomes
an inverter. While current flows in same direction, inversion of voltage polarity means that the system now
transfers power from DC to AC side.
The 6-pulse bridges at HVDC stations are connected in series using -Y phase-shift 30
o
against - on
secondary side of transformer. This 12-pulse arrangement
10
causes most harmonics to circulate between the
two bridges and not reflect back on AC side, resulting in pseudo-sinusoidal current waveforms [8]. For
constant DC-side current or voltage regulated by filters and compensators, the resulting reactive-active power
relationship (normalized against rated power output PN) is shown in Figure 5.
B. SCC: Voltage-Source Converters
By replacing thyristors with IGBT-diode valve-sets
11
, the Graetz bridge can be upgraded to allow self-
commutation
12
(i.e. gate turn-off pulsing). Here, the DC-side voltage is held constant by capacitor (Figure 6)
across a two-level bridge, hence the term VSC
13
. Flow of active power over the transmission link can be
controlled by simply raising the DC output level at the end-converter that is to be made sender-side (refer to
Figure 1) and inverting flow of current; there is no need for polarity inversion as for thyristor converter.
10
Higher pulse arrangements are explained in Appendix I
11
Diodes placed anti-parallel to IGBT, GTO or IGCT switches
12
Also referred to as forced commutation
13
The bridge is again two-level, like LCC converter, with upper valve sets contributing to positive half of DC output and
lower sets to negative half
Figure 5: 12-pulse converter and Q-P control relationship (adapted from Siemens [8])
Figure 4: Relationship of firing angle with DC level (adapted from Williams [7])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 5 of 16
A hypothetical view of VSC arrangement would be to consider it as a 3-phase ideal transformer set with
continually controllable turns-ratio [9]; in practice this is achieved by switch-mode DC conversion using pulse-
width modulation
14
that follows the same fundamental frequency as AC-side supply (Figure 7). Varying the
amplitude of PWM pattern changes DC-link magnitude; phase-shifting the pulses allows power factor control
[10], which is a significant feature of SCC system. The operative principle rests against a reference voltage that
the DC output at capacitor is compared with; subsequent error causes PWM generation to alter valve duty
cycle [11]. Flow of current towards DC side (rectifier mode) discharges the capacitance, hence drawing power
from AC side; reversal of the current flow (inverter mode) causes supercharging, which then decreases the
firing duty to return power towards AC side.
SPECIFICATIONS AND COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES
A review of comparative industrial specifications and technological merits of the two converter categories
discussed earlier is undertaken in this section.
The superiority of VSC lies in its ability to self-commutate and control the
power factor fully between inductive and capacitive modes. This means
that it can operate in all 4 quadrants of PQ domain, as illustrated in Figure
8; consequently it does not require a strong AC grid comprising
synchronous machines that provide the reactive power required by CSC
[12].
It can thus feed simple passive systems without installation of reactive
compensators. Also, the high frequency switching characteristics of IGBT
valve-sets allow near-sinusoidal AC to be generated with low harmonic
content; this eliminates the need for extensive AC-side filtering equipment.
All of this translates into smaller HVDC station space requirements by
around 50% [13], beneficial for example in offshore or city-centre
locations. In addition, as the conversion is not dependent on
commutation from line source and has its own PWM controller, VSC stations can be installed in remote
locations where a black-start is be required. Owing to full commutation control, they can be tailored to suit
very low power systems (from tens to 1,200 MW) including 0 operation, whereas LCC arrangements are
effective only at higher levels (usually 1,000 to 3,000 MW) [4].
14
PWM
Figure 6: Voltage-source converter (two-level IGBT-diode valve bridge)
(adapted from Alstom [13])
Figure 7: VSC pulse-width modulation and level control
(adapted from Rashid [10])
Figure 8: PQ zone of VSC
(adapted from [12])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 6 of 16
On the other hand, CSC systems have greater conversion efficiencies owing to
the lower switching frequency (dependent on mains fundamental) compared
to VSC; the former show average losses of around 0.5% compared to around
1.53.5% of the latter (Figure 9). They also have high current surge capability.
However, reactive power control is marginal in that it can only be achieved
indirectly by decreasing DC output voltage while increasing current and firing
delay, using methods of CCA
15
and VDCOL
16
[14]; since losses increase by i
2
,
these techniques is supplanted by filtering compensators.
The above technical and performance comparisons between CSC and VSC
systems are summarized in Table 1 and Table 2 respectively.
Table 1: Specification comparison between LCC and SCC systems (collated from ABB [15], Siemens [16], Alstom [17])
Parameter Unit Current-Source Voltage-Source
(line-commutation) (self-commutation)
First project: ABB
Siemens
Alstom
year 1970
1975
1993
1997
2010
2011
DC power MW 500 - 6400 100 - 1000
DC voltage per converter kV 150 - 800 80 - 320
Converters per station ea 2 - 8 1 - 3
DC current A 200 - 4500 200 - 1000
Converter loss (1 - ) % 0.5 2.0 - 3.5
Min power operation (vs rated) % 10 0
Q compensation required % up to 50 0
Harmonic factor % 35 15
Site footprint ratio 1 0.6
Table 2: Functional comparison between LCC and SCC systems (collated from IET [18], IEEE [19], Cigre [20])
Feature Current-Source Voltage-Source
Semiconductor valves Thyristor set IGBT-Diode set
Switching control On:
Off:
On: PWM
Off: PWM
Switching frequency Low: mains (50 or 60 Hz) High: Vmod (up to 2,000 Hz)
Control types Constant power
Constant frequency
Damping
Proportional-integral
DQ transformation
Vector control
Active control method Inversion of V polarity Inversion of I direction
Reactive control method Capacitive compensator Modulation shift
Loss origin Valve Vdrop (low) High f switching (high)
Black-start capability No Yes
Inherent Q control No Yes
Harmonic content High Low
Filters, compensators required More Less
Project suitability High power link (>1000 MW) Low power link (<1000 MW)
Phase-shifted transformer required Yes No
Dynamic performance (fault recovery) Slower (< 0.3 s) Faster (< 0.2 s)
17
15
Current controlled amplification
16
Voltage dependent current order limitation
17
Studied for 40 MW arrangements
Figure 9: Converter loss improvement
(adapted from ABB [12])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 7 of 16
FUTURE INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
VSC technology has seen rapid efficiency improvements since introduction of the 1
st
generation two-level
configuration (Figure 6); these next generation topologies are decreasing losses [12].
The most recent topology that ABB is researching is the 4
th
generation
18
(Figure 10) cascaded two-level
19
system; valve
cells
20
are connected in series within modules to increase DC
output whilst providing conversion with very low switching
frequencies per cell; hence reducing losses. This will allow
research emphasis to be placed in future on improving
device conduction losses and blocking levels.
On the other hand, Siemens is basing its VSC research on a
modular multi-level converter
21
approach; here the aim is to
break up voltage steps and allied stress gradients on the
valve-sets by increasing the number of series-linked IGBT
sub-modules (Figure 11). The result is voltage synthesis in
much smaller increments and lower switching frequency
than those afforded by two or level circuits [16]. As a result,
switching noise, losses and harmonics are reduced, and sinusoidal AC voltage superior to PWM is obtained
[21].
Another interesting future avenue is the
possibility of hybrid converters, which
combine CSC and VSC as STATCOM
system; this carries advantage of
formers low losses and latters superior
dynamic characteristics [22].
For the traditional HVDC side, CSC
converter improvements are to be
sought in future by development of
thyristors with lower conduction losses,
smaller extinction angles and higher resistance to commutation failure [23]. This would eventually lead to
higher blocking voltages (and thus kV values) and allow progressive ratings for UHVDC
22
technology. In
addition, light-triggered SCR switches are gaining popularity over pulse-fired ones, to make converter modules
robust against electromagnetic noise [24].
ABB has also explored another CSC optimization known as capacitor commutated converter
23
[25], whose
future experimentation shall hold an important key to keeping LCC systems still relevant as SCC technology
catches on. At present, the capacitor-varistor parallel sets are connected between transformer feed and valves
bridge; this precludes the need for VAr compensation through switching of filter or shunt banks at the instant
of active power directional change [26].
18
For an overview of 2
nd
and 3
rd
generation technology, refer to Appendix I
19
CTL
20
Each cell comprises a two-level IGBT and anti-parallel diode
21
MMC
22
Ultra-High Voltage Direct Cycle, currently rated 800 kV
23
CCC
Figure 10: VSC 4th generation NPC topology
(adapted from Energy Procedia [40])
Figure 11: MMC configuration and AC waveform (adapted from IEEE [21])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 8 of 16
CONCLUSION
HVDC transmission is gaining a firm foothold over conventional AC for long distance and network stability
applications since its introduction in late twentieth century. In this review report, it was seen that while the
CSC is still the method of choice for projects with higher power and loss-efficiency considerations,
improvements in circuit configuration and device physics mean that the VSC is fast growing in popularity. It
may even completely replace the CSC for medium power applications, due to its better harmonic and reactive
power performance.
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 9 of 16
APPENDIX I: HVDCBenefitsandFurtherConverterOperativeElaboration
This section elaborates further on converter topologies and operative characteristics discussed in main text.
DC Transmission Advantages
DC transmission carries the superiority of asynchronous interconnectivity, lower losses compared to AC,
unlimited distance due to lack of cable reactance and damping of power swings in allied AC networks [27].
Since its introduction with undersea connections in Gutland
24
(1954) [28], the HVDC capacity stood at 100 GW
worldwide in 2013 at an annual market value of 3 billion [29]. Practical applications of HVDC include
interpolating DC links in AC grids for stability, connectivity with offshore
25
, remote and island locations,
interconnection of AC grids and feed-in to city centres. HVDC transmission turns out to be more cost-efficient
than AC by a factor of nearly 2 ($12.5 vs $25.0 per MWh at 65% utilization) [30]
CSC-LCC: Graetz Bridge
The reader should refer to Figure 2 in main text for this discussion. Popularity of this configuration over 3-
phase rectifiers (such as double star and interphase) is due to its efficient power conversion precluding
oversizing of converter transformer, and perfect symmetry of line currents on AC side [10]. Connecting one
side of the supply-line transformer as delta has the benefit of reducing higher order harmonics [31].
The arrangement contains 6 thyristor valves, each connected to conduct positive and negative cycle of
respective phases. Thyristors are numbered in the sequence they conduct, necessitating six firing pulses per
360
o
cycle. Operative principle of the bridge can be understood in conjunction with Figure 3; since the 3 source
lines are combined at neutral point, a thyristor in the upper half of bridge can only be fired at the instant
where its phase becomes most positive compared to others
26
; the reverse holds true for thyristors in lower
half (in that the VLL becomes most negative) [32].
If firing angle is set to 0
o
, thyristors fire as soon as the respective VLL is available
27
at phase crossover points,
effectively behaving like diodes.
Apart from the concept of voltage level subtraction presented in main text (VP VN), one can alternatively
postulate that the rectified DC is a consecutive addition of 6 possible permutations of VLL (line-line voltage
phasors VAB, VAC, VBC etc. as illustrated in Figure 3) [33]. While conduction current swings direction in thyristors
(IA is plotted as example), the DC side experiences uni-directional current flow.
The effect of firing angle delay can be
explained as follows. Even if a
thyristor is bias-ready it will not
conduct until gate-pulsed; constant
current flow on DC side means that
previous valve is able to experience
conduction in negative voltage zone
until the next one is commutated
(firing instance of each valve is
indicated in Figure 12) [34].
24
Diocese of Sweden
25
Mainly wave or wind
26
Hence line-line voltage difference (VLL) across one switch become positive-most
27
The fact that a small allowance for VAK has to be made is discounted here
Figure 12: Effect of firing delay on VP and VN waveforms (adapted from IET [34])
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 10 of 16
In addition to the DC link reactor, another important stabilizing inductance occurs due to secondary
transformer windings (LS) on AC source side. This should form at least 5% of the total AC side impedance for
stability according to German VDE standards [35]. The transformer although not necessary for power
conversion, enables features like on-load tap changing and phase-shift between bridges.
An adverse effect of LS is time-lapsed commutation (angle )
at point of thyristor take-over; it prevents phase current from
switching between valves instantaneously, as the stored
reactive energy has to be transferred from outgoing to
incoming thyristor
28
.This overlapping cuts out a further notch
in output waveforms (see shaded area in Figure 13), and
lowers effective power output [36].
In practice, the extent of firing delay is further constrained by
extinction angle (), which is the recovery time for a thyristor
to enter blocking mode after conduction [37]. This is typically
20
o
and maximum firing delay is thus:
= 180
The AC line currents of a 6-pulse convertor experience high harmonic content due to and delays during
thyristor switching, especially of order 6k 1 (where k is integer) [38].
Higher pulse configurations, practically up to 48, are possible by increasing the number of parallel
transformers and decreasing phase-shift proportionately, or by connecting a multi-step valve-reactor
between two converters and DC-side load [39]. Further, the output voltage can be raised by using double-pole
HVDC configuration; the DC positive and negative poles each have their own 12-pulse converter sets.
VSC-LCC: Two-Level Bridge
The reader should refer to Figure 6 in main text for this discussion. IGBT-diode
valve sets are switched on such that AC current passes through IGBT of one phase,
and returns to mains via diode of another; alteration of phase conduction
sequence is similar that seen earlier in thyristor rectifier [10]. In order to prevent
diodes from conducting at the wrong moment
29
, the DC-link voltage is kept higher
than that created by diode rectifier bridge alone (Figure 14).
The 2
nd
generation of VSC was created by ABB using a three-level neutral-point
clamped
30
configuration (Figure 15); this introduces 0 V level in addition to negative
and positive half-steps. It therefore improves sinusoidal synthesis without
increasing switching frequency [40], but adds cost due to additional IGBT-diode
sets. The 3
rd
generation reverted to two-level system, but with improved device
physics and a PWM template programmed to decrease harmonic content.
In terms of economy, the converter equipment is cheaper for VSC than CSC but with
higher losses; however, this is offset for special applications such as connectivity to
offshore wind farms.
28
The voltage during commutation is therefore average of incoming and outgoing AC phase
29
At the instant when an IGBT should conduct
30
NPC
Figure 14: Negative diode blocking
for VSC (adapted from [10])
Figure 13: Notching due to commutation
(adapted from Chalmers [36])
Figure 15: VSC 2nd generation topology
(adapted from Energy Procedia [40]))
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 11 of 16
Further Future Trends
The reader should refer to Figure 11; virtually no snubbing or filtering auxiliaries would be required as MMC
this technology is perfected. A trade-off has to be negotiated eventually between cost of increased devices
and waveform superiority of longer series circuits.
Increasing HVDC transmission inter-linkage complexity by multi-terminal converter stations is another
contentious area of research, especially with geographically scattered and isolated renewable sources such as
wind farms [41]. The main problems in this regard are interoperability of converter modules manufactured by
different OEMs as well as protection coordination. The direction the industry is expected to take for
resolution relates more to technical standardization rather than technology improvement.
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 12 of 16
APPENDIX II: HVDCDemonstrativeProjectsList
This section lists a sample of important HVDC projects completed over the last 10 years (collated from IEEE
[42] and Cigre [43]).
Table 3: Demonstrative list of HVDC projects worldwide (2003-2012)
SYSTEM / PROJECT SUPPLIER YEAR
POWER
(MW)
DC
(kV)
LINE
(km)
THYRISTOR/
TRANSISTOR
LOCATION
EAST-SOUTH
INTERCONNECTOR II
SIEMENS 2003 2000 500 1450 THY INDIA
THREE GORGES-CHANGZHOU ABB/SIEMENS 2003 3000 500 860 THY CHINA
THREE GORGES-GUANGDONG ABB 2004 3000 500 940 THY CHINA
GUI-GUANG II SIEMENS 2007 3000 500 1200 THY CHINA
CELILO (VALVE REPLACEMENT) SIEMENS 2004 3100 400 1200 THY U.S.A.
LAMAR SIEMENS 2005 210 64 B-B THY U.S.A.
BASSLINK SIEMENS 2006 500 400 350 THY AUSTRALIA
ESTLINK ABB 2006 350 150 105 TRA ESTONIA-FINLAND
THREE GORGES-SHANGHAI ABB 2006 3000 500 900 THY CHINA
NEPTUNE SIEMENS 2007 660 500 105 THY U.S.A.
SHARYLAND ABB 2007 150 21 B-B THY USA - MEXICO
LEVIS DE-ICER AREVA 2008 250 17.4
27 to
242
THY CANADA
NORNED ABB 2008 700 450 580 THY NORWAY-NETHERLANDS
BALLIA - BHIWADI SIEMENS 2010 2500 500 800 THY INDIA
OUTAOUAIS ABB 2009 2x625 315 B-B THY CANADA
NORDE.ON 1 ABB 2009 400 150 203 TRA GERMANY
AL FADHILI AREVA 2009 3 x 600
3 x
222
B-B THY SAUDI ARABIA
CAPRIVI ABB 2010 300 350 950 TRA NAMIBIA
BRITNED SIEMENS 2011 1000 400 260 THY UK - NETHERLANDS
YUNNAN-GUANGDONG SIEMENS 2010 5000 800 1418 THY CHINA
XIANJIABA-SHANGHAI ABB
2010
6400 800 1980 THY CHINA
HULUNBEIR-LIAONING HVDC
LINK
ABB 2010 3 000 500 920 THY CHINA
LINGBAO II EXTENSION
PROJECT
ABB/ALSTOM 2010 750 168 B-B THY CHINA
JINDO-JEJU ALSTOM 2011 400 250 105 THY KOREA
BORWIN1 ABB 2012 400 150 200 TRA GERMANY
AUTHOR: Muhammad Ali Qaiser STUDENT ID: 26561999
MODULE: Power Electronics ELEC6125 COURSEWORK#2: HVDC Converters
University of Southampton, ECS, 2014 Page 13 of 16
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