Ultrasonic

Sound waves are longitudinal waves and its frequency ranging from 20 Hz to
20,000Hz (audible). Te uman ear is sensitive to sound waves of frequency
ranging from 20Hz to 20 !Hz. Tis range of frequencies is !nown as audible range
because uman ear can ear it. Te sound waves aving frequency above tis range are
called ultrasonic waves, i.e. waves of frequencies beyond u""er audible limit (f
#20 !Hz) are called ultrasonic waves. Human ear cannot sense ultrasonic
sounds but dogs, cats and oter animals are endowed wit an ability to ear
te ig frequency sounds. Te wavelengts of ultrasonic waves are very
small and are res"onsible for many of teir interesting a""lications.
$ltrasonic waves are widely used in marine a""lication, medical
diagnostics, non destructive testing of finised "roducts and so on. %ats and
&ol"ins can generate ultrasonic waves and use te reflections of te waves
to find teir way. Te waves of frequency less tan 20Hz is called infrasonic
and te waves of frequency lying between 20Hz to 20 !Hz are called sonic
or audible sound waves wile te waves aving frequency greater tan 20
!Hz are !nown as su"ersonic or ultrasonic.
PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONIC WAVES:
(i Tese waves are very ig energetic being ig frequency .i.e ig "ower
waves. &ue to the high power of ultrasonic waves is being used in industry
and medicine to break and cut objects.
(ii Te s"eed of "ro"agation of tese wave increases wit increase in frequency.
(iii &ue to small wavelengt, diffraction of wave is negligible terefore wave can
travel over a long distance witout muc a""reciable loss of energy.
(iv 'en te ultrasonic waves are travel in liquid, stationary wave "attern is
formed due to reflection of wave from oter end. Hence density of liquid
varies along te "ro"agation direction wic can act as diffraction grating to
diffract te ligt.
(V) Tey can travel over long distances as a igly directional beam without appreciable
loss of energy. Ultrasonic waves are able to travel along well-defined straight paths,
even in the presence of obstacles. This means they do not bend appreciably at the
edges of the obstacle. When a low-frequency sound meets an obstacle, it easily bends
round the corners and spreads in all directions.
VI! "f you put a board between your face and a source of sound, you are still able to
hear the sound. This is because sound waves bend at the corners of the board and
reach your ears. #t the high frequencies of ultrasound, this bending phenomenon is
quite insignificant, and the waves continue to move along straight lines. "n this respect
ultrasonic waves are closer to light. Therefore, they are used for imaging objects. The
benefit over light is that ultrasonic waves can travel in nontransparent materials also,
where light cannot be sent.
!ENRATION OF ULTRASONIC WAVES:
Tere are some difficulties associated wit te "roduction of ultrasound(
). Te main difficulty attaced wit te "roduction of ultrasonic sound waves is
teir very ig frequency. *n general sound waves are "roduced by vibrating
surfaces.
2. %ut frequency of very ig order cannot be "roduced because inertia will never
allow any surface to vibrate suc a ig frequency.
+. ,lso te low natural frequency of moving "arts does not allow ultrasonic sound
waves to be generated troug ordinary tecniques.
-. So ultrasonics cannot be "roduced by usual metod of dia"ragm louds"ea!er fed
wit alternating current because it cannot vibrate at suc ig frequencies.
Tere are tree main tecniques used to "roduce ultrasonic sound waves are(
(A "ec#anical "et#o$( Tis is one of te earliest metod of "roducing
$ltrasonic waves u" to a frequency of )00 !Hz wit te el" of a .alton/s
wistle. Tis metod is rarely used due to its limited frequency range.
Te two im"ortant metods for generating ultrasonic waves, wic are based on
two different "enomena, namely magneto0striction and "iezoelectric effect.
1agneto0striction metod is used to "roduce waves in te frequency range 20
!Hz to )00 !Hz and "iezoelectric metod is used for "roduction of waves of
frequencies greater tan )00 !Hz. Te most im"ortant and common metods for
"roducing ultrasonic waves are0
(% "a&netostriction &enerator (C Pie'oelectric &enerator

(% "a&neto(striction : 'en a rod of ferromagnetic material suc as iron or
nic!el, is !e"t in a magnetic field "arallel to its lengt, te rods suffers a
cange in its lengt. Tis cange in lengt is inde"endent of te direction of
magnetic field and de"ends only on te magnitude of te field and nature of
material. Tis "enomenon is !nown as magneto0striction.
"a&neto(striction !enerator (Oscillator:
Tis metod is based on te "enomenon of 1agnetostriction, wic was
discovered by 2oule in )34-. 'en a rod of ferro0magnetic material suc as
iron or nic!el is sub5ected to a magnetic field "arallel to its lengt te lengt
of rod canges. Tis cange in lengt of rod is inde"endent of direction of
field but de"ends on te magnitude of field and nature of rod. *f te a""lied
magnetic field is alternating, te rod e6tends and contract in lengt alternately.
Since te cange in lengt is inde"endent of te direction of a""lied field, te
frequency of vibration of rod is twice te frequency of field. 7rdinary te
am"litude of vibration of rod is small. %ut, wen te frequency of magnetic
field is te same as te natural frequency of te rod, te resonance occurs and
te am"litude of vibration is considerably increased. Tus sound waves now
emitted from te ends of rod. *f te a""lied frequency is in te order of
ultrasonic frequency, te rod "roduces ultrasonic waves.
,s
sown in figure (2) a nic!el or iron rod (,%) clam"ed at its centre and magnetized
initially. Two coils 8
)
and 8
2
are wound over te rod and connected to base 9 emitter
and collector 9 emitter circuit res"ectively. Te frequency of oscillator can be controlled
by te ca"acitor : of te resonant circuit. 'en "ower is switced on, te circuit 8
2
:
sets u" an alternating current of frequency ;
C L
n
2
2
)

=
< in te collector circuit. Tis
alternating current flows troug te coil 8
2
and "roduces alternating magnetic field of
frequency n along te lengt of te rod ,%, ,s a result, te rod starts vibrating due to
magnetostrictive effect. Tis vibration of rod "roduces ultrasonic waves from te ends of
te rod. 'en current in 8
2
canges, it canges te magnetization of rod wic results to
cange te lengt of rod. Tus vibration in lengt occurs wic causes a variation in
magnetic flu6 troug coil 8
)
and develo"ed new e.m.f in te coil 8
).
Tis e.m.f. acts on
te base and "roduces an am"lified current cange in collector circuit i.e., in 8
2
. *n tis
way te base current build u" to large am"litude wit a frequency determined by te
frequency of longitudinal vibration of te rod. 'en te frequency of oscillatory circuit
C L
n
2
2
)

=
becomes equal to te frequency of vibration of rod, te sound waves of
ma6imum am"litude are generated as ultrasonic waves.
=or fundamental mod of vibration, te natural frequency of rod of lengt given by

l
n
2
)
=
'ere,

is te >oung/s modulus and

is density of rod material.

"erits:
Te &esign of generator te circuit is very sim"le and its cost is low.
,t low ultrasonic frequencies, it as large "ower out"ut witout ris! of damage of
oscillatory circuit.
)e*erits: *t cannot generate ultrasonic frequency above +00 !Hz.
Te frequency of oscillations de"ends on tem"erature.
Tere is loss of energy due to ysteresis and eddy current.
(C Pie'oelectric E++ect:
Tis is most modern metod for te "roduction of ultrasonic waves of very ig and
constant frequencies.
Te metod is based on ?iezoelectric @ffect. ,ccording to ?iezoelectric effect, wen a
crystal suc as Auartz, Bocelle salt or tourmaline is sub5ected to mecanical stress
(com"ressive or e6tensive) along mecanical a6is (>0a6is), electric carges will a""ear
on te faces of te crystal "er"endicular to te electric a6is (C0a6is).
:onversely, if te electric carges are "laced on flat crystal surfaces, by a""lying
"otential difference across tese surfaces, mecanical stress is "roduced on oter faces.
*f te a""lied voltage is alternating, te crystal "late will alternatively e6"and and
contract and will tus, be forced to vibrate at te frequency of te a""lied field. 'en
te frequency of te a""lied field coincides wit te natural frequencies of te crystal
resonance occurs resulting in large am"litude of vibration of te crystal. Tis converse
effect is utilized for te "roduction of ultrasonic waves in ?iezoelectric generator.
wit natural frequency of vibration of te crystal. $nder tis condition, crystal
generates ig "ower ultrasonic waves.
Tus, an alternating "otential difference is a""lied on te o""osite faces of te
crystal and te crystal is set into vibrations along its mecanical a6is "roducing
longitudinal ultrasonic waves in te surrounding medium. 'en te ca"acity of te
variable ca"acitor is ad5usted for obtaining te resonance condition, te current in te
milliammeter becomes ma6imum and consequently te longitudinal vibrations of te
crystal also becomes ma6imum. 'it te el" of tis metod, te ultrasonic waves u" to
a frequency of D00 !Hz wit a moderate size crystal can be "roduced by using
tourmaline crystal.
Te natural frequency of te quartz crystal of tic!ness t may be e6"ressed as

Y
t
n
2
)
=
EEE(i)
were > is te >oung/s modulus for te "articular a6is cosen and te density of te
material.
*n case of quartz, >oung/s modulus measured in te a""ro"riate direction is
and its density is 2FD- !gGm
+
.Te velocity of com"ression waves in te quartz is given
by
. sec G DD00
2FD-
)0 0 . 3
)0
m
Y
v

= =

Hence, from equation (i), we ave

Hz
t t
n
24D0
2
DD00
= =
*f t is e6"ressed in millimeters, ten

( )
kHz
t t
n
24D0
)000 G
24D0
= =
=or a crystal "late of quartz of tic!ness )mm, te natural frequency is
kHz n 24D0 = or ,-./0 "1'
,t resonance, te frequency of te tan! circuit (80:) becomes equal to te natural
frequency of te crystal "late, tat is,

) )
2
)
C L
f

=
)ETECTION OF ULTRASONICS
$ltrasonic waves are ig frequency waves above audible range and cannot be
detected by uman ear directly. However, some animal s"ecially te bat can do so.
Tese waves can be detected by following metods(
(i Pie'oelectric $etector- 'en a "iezoelectric quartz crystal is sub5ected to
ultrasonic waves on its one of te "air of faces, te varying electric carge of
o""osite nature are develo"ed on te oter "air of faces "er"endicular to
"revious one. Te carges develo"ed of course are very wea! wic can be
am"lified by some means and detected.
(ii 2un$t3s tu4e *et#o$- ,
Hundt/s tube can be used to
detect ultrasonic waves of relatively large wavelengts as done for te sound
waves. 'en ultrasonic weaves are "assed troug te tube, te lyco"odium
"owder s"rin!led in te tube collects in te form of ea"s at te nodal "oints
and is blown off at te antinodes. Te average distance between te two
ad5acent ea"s is equal to alf te wavelengt. Te distance between two
ea"s is equal to 2 G wic may be difficult to measure if wavelengts are
small or frequency of wave is very large.

(iii
Sensitive +la*e
*et#o$-
'en a
narrow
sensitive flame moves along te medium were ultrasonic waves are "resent,
te flames remain stationary at antinodes and flic!er at nodes due to cange in
"ressure.
(iv T#er*al $etection *et#o$- Tis is most modern metod for detection of
ultrasonic waves. , fine "latinum wire is moved in te medium of ultrasonic
waves. &ue to com"ression and rarefaction of wave te tem"erature of
medium canges. Te cange in tem"erature is observed at nodes wile
constant at antinodes. Hence te resistance of "latinum wire is canges
accordingly. Tese canges in resistance can be determined using a sensitive
bridge arrangement. *t will be in balance mode wen "latinum wire is at
antinodes.
APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONIC WAVES:
$ltrasonic wave ave a wide a""lication in various field in wic some are
described ere(
(i )etection crac5s an$ +aults in *etal- $ltrasonic waves are used to detect
flaws in metal. Te crac!s or faults in metal cange te refractive inde6,
wic reflect te wave wen sub5ected to it. Te waves are also reflected from
oter end of metal. Tese reflected waves are "ic!u" by receiver wic sows
different "ea!s wen observed in :B7.
(ii )etection o+ su4*arine an$ ot#er o46ect in sea- , sar" ultrasonic wave is
sending in all direction in sea water. Te reflected wave from any direction
sows te "resence of any ob5ect in te sea.
(iii )etection $e7t# o+ sea- ,s te ultrasonic waves can be sent over a long
distance witout muc loss of energy ence can be used to detect te de"t of
sea. Te time internal of sending and receiving reflected wave is recorded. ,s
te velocity of wave is !nown, te de"t of sea can be determined.
(iv A77lication in in$ustr8- $ltrasonic wave are used for cleaning in industry.
Tese remove water from "a"er during manufacturing "rocess, remove dust
and soot from cimney, in wasing, in dry cleaning clots. Tese are also
used in "lastic welding. %y a""lying small "ressure and ultrasonic vibration
to two similar surfaces "roduces sufficient termal energy to bind te surface
togeter. Tese used in drilling "rocess in metals.
(v A77lication in *e$ical science- *n medical science ultrasonic waves are
used for diagnostic "ur"ose. Tese waves can distinguis between soft tissues
and liquid and between crystal and tumors. Tese can be used for blood less
surgery and "ainless dental cutting and sterilization "ur"oses. ,bnormal
growt of tumors in brain can also be detected by ultrasonic waves wic may
not "ossible wit C0rays.
(vi A77lication in si&nalin&- $ltrasonic wave can be concentrated into a sar"
beam due to smaller wavelengt and ence can be used for signaling in
"articular direction.
(vii In ultrasonic *i9in&- , colloid solution or emulsion of two non0missible
liquid li!e oil and water can be formed by simultaneous sub5ecting to
ultrasonic waves.
(viii In t#er*al e++ect- *f a liquid is sub5ected to ultrasonic waves its tem"erature
will increase due to absor"tion of waves.
Ultrasounds are used extensively in industry. Here are a few examples.
Drilling holes or making cuts of desired shape
You can use a hammer and a steel punch to make holes in
metal plates, plastic sheets or other solid materials. Such
holes can also be made using ultrasonic vibrations
produced in a metallic rod, called a horn. The horn acts like
a hammer, hammering the plate about a hundred thousand
times per second. The shape of the hole is the same as that
of the tip of the horn. The shape of the tip can be designed
as per the reuirement of the application. Ultrasonic cutting
and drilling are very effective for fragile materials like glass,
for which ordinary methods might not succeed.
Ultrasonic cleaning
!e normally clean dirty clothes, plates or other large ob"ects by dipping in a
detergent solution, and then rubbing and washing. #ut for small parts such as
those used in watches, electronic components, odd$shaped parts such as a
spiral tube, and parts located in hard$to$reach places, this method is inconvenient
and sometimes impossible. Such ob"ects are placed in a cleaning solution and
ultrasonic waves are sent into the solution. This causes high$freuency vibrations
in the solution. This knocks off all dirt and grease particles from the ob"ects.
Ultrasonic detection of defects in metals
%etallic components are used in buildings, bridges, machines, scientific
euipment, and so on. &f there are cracks or holes inside the metal used, the
strength of the structure or component is reduced and it can fail. Such defects
are not visible from the outside. Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect such
defects.
Ultrasonic waves are sent through the
metallic ob"ect under study. &f there is no
crack or cavity in its path, it goes through the
ob"ect. ' detector placed on the other side
detects the transmitted wave. ' defect
present in the path of the wave reflects the
wave. Thus, the intensity of the emerging
waves falls in the region that is in line with the defect.!hen this happens, we
know that the ob"ect has a defect inside.
!hy cannot ordinary sound be used for this application( This is because
ordinary sound will bend considerably round the corners of cracks or cavities,
and will emerge on the other side at almost full intensity.
%edical 'pplications of Ultrasound
Imaging of organs
Ultrasonic waves have given doctors powerful and safe tools
for imaging human organs. )chocardiography is a techniue in
which ultrasonic waves, reflected from various parts of the
heart, form an image of the heart. Ultrasonography is routinely
used to show doctors images of a patient*s organs such as the
liver, gall bladder, uterus, etc. &t helps doctors detect
abnormalities such as stones in the gall bladder, tumours, etc.
&t is also used to monitor the growth of a foetus inside the
mother*s womb.
These applications are based on the high directionality of
ultrasound waves and their capability to reflect from the boundaries between
different kinds of material. Ultrasonic waves of low intensity are sent to the
desired area of the body. The waves travel along straight lines till they hit an
internal structure. ' part of the wave is reflected from here, and the rest is
transmitted to the next structure. &t is again reflected at the next boundary, and so
on. !aves are sent from different angles, and all the reflected waves are
gathered by a receiver. These waves are then converted into electrical signals
that are used to generate images of an organ. These images are then displayed
on a monitor, and if reuired printed on film.
Ultrasonography is safer than the older +$ray imaging techniue. ,epeated +$
rays can harm tissues, especially those of a foetus.
Sonar
Sonar stands for sonographic navigation ranging. This is a method for
detecting and finding the distance of ob"ects under water by means of
reflected ultrasonic waves. The device used in this method is also
called sonar.
-rom the observation centre on board a ship, ultrasonic waves of high
freuencies, say .,/// kH0, are sent in all directions under the water. These
waves travel in straight lines till they hit an ob"ect such as a submarine, a sunken
ship, a school of fish, etc. The waves are then reflected, and are received back at
the observation centre. The direction from which a reflected wave comes to the
observation centre tells the direction in which the ob"ect is located. -rom the time
between sending the ultrasonic wave and receiving its echo, and the speed of
sound in sea water, the distance of the ob"ect from the observation centre is
calculated. ,eflections from various angles can be ultili0ed to determine the
shape and si0e of the ob"ect.
1et d 2 distance between the sonar and an underwater ob"ect,
t 2 time between sending an ultrasonic wave and receiving its echo from the
ob"ect, and v 2 speed of sound in water. The total distance covered by the wave
from the sonar to the ob"ect and back is 3d. Using s 2 ut,
This method of finding distances is also called echo ranging. %arine geologists
use this method to determine the depth of the sea and to locate underwater hills
and valleys.
Echolocation
*n )I--, &onald B. .riffin coined te term ecolocation. @colocation is te use of
ecoes of sound "roduced by certain animals to detect obstacles and food. ,nimals tat
live were ligting is un"redictable use ecolocation. Some of tese animals are bats,
"or"oises, some !inds of wales, several s"ecies of birds, and some srews. Te first ste"
in ecolocation is emitting a sound. Hig0frequency sounds "rovide better resolution of
targets tan lower0frequency sounds. Jot every animal uses ultrasonic sounds in
ecolocation, but tey are more effective. Still, sounds used in ecolocation can be
"roduced in te voice bo6, te mout, or some oter "art of te ead. Ten, a igly
refined auditory system detects te returning ecoes (te sounds tat bounced of te
ob5ect). *n order for ecolocation to wor!, te outgoing "ulses of sound need to register
in te organismKs brain, so it can be com"ared to its eco. $sing ecolocation, some
animals can effectively catc "rey and LseeL in te dar!.
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