T.R.

Mersin University
Education Faculty
Foreign Language Teaching Department
English Language Teaching
HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED
Mid-term Project
From:
Melike G!"#$LU
%&'&(%((
To:
)a*am UMUT +,LD,R-,.
Mersin
#ct/ '%(%
TABLE OF CONTENTS
0E-#.D L.GUGE LER.,.G ,. T1E -L00R##M.................................................2
0i3 4roposals 5or -lassroom Teaching...................................................................................2
(6Get it right 5rom the 7eginning........................................................................................8
'69ust listen : and read......................................................................................................;
26Let<s talk..........................................................................................................................&
86T=o 5or one......................................................................................................................>
;6Teach =hat is teacha7le.................................................................................................((
?6Get it right in the end.....................................................................................................('
The implications o5 classroom research 5or teaching............................................................(;
0ummary ..............................................................................................................................(?
4#4ULR ,DE0 +#UT L.GUGE LER.,.G RE@,0,TED...................................(?
4opular ,deas a7out Language Learning...............................................................................(?
(6Languages are learned mainly through imitation..........................................................(?
'64arents usually correct young children =hen they make grammatical errors...............(&
261ighly intelligent people are good language learners...................................................(&
86The 7est predictor o5 success in second language acAuisition is motivation.................(&
;6The earlier a second language is introduced in school programmes/ the greater is the
likelihood o5 success in learning.......................................................................................(B
?6Most o5 the mistakes that second language learners make are due to inter5erence 5rom
their 5irst language............................................................................................................(B
&6The 7est =ay to learn ne= voca7ulary is through reading............................................(>
B6,t is essential 5or learners to 7e a7le to pronounce all the individual sounds in the
second language................................................................................................................(>
>6#nce learners kno= roughly (/%%% =ords and the 7asic structure o5 a second language/
they can easily participate in conversations =ith native speakers....................................(>
(%6Teachers should present grammatical rules one at a time/ and learners should practice
e3amples o5 each one 7e5ore going on to another.............................................................'%
((6Teachers should teach simple language structures 7e5ore comple3 ones....................'%
('6Learners errors should 7e corrected as soon as they are made in order to prevent the
5ormation o5 7ad ha7its.....................................................................................................'(
(26Teachers should use materials that e3pose students only to language structures they
have already 7een taught...................................................................................................'(
(86Chen learners are allo=ed to interact 5reely/ they copy each others mistakes...........''
(;60tudents learn =hat they are taught.............................................................................''
(?6Teachers should respond to students errors 7y correctly rephrasing =hat they have
said rather than 7y e3plicitly pointing out the error..........................................................''
(&60tudents can learn 7oth language and academic content simultaneously in classes
=here the su7Dect matter is taught in their second language.............................................'2
-onclusion............................................................................................................................'2
'
HOW LANGUAGES ARE LEARNED
SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE CLASSROOM
Six Proposals for Classroom Teaching
The Auestion =e are trying to ans=er in this section is E=hat is the 7est =ay to promote
language learning in classroomsFG Researchers try to 5ind the relationship 7et=een teaching
and learning.
There are si3 proposals that =e =ill e3amine a7out teaching language in classrooms.
These are:
(6 Get it right 5rom the 7eginning
'6 9ust listen: and read
26 Let<s talk
86 T=o 5or one
;6 Teach =hat is teacha7le
2
?6 Get it right in the end
1) Get it right from the beginning
EGet it right 5rom the 7eginningG is a proposal =hich emphasiHes the importance o5
accuracy in second language learning. This proposal mostly makes the use o5 structureI
7ased andJor 5ormI7ased instructions.
Most traditional approaches Kgrammar translation L audioIlingual approaches6 uses
this proposal in classroom teaching environment. ,n this proposal/ teachers don<t let
learners speak 5reely 7ecause this may cause them to make errors. nd as the learning is
vie=ed as ha7it 5ormation/ making errors is 7elieved to cause early 5ossiliHation in
learners.
Grammar-Tran!ation Met"od# 0tudents are given e3plicit instruction o5 grammar
rules and voca7ulary lists =ith translation eAuivalents. The purpose o5 this approach is to
help students develop in reading literature rather than develop in 5luency in spoken
language. The aim is to translate 7oth 5rom and to target language accurately. ,t o5ten
ignores the communicative aspect o5 language use.
A$dio!in%$a! A&&roac"# udiolingualism is 7ehaviorist in its language learning
theory. ccording to this/ learning is ha7it 5ormation through practice/ repetition/ and
memoriHation. ,t tries to prevent errors as much as possi7le to avoid early 5ossiliHation o5
errors. ,nstead o5 early speaking/ there is controlled practice in this approach. The
emphasis is on oral language 7ut students Dust use language through repetition o5 oral
items not through communicative use.
,n 5act/ learners 7elie5s a7out the 7est kind o5 instruction =hich is 7est 5or them
in5luence learners satis5action/ motivation and success. Grammar translation and
audiolingual methods 5ail to produce accuracy and 5luency in second language learners on
communicative terms.
Get it right 5rom the 7eginning proposal 5avors accuracy before fluency in language
learning. GrammarI5ocused instructions don<t 5avor the comprehension skills/
communication a7ilities and 5luency.
EGet it right 5rom the 7eginningG proposal has some limitations.
M Learners given grammar translation andJ or audiolingual instructions are mostly
una7le to use language in communicative purposes.
M Language is not learned 7y the gradual accumulation o5 one item a5ter another.
M Errors are not seen as a natural and valuable part o5 the language learning process.
M s the emphasis is on accuracy in the classroom/ this leads learners 5eel inhi7ited/
uncom5orta7le and reluctant to take chances in using their language 5or communication.
M 0tructureI7ased and 5ormI7ased instructions do not guarantee that second language
learners =ill develop high levels o5 accuracy and linguistic kno=ledge
M' OP(N(ONS
, don<t agree =ith the idea o5 get it right 5rom the 7eginning proposal that it sees
language learning as a ha7it 5ormation. 4artly/ language learning may 7e seen as ha7it
8
5ormation 7ecause some =ords are taken and repeated =hile learning language. 1o=ever/
learning a language is more comple3 than Dust ha7it 5ormation.
lso/ , don<t agree this proposal advocates that errors should 7e avoided at all costs.
0tudents are not allo=ed and e3pected to make errors especially in the 7eginning. 1o=ever/
errors are a part o5 natural process in language learning. voiding errors at the 7eginning
cause not only learner to use language less/ 7ut also students 5eeling in a stress5ul
environment =hile learning language.
Get it right 5rom the 7eginning may 7e use5ul 5or teaching the e3act use o5 language/
pronunciation improvement etc. 5or the advanced learners o5 language. 1o=ever/ 5or the
7eginning learners/ it may have no help.
2) J!t "i!ten # $n% re$%
E9ust listen: and readG proposal says that language acAuisition takes place =hen
learners are e3posed to comprehensi7le input through listening and reading. 0tephen Nrashen
is closely associated =ith this proposal. Nrashen says that the availa7ility o5 comprehensi7le
input is essential in instructional setting.
This proposal is controversial in language teaching 7ecause it says that L' learners
don<t need drill and practice language/ 7ut also that they do not need to speak at all in their
learning process.
The material that students read and listen to is not graded in a rigid =ayO rather/ the
material is graded on the 7asis o5 =hat teachers consider to 7e comprehensi7le 5or their
students.
Com&re"enion-)aed intr$ction
,n the early stages/ 0tudents in the comprehensionI7ased program may learn English
as much as learners in the regular program. This may 7e true 7oth 5or their comprehension
skills and 5or their speaking skills. 1o=ever/ in the long run/ students in regular programme
may make greater progress in some skills especially in =riting. Those students are ones =hich
have teacher 5eed7ack/ classroom interaction and audiolingual instruction =ith speaking and
=riting components.
Readin% *or +ord
Chile interacting in ordinary conversations/ =e use mainly (%%% or '%%% most
5reAuent =ords. Thus/ reading is a good source 5or voca7ulary learning. 0tudents =ho reach
an intermediate level may have very little opportunity to learn ne= =ords. 1o=ever/ in
reading/ they have more opportunity to learn ne= voca7ulary.
0impli5ied readers are reading materials =hich are graded parallel to the learners<
levels. 0tudents can encounter a num7er o5 ne= =ords and they can also 5igure out their
meaning 5rom the reading te3ts through the use o5 simpli5ied readers.
Tota! P",ica! Re&one
;
0tudents participate in activities in =hich they hear a series o5 commands in the target
language. They listen and sho= their comprehension through actions. They are not reAuired
to say anything. T4R di55ers 5rom Nrashen<s hypothesis in that voca7ulary and grammar are
care5ully graded and organiHed so that students deal =ith material =hich gradually increases
in comple3ity. Chen students 7egin to speak/ they take over the role o5 the teacher/ give
commands and 5allo=s them.
(n&$t F!ood
Giving highI5reAuency input to a particular 5orm is called input 5lood. 0tudents are
given highI5reAuency input to a particular 5orm. They read series o5 te3ts including this 5orm.
+ut they are given no e3plicit teaching o5 this 5orm. lso/ no error correction is given.
,nput 5lood may help learners to add something ne= to their interlanguage. 1o=ever/
they cannot get rid o5 the errors coming 5rom their 5irst language. E3posure to language input
may provide learners =ith in5ormation a7out =hat is grammatical in second language.
1o=ever/ it 5ails to give them in5ormation a7out =hat is not grammatical. 0o/ more e3plicit
in5ormation a7out =hat is not grammatical may 7e necessary.
En"anced (n&$t
0tudents are given reading passages to dra= their attention to a particular 5orm. The
particular 5orm is =ritten in the te3t in 7old type/ underlined/ italiciHed/ or capital letters. This
is called enhanced input.
1o=ever/ in study/ it is sho=n that there is not much di55erence 7et=een the learners
=ho are given enhanced input and =ho are not given/ in terms o5 their kno=ledge and use o5
these 5orms.
Procein% (ntr$ction
,t is another approach to comprehension 7ased learning. ,n processing instruction/
learners are put into situations =here they cannot comprehend a sentence 7y depending solely
on conte3t/ prior kno=ledge or other clues. Rather/ they must 5ocus on the language itsel5.
0tudents =ho received processing instruction may achieve higher levels o5
per5ormance on 7oth the comprehension tasks and the production tasks than students =ho
engaged in production practice doing e3ercises to practice the 5orm.
M' OP(N(ONS
, agree that language learning should start =ith listening and reading and students
should 7e =aited 5or language production. the ccess to comprehensi7le input =ould lead
students to learn the language.
-omprehensionI7ased instruction is a good =ay to teach language. Learners =ill 7e
motivated to learn the language. -lassroom interaction/ peer and teacher 5eed7acks are certain
to improve the language skills o5 learners.
Reading is a very good =ay o5 one<s improving hisJher voca7ulary kno=ledge.
Readers =ould learn voca7ulary kno=ledge related to the conte3t o5 the reading passage.
?
There are also staged 7ooks 5or all levels. There5ore/ reading is use5ul 5rom 7eginning to
advanced. ,n my opinion/ 5or advanced learners/ ho=ever/ =atching movies/ listening to
English music/ online podcasts videos etc. are also good =ay o5 learning voca7ulary.
Total physical response can have advantage especially in young learners at the
7eginning level. This approach is also parallel to natural language acAuisition stage. 0tudents
can learn language through physical actions and comments in the 7eginning level Dust as the
=ay young children do =hile acAuiring a language. 1o=ever/ , don<t 7elieve this =ill help
advanced level learners as the linguistic content =ould 7e too comple3 to teach Dust =ith the
help o5 T4R. lso/ as older learners are not as energetic as young learners/ they may not get
enDoyment 5rom T4R.
Enhanced input seems as a 7etter =ay o5 teaching a speci5ic 5orm than input 5lood. For
the reason that through input 5lood/ there is the possi7ility o5 students not realiHing the target
5orm. lso input 5lood may cause some errors o5 interlanguage to remain.
&) Let'! t$"(
Let<s talk emphasiHes the importance o5 access to 7oth comprehensi7le input and
conversational interactions =ith teachers and other students. ,5 students are given
opportunity to engage in interaction/ they negotiate for meaning (expressing and
classifying their intentions, thoughts, opinions etc...)
.egotiation 5or meaning can 7e achieved in communicative language teaching
K-LT6 and taskI 7ased instruction. 0tudents =ork together to accomplish a particular goal
7y using the target language. Through negotiation/ 0tudents can acAuire the language
5orms naturally K=ords and the grammatical structures6.
The oral interaction hypothesis/ proposed 7y Long in second language acAuisition
is critiAued. The interaction hypothesis advances t=o maDor claims a7out the role o5
interaction in second language acAuisition: K(6 comprehensible input is necessary 5or L'
acAuisitionO and K'6 modifications to the interactional structure of conversations that take
place in the process o5 negotiating a communication pro7lem help make input
comprehensi7le to an L' learner.
-orrective 5eed7ack helps learners make connections 7et=een 5orm and meaning.
Learner ta!-in% to !earner
,n the study 7y 4atricia 4orter/ language produced 7y adult learners per5orming a
task in pairs is evaluated. The learners are matched as native speaker Padvanced levelO
advanced level P intermediate levelO intermediate P intermediate level etc. ,t is 5ound that
the num7er o5 grammar and voca7ulary errors and 5alse starts may sho= no di55erence
across conte3t. ,ntermediate level learners may not make any more errors =ith another
intermediate level learner than they do =ith native speaker. This is interesting 7ecause it
calls 5or the argument that learners need to 7e e3posed to a native speaking model.
Learner !an%$a%e and &ro*icienc, !e.e!
&
Chen di55erent pro5iciencyIlevel students interact =ith each other/ the result
sho=ed that =hen lo=Ipro5iciency learners =ere in the Qsender< role/ the interactions
=ere longer and more varied than =hen highIpro5iciency learners =ere the Qsenders<.
+ased on this/ it can 7e suggested that teachers should sometimes place more
advanced students in less dominant roles in paired activities =ith lo=erIlevel learners.
T"e D,namic o* &air +or-
-olla7orative instruction consists o5 t=o learners 5ully engaged =ith each others
ideas. -olla7orative interaction types are dominant P dominant Kun=illingness on the part
o5 either learner to engage or agree =ith other<s contri7utions6O dominant P passive Kone
learner is authoritarian and other is =illing to yield to other speaker 6 O e3pert P novice
Kone learner is stronger than the other/ actively supported the other in carrying out the
task6 .
-olla7orative and e3pert P novice pairs maintains more o5 their second language
kno=ledge over time. Learners in dominant P dominant and dominant P passive pairs
maintain less.
,t sho=s that =hen pair =ork 5unctions colla7oratively and learners are in an
e3pert P novice relationship/ they can success5ully engage in the coIconstruction o5
kno=ledge.
(nteraction and econd !an%$a%e de.e!o&ment
lison Mackey gets learners do di55erent communicative tasks =ith native
speakers o5 the target language. 0tudents engaged in conversational interactions =ith
native speakers produces more advanced Auestion 5orms than 0tudents =ho received pre-
modified input (language =hich had 7een simpli5ied L scripted6 . 1o=ever/ students
engaged in conversational interactions =ith native speakers have no opportunity 5or
negotiation of meaning =ith native speakers. Cho are engaged in conversational
interactions produce more advanced Auestion 5orms than the other t=o.
Learner / !earner interaction
Nim McDonough investigates the use o5 pair and small group activities in English
as a 5oreign language class in Thailand. 1e tries to see the e3tent =hich students use
interactional 5eatures as negative feedback and modified input.
Learners =ho use more negative 5eed7ack and modi5ied output in interactions
signi5icantly improve more. 1o=ever/ none o5 the students consider pair and group
activities use5ul 5or learning English.
(nter&retin% t"e Reearc"
This research contri7utes to a 7etter understanding o5 ho= to organiHe group and
pair =ork more e55ectively in classrooms.
0everal studies have sho=n that implicit corrective feedback in pairI=ork
situations is 7ene5icial. Recasts are more silent in pair =ork/ particularly i5 one one 5orm is
recast consistently.
B
Through this research/ it is di55icult to dra= a conclusion a7out the long term
7ene5its o5 conversational instructions in classrooms.
M' OP(N(ON
This proposal emphasiHes the importance o5 7oth comprehensi7le input and
classroom interaction. , agree =ith the importance o5 these in language learning. 0tudents
are given access to speak 5rom the 7eginning 7oth =ith teacher and =ith each other. +y
this =ay/ , 7elieve especially older learners =ill 5eel themselves more secure =hile
interacting =ith learners o5 the same pro5iciency level. They =ill 7e in a stressI5ree
environment. 1o=ever/ these students can<t correct the mistakes o5 each other. For this/
teacher can =atch over the students and can give 5eed7ack at the end o5 their speech. For
more important mistakes/ using recasts through the interaction o5 students may 7e
necessary.
)) T*o for one
This approach is re5erred as contentI7ased instruction. Learners o5 a 5oreign
language acAuire it through studying a su7Dect matter in the target language. The
e3pectation o5 this approach is that students can get Et=o 5or oneG. They can 7oth learn the
su7Dect matter content and the language at the same time.
,n many conte3ts/ it is assumed that students =ill develop 7oth academic skills and
second language skills.
Frenc" immerion &ro%ramme in Canada
,n terms o5 popularity and longevity/ French immersion programme has a great
success. 0tudies sho=s that French immersion students develop 5luency/ high level o5
listening comprehension and con5idence in using the second language/ a level o5 success
in academic su7Dects. 1o=ever/ in the long run/ through years/ students 5ail to achieve
high levels o5 grammar even a5ter long years o5 e3posure to language.
There are assumed some reasons 5or thatO
-omprehensi7le input is not enough and there is little language
production as the classrooms are mostly teacherIcentered.
Chen students speak/ there occurs no di55iculty in
understanding the matter 7ecause they all share the same
interlanguage. This satis5action in communication causes no
need 5or negotiation o5 meaning.
+ecause o5 content 7ased instruction/ students may 5ail to
achieve certain language 5eatures.
Learners =ith only classroom e3posure to language in
classroom have less opportunity to learn interaction styles o5
native speakers.
Late immerion $nder tre in Hon% 0on%
>
The content 7ased language instruction in -hinese spoken classrooms. Neith
9ohnson raises concerns a7out the a7ility o5 educational system to meet demands 5or such
programmes.
1e notes students have lacked English pro5iciency they need to 5ollo= curriculum
success5ully. 1e also o7serves teachers di55iculty in presenting the content 7ecause o5 the
limitations o5 their English level. They try to use English/ -hinese or a mi3ture o5 7oth.
There5ore/ teacher talk is not =ell modi5ied. lso/ students come =ithout any skills in
English/ and teachers should compensate 5or that. They give less voca7ulary/ more
simpli5ied grammar etc. These help students to understand the content 7ut not to
understand syntactic and discourse structures in second language.
(n$it c"i!dren in content-)aed &ro%ramme
,n a7original community in -anada/ .ina 0pada and 4atsy Ligh7o=n o7serve the
teaching and learning o5 content su7Dect and language in students.
.early all students have di55iculty in coping =ith the su7Dect matter in their second
language. Teacher has to =ork hard to help students to understand a te3t Krepeating/
paraphrasing etc.6 Despite these/ most students understand very little. lso/ students don<t
get age appropriate academic French in lessons. This is another serious pro7lem.
(nter&retin% t"e reearc"
-ontent 7ased instruction has many advantagesO
,t increases the amount o5 time 5or learners to 7e e3posed to the
ne= language.
,t 7uilds a need to communicate and it motivates learners in that
they need to learn in order to understand the su7Dect matter.
For older learners/ the content is cognitively challenging. This is
mostly missing in English classrooms.
There are also some disadvantagesO
0tudents may need more time 7e5ore a7ility to use language.
lthough students may communicate 5luently/ a5ter many years
o5 e3posure/ they may still make mistakes in target language
structure.
M' OP(N(ONS
, think the advantages o5 contentI7ased language learning are undenia7le. ccess to
more time =hile teaching and its 7eing cognitively challenging are some reasons 5or that.
1o=ever/ 5or younger learners it may not 7e suita7le. The source o5 motivation o5 young
learners is very di55erent. They may enDoy =ith rather enDoya7le conte3t rather than academic
conte3t. lso/ young learners can have di55erent interests 5rom each other. t the same time/
young learners may also have di55iculty in learning academic content in a second language.
-ontentI7ased language teaching may 7e use5ul 5or language learning in universities.
0tudents =ill have the voca7ulary kno=ledge o5 their department and =ill have more
motivation 5or language teaching as it =ill not only 7e language learning 7ut it also =ill 7e
development 5or their o=n department.
(%
+) Te$,h *h$t i! te$,h$b"e
0ome linguistic structures develop along a developmental path. This is called
developmental 5eatures. lso/ learners acAuisition o5 variation 5eatures are depended on
motivation/ learner<s sense o5 identity/ language aptitude/ Auality o5 instruction etc.
Teach =hat is teacha7le suggests that =hile some 5eatures o5 language can 7e taught
success5ully at a certain stage/ it may not 7e learned at others. The recommendation is to
assess learners developmental level and teach =hat naturally come ne3t.
Read, to !earn
0tudents cannot 7e taught =hat they are not ready to learn. ,5 you skip a stage in
developmental stages =hile teaching/ they are less likely to learn.
Readie1 $nreadie and recat
Readies in interaction plus recasts group can improve more than the readies in the
interaction =ithout recast group. 1o=ever/ the unreadies e3posed to recasts don<t sho= more
rapid improvement than those =ho are not.
De.e!o&menta! ta%e and *irt !an%$a%e in*!$ence
,nstruction that is timed to match students< developmental readiness may move them
into more advanced stages 7ut their per5ormance may still 7e a55ected 7y other 5actors/ such
as 5irst language in5luence.
(nter&retin% t"e reearc"
,n Eteach =hat is teacha7leG/ development 5eatures develop along a particular
development path.
Targeting instructional and interactional input to learners Dust =hen they are
developmentally ready is suggested. #ther 5actors/ such as input/ 5irst language in5luence
Kinterlanguage6 and variation 5eatures can in5luence =ith learners< developmental readiness in
comple3 =ays.
ETeach =hat is teacha7leG is a great potential interest 5or teachers to evaluate =hat
they =ill teach and in =hich seAuence.
This proposal is important primarily 5or helping teachers to understand =hy students
don<t al=ays learn =hat they are taught/ at least immediately.
M' OP(N(ONS
Teach =hat is teacha7le is a proposal that should 7e considered not only 7y language
teachers 7ut 7y all teachers. ,t sho=s teachers =hat they should e3pect their students and ho=
((
much they should. For this reason/ 7oth =hile teaching adults and young learners/ =e should
arrange our e3pectations =ell in all skills o5 language teaching.
-) Get it right in the en%
dvocators o5 Eget it right in the endG proposal put an important role 5or 5ormI5ocused
instruction/ 7ut they don<t assume that everything has to 7e taught. ,t is proposed that many
language 5eatures =ill 7e acAuire naturally i5 learners have adeAuate e3posure to the language
and a motivation to learn. lso/ proponents o5 this proposal agree =ith Eteach =hat is
teacha7leG in that some things cannot 7e taught i5 teaching 5ails to take learners< readiness
into account. 1o=ever/ =hat they say is a 7it di55erent 5rom Eteach =hat is teacha7leG in that
it emphasiHes that some certain aspects o5 language must 7e taught e3plicitly.
4roponents o5 this proposal suggest that the 5ocused instruction =ill allo= learners to
notice the target 5eatures in su7seAuent input and interaction. FormI5ocused instruction/ in this
aspect/ does not include e3plicit metalinguistic e3planations. Rather/ they should 5ind out ho=
their speech Klanguage6 di55ers 5rom that o5 a pro5icient speaker.
EGet it right in the 7eginningG proposes dra=ing learners< attention on errors and 5orm
5ocus in certain linguistic points. 1o=ever/ it is not like =hat it is in Eget it right 5rom the
7eginningG. Rather/ they say it is appropriate 5or learners to engage in meaning5ul language in
the 7eginning o5 their e3posure. They say much o5 language use =ill develop naturally
through meaning5ul language use/ =ithout 5ormal instruction itsel5 at the 7eginning.
Form-*oc$ e2&eriment in ESL
The e55ects o5 5ormI5ocus instruction and corrective 5eed7ack in E0L classes are
studied in French immersion programme.
Learners =ho receive e3plicit instruction on adver7 placement dramatically
outper5orm the learners =ho have not. This is 5ound in all tests in 7oth the immediate and
delayed posItests. ,n the 5ollo=ingIup tests a year later/ the di55erence disappears and their
per5ormance =as that o5 uninstructed learners. This may 7e 7ecause the learners are not
supplied enough input through the year.
lso/ instructed group make greater gains than uninstructed group in =riting tasks
7oth immediately a5ter and si3 months later. Focus on 5orm also has improved their oral
per5ormance over time. Results like this sho= the importance o5 considering ho= instruction
may a55ect language learning 5eatures in di55erent =ays.
,t is 5ound in study that 5irst language in5luence strongly a55ects second language
learning.
Foc$in% on t"e conditiona! Frenc" immerion
0tudents in e3perimental groups receive several hours o5 5ocused instruction on the
conditional over a period. The control group goes on their usual classroom learning =ithout
5ocused instruction.
('
Learners in e3perimental class outper5orm those in control classes on the immediate
post tests 5or =ritten tasks/ 7ut not oral.
0tudents in control group are given e3plicit instruction and engage in guided practice
activities such as roleIplay etc. The other group continues the regular learning =ithout any
5ocusIinstruction. ,n immediate postItests/ e3perimental group outper5orm the control group
7oth in oral and =ritten tasks.
Foc$in% on %ender in Frenc" immerion
0i3 classes o5 grade ' children are given 5ocused instruction on grammatical 5eature
that is kno=n to 7e a persistent pro7lem 5or French immersion students.
Learners =ho receive instruction are much 7etter at recogniHing and producing
accurate gender distinctions 5or 5amiliar nouns. 1o=ever/ they haven<t generaliHed =hat they
have learnt a7out the rule. This is may7e 7ecause they are not assessed enough input.
Foc$in% on .er) *orm in content-)aed cience c!aroom
0tudents =ho receive corrective 5eed7ack make more progress in using past and
conditional 5orms than the comparison group 7oth immediately a5ter the period o5 5ocused
5eed7ack and t=o months later.
Recat and &rom&t in Frenc" immerion &ro%ramme
There are three e3perimental groups and one comparison groups in research. Three o5
the e3perimental groups get 5orm 5ocused instruction KFF,6. T=o o5 the e3perimental groups
also receive corrective 5eed7ack in the 5orm o5 either recast or prompts.
4rompts include clari5ication reAuests/ repetitions/ elicitation/ metalinguistic clues
etc:
#n the post test all three FF, groups are signi5icantly more accurate than the
comparison group. ,n addition FF, R prompts group do signi5icantly 7etter than FF, R recast
group in =ritten measures. 1o=ever/ there is no signi5icant di55erence 7et=een the three FF,
groups in oral tasks.
Foc$ on *orm t"ro$%" co!!a)orati.e dia!o%$e
The development o5 t=o grade & French immersion students are o7served motivated
7y sociolinguistic theory and the idea language occurs in dialogue.
Teachers conclude that multiple choices 5or learners to engage in colla7orative talk on
the language 5eatures in Auestions lead them to a greater understanding o5 correct use.
Foc$-on *orm in ta- )aed intr$ction
@irginia 0amuda e3plores =ays o5 guiding adult E0L learners< attention to 5ormI
meaning relationships 7y 5ocusing on e3pression o5 possi7ility and pro7a7ility Kcould/ might
etc..6
(2
During this phase/ teacher acts as coIcommunicator and maintains the 5ocus on
meaning 7ut gradually shi5ts to 5orm 7y using the language the learners have produced on
their o=n 7y providing them =ith alternative =ays o5 e3pressing uncertainty. This is done
implicitly.
ccording to research 5indings/ 7y 5ormImeaning relationships/ and this kind o5
instruction/ there is evidence o5 improvement in that many more o5 modal au3iliaries are
present in learners< speech.
(nter&retin% t"e reearc"
FormI5ocused instruction and corrective 5eed7ack =ithin communicative and
contentI7ased programmes can help learners improve their kno=ledge and use
o5 particular grammatical 5eatures.
The e55ects o5 instruction may not al=ays 7e longIlasting. This may 7e related
to =hether there is continued e3posure to a linguistic 5eature in regular
classroom input or not.
Teachers are not the only source 5or students to provide in5ormation on
language 5orms. 0tudents can get help 5rom each other i5 they are given
adeAuate guidance and a supportive structure in =hich to do so.
Learners 7ene5it more 5rom 5eed7ack that pushes them sel5Icorrection rather
than 5eed7ack providing them correct 5orm. Kprompts rather than recasts6
FormI5ocused instructions may 7e more e55ective =ith some language 5eatures
than others.
Chen students have di55iculty =ith language 5eatures that do not have a maDor
impact on clarity or accuracy/ 5ormI5ocused instruction may 7e necessary
Kparticularly in the 5orm o5 corrective 5eed7ack6
M' OP(N(ON
, agree that 5ormI5ocused instruction and corrective 5eed7ack can help learners
improve their kno=ledge and use o5 particular grammatical 5eatures. 1o=ever/ the limit o5
5orm 5ocused instruction and the type o5 corrective 5eed7ack may change according to
students< level/ interests/ age and the su7Dect matter.
For e3ample/ some su7Dects may need 5ocusing on 5orm. 1o=ever/ some su7Dects may
7e understood easily 7y the students. Even/ the type o5 5ormI5ocus can change according to
the su7Dect matter and students. 0ome su7Dects may need e3plicit 5orm 5ocus instruction =hile
5or the others/ input 5lood or enhanced input is enough.
-orrective 5eed7ack is also very essential 5or students< learning at all level. Type o5
corrective 5eed7ack also changes according to type o5 students. Using recasts and prompts are
good =ays o5 learning 5or di55erent purposes and circumstances. For e3ample/ it may not 7e
suita7le 5or very young learners to give them only recasts. Learners may think this as a
con5irmation o5 their sentence. They may skip that teacher has corrected their sentence.
1o=ever/ this may 7e use5ul 5or older learners 7ecause their attention may 7e more 5ocused.
lso/ recast is a =ay 5or older learners to correct their mistakes =ithout o55ending them.
(8
The implications of classroom research for teaching
E3clusive 5ocus Dust on meaning or e3clusive 5ocus on 5orm is not recommended.
pproaches that integrate attention to 5orm =ithin communicative and contentI7ased
instruction receive the most support in the classroom.
Get it right in the beginning: GTM and LM leave many learners 5rustrated and
una7le to participate in ordinary conversations/ even a5ter years o5 classes. EGet it right 5rom
the 7eginningG does not correspond to the =ay maDority o5 success5ul second language
learners have acAuired their pro5iciency. Learners still continue to have di55iculty =ith 7asic
structures o5 the language in programmes that o55er little or no 5orm 5ocused instruction.
Just listen and read, !"o for one: Chile there is good evidence that learners make
progress in 7oth comprehension and production in comprehensionI7ased programmes/ =e can
5ind evidence 5or the hypothesis that language learning =ill 7e complete itsel5 =ithout guided
attention to language 5eatures as a component o5 instruction.
#et$s talk: Engaging in conversational activities =ithin group or pair =ork can ena7le
students increased 5luency and a7ility to manage conversations. 1o=ever/ students have
slo=er progress in acAuiring more accurate linguistic 5eatures. Let<s talk emphasiHes meaning
and tries to simulate natural communication in conversational interaction. 1o=ever/ =hen
learners are given 5eed7ack in 5orm o5 recasts or repetitions/ they may think it as a
continuation o5 conversation or they may not catch the corrected unit.
-ontentI7ased courses and communicative E0L strongly advocate that learners
develop higher levels o5 5luency through meaning 7ased instruction rather than grammar
7ased instruction. The pro7lem is certain aspects o5 language 5eatures and per5ormance can
develop through such programmes.
Teach =hat is teacha7le: =hat is most important a7out this proposal is that it gives an idea to
teachers a7out =hy students cannot learn some units and guide teachers to set more realistic
e3pectations a7out the learners language progress.
Get it right in the end: classroom activities should 7e 7uilt primarily on creating
opportunities 5or students to understand and e3press meaning5ul language. This proposal says
that 5ormI5ocused instruction and corrective 5eed7ack are also essential 5or learners
development. The important point is to 5ind a 7alance 7et=een meaningI7ased and 5ormI
5ocused instruction. Chile 5inding this 7alance/ it is important to consider learners<
motivation/ prior educational e3periences/ age/ metalinguistic a=areness etc.
0ome language 5eatures are learned easily =hile the others are learned =ith di55iculty.
This is related to the 5reAuency o5 5eatures/ the interlanguage o5 the learner. 0o/ some di55icult
5eatures o5 language may need 5ormI5ocused instruction and corrective 5eed7ack.
lso some rules in the language are simple and some are di55icult. 0imple ones may
not need 5ormI5ocused instruction and learners can discover them through the practices.
Chereas/ di55icult rules may need a 5ormI5ocused instruction in a communicative conte3t.
(;
Summary
FormI5ocused instruction and corrective 5eed7ack provided =ith a communicative
conte3t and contentI7ased programmes are more e55ective in prompting second language
learning than programmes that are limited to e3clusive emphasis on comprehension/ 5luency
or accuracy alone.
Teachers can provide guided/ 5ormI5ocused instruction and corrective 5eed7ack in
certain circumstances. Teachers should not hesitate to correct persistent errors that learners do
not seem to notice =ithout 5ocused attention. Teachers should 7e a=are o5 the errors maDority
o5 the class make. lso/ teacher should 7e a=are o5 the errors =hose source is the 5irst
language Kinterlanguage6 o5 the learner.
,t can 7e use5ul to encourage learners taking part in process 7y creating activities =ith
5orm attention that they use in communicative activities. They can create a conte3t in =hich
they share 5eed7ack/ Auestions a7out language and corrections =ith each other.
-ommunicative teaching methods sometimes result in 5ull reDection o5 attention to
5orm and errorIcorrection in second language teaching. Rather/ the challenge is to 5ind the
7est 7alance o5 these t=o orientations.
.O.ULAR IDEAS A/OUT LANGUAGE LEARNING
RE0ISITED
Popular Ideas about Language Learning
34 Lan%$a%e are !earned main!, t"ro$%" imitation
,t is di55icult to 5ind evidence that language learning is mainly through imitation.
,nstead/ Learners produce many novel Koriginal6 utterances in addition to language theySve
heard 7e5ore. Language learners do not simply internaliHe a great list o5 imitated and
memoriHed sentences.
This does not mean that imitation has no role to play in language learning. ,mitation
may 7e an individual learning strategy 7ut it is not a universal characteristic o5 language
learners.
,mitations can 7e a good =ay 5or advanced learners to improve their pronunciation.
-are5ul listening and imitation can 7e a good and valua7le practice. 1o=ever/ 5or 7eginners/
imitation and rote memoriHation can lead a dead end.
M' OP(N(ON
, certainly don<t agree =ith the title. Language learning is more comple3 than Dust
repeating like parrots. , agree =ith the last paragraph. ,mitation can 7e good =ay to develop
(?
pronunciation/ intonation and stress in advanced learners. For e3ample/ , =atch movies and
repeat some =ords on my o=n and this helps me developing intonation.
For younger learners/ they can practice the pronunciation o5 ne= =ords. 1o=ever/
repetition =ill have no use in production and teaching process.
54 Parent $$a!!, correct ,o$n% c"i!dren +"en t"e, ma-e %rammatica! error
4arents tend to 5ocus on meaning rather than 5orm =hen they correct their children<s
mistakes. They may correct an incorrect =ord choice/ statement or a rude remark. They don<t
try to correct errors as long as they don<t inter5ere communication. This sho=s that learners
don<t depend merely o5 corrective 5eed7ack to learn 7asic language structures.
The case is more comple3 in second language learners. +oth children and adult
learners can acAuire a great deal o5 language =ithout any correction or 5ormal instruction.
1o=ever/ in some cases/ =ithout correction/ learners may use incorrect 5orm 5or many years.
M' OP(N(ONS
s long as , see/ parents don<t correct their children<s grammatical mistakes as long as
these don<t cause any communication 7reakdo=n. They Dust correct the mistakes o5 students
in discourse. For e3ample/ =hen they use rude =ords/ they correct their children<s mistakes.
1o=ever/ correcting the grammar don<t occur so much unless there is a communicative
7reakdo=n.
64 Hi%"!, inte!!i%ent &eo&!e are %ood !an%$a%e !earner
The kind o5 intelligence measured 7y ,T is a good predictor 5or success in classroom.
,t can 7e considered e55ective in learning 5orm and structure. 1o=ever/ in natural language
learning settings and in classrooms =here interactive language use is emphasiHed/ learners
=ith di55erent intellectual a7ilities can 7e more success5ul.
Teachers should not e3clude learners 5rom opportunities to learn other languages on
ground that they don<t have academic a7ility to succeed. Teachers should engage di55erent
kinds o5 a7ility students 7ring to the learning environment.
M' OP(N(ONS
1igh intelligence may 7e an advantage 5or language learners in learning grammar/
voca7ulary etc.. 1o=ever/ in sociolinguistic and communicative perspective/ di55erent types
o5 intelligence rather than ,T may 7e more advantageous. There are also some people =ho are
naturally gi5ted to learn a language. These people learn language very easily regardless o5 the
teaching =ay you use.
74 T"e )et &redictor o* $cce in econd !an%$a%e ac8$iition i moti.ation
Learners =ho =ant to learn tend to do 7etter than those =ho don<t. +ut =e should not
interpret this too rigidly. Factors such as age/ individual di55erences etc. are also related to
success.
(&
Teachers have no in5luence over learners< intrinsic motivation 5or learning a second
language. Teachers can in5luence learners< motivation 7y making a supportive environment in
the classroom =hich students engage in activities suita7le 5or their age/ 7ackground/ cultural
kno=ledge etc.
M' OP(N(ONS
Motivation is a very advantageous element in language learning. 1o=ever/ this does
not mean that all learners =ith high motivation can achieve 7etter than the others. There are
also many other elements =hich a55ect the learning process/ such as intelligent/ age/ social
standards etc.
94 T"e ear!ier a econd !an%$a%e i introd$ced in c"oo! &ro%ramme1 t"e %reater i
t"e !i-e!i"ood o* $cce in !earnin%
,5 the o7Dective is nativeIlike speech in second language/ it may 7e 7etter to 7egin to
e3posure to language as early as possi7le. 1o=ever/ this may lead some 7ad e55ects. Early
start means that children =ill have little opportunity to continue to develop their 5irst
language. lso/ children =ho 7egin schooling in a language they already kno= =ill have
more sel5Icon5idence.
Chen the goal o5 the educational programme is 7asic communicative skill 5or all
students/ it can 7e more e55icient to 7egin second language teaching later. #lder children are
a7le to catch up Auickly to those =ho 7egan earlier. This is especially true i5 the 5oreign
language course includes a period o5 more intensive e3posure to the ne= language.
M' OP(N(ONS
0tarting language learning at an early age is 7etter to have more nativeIlike speech. ,
am not sure i5 the early e3posure to second language learning =ill e55ect the 5irst language
development. t least/ in our country/ as the students =ill not have much chance to e3pose to
second language outside classroom environment/ and as they =ill use their mother tongue in
their immediate environment/ , don<t think learning second language at early age =ill lead
them to have pro7lems =ith mother tongue.
:4 Mot o* t"e mita-e t"at econd !an%$a%e !earner ma-e are d$e to inter*erence
*rom t"eir *irt !an%$a%e
The trans5er o5 patterns 5rom the native language is one o5 the maDor sources o5 errors
in learner language. 0ome errors caused 7y the similarity 7et=een the 5irst and second
languages can 7e di55icult to overcome.
spects o5 second language di55erent 5rom the 5irst language can 7e acAuired =ith
more di55iculty than aspects that are similar.
(B
,t should not 7e 5orgotten that the 5irst language is not the only in5luence on second
language learning. 0econd language errors are evidence o5 learners e55orts to discover the
structure o5 the target language itsel5 rather than attempts to trans5er patterns 5rom their 5irst
language.
M' OP(N(ONS
, agree that the 5irst most o5 the errors in second language learning comes 5rom the
5irst language. 0imilarities and di55erences in L( and L' are the reasons 5or that. For e3ample/
Turkish students may mispronounce EtelevisionG 7ecause o5 the e55ect o5 their 5irst language.
;4 T"e )et +a, to !earn ne+ .oca)$!ar, i t"ro$%" readin%
This statement is a7solutely true. -hildren e3pand their voca7ulary during their school
years/ and reading is maDor source o5 this gro=th.
0econd language learners 7ene5it 5rom opportunities to read material that is interesting and
important to them. Those =ho receive guidance 5orum instruction and develop strategies 5or
learning voca7ulary =ill 7ene5it more than those =ho simply 5ocus on getting the main ideas
5rom a te3t.
M' OP(N(ONS
The 7est =ay to learn ne= voca7ulary is through reading. Reading 7ooks lead learners
to learn voca7ulary in a permanent =ay. 1o=ever/ there are other =ays o5 learning ne=
voca7ulary/ listening to music in target language/ =atching movies/ online videos/ ne=s are
also good source o5 learning ne= voca7ulary. lso/ these =ould lead learners to learn ne=
voca7ulary =hile improving their listening skills. nd in movies especially/ they come across
=ith voca7ulary in communication.
<4 (t i eentia! *or !earner to )e a)!e to &rono$nce a!! t"e indi.id$a! o$nd in t"e
econd !an%$a%e
0peakers< a7ility to make themselves understood depends more on their a7ility to
reproduce the phasing and stress pattern then a7ility on each individual sound.
Learners need to learn to understand and produce language varieties in a =ay =hich
=ill ena7le them to communicate e55ectively and in a =ay that =ill cause no communicative
7reakdo=n.
M' OP(N(ONS
, don<t think it is easily possi7le 5or students to realiHe and pronounce all sounds
individually. , am also not sure i5 it =ill have essential need and use 5or learners Rather it
=ould 7e 7etter 5or them to learn pronunciation o5 individual sounds =ithin =ords and in
sentences. This =ould lead them to learn pronunciation =ith correct rhythm and intonation.
=4 Once !earner -no+ ro$%"!, 31>>> +ord and t"e )aic tr$ct$re o* a econd
!an%$a%e1 t"e, can eai!, &artici&ate in con.eration +it" nati.e &ea-er
(>
Most conversational language involves only relatively limited num7ers o5 =ords and
sentence types.
,t is important to kno= the pragmatics o5 =ords. ,t is use5ul to 5ocus attention on suck
things as politeness/ respect/ apology etc.
M' OP(N(ONS
Learning most commonly used (%%% =ords =ould lead learners to communicate
e55ectively in conversational units. 1o=ever/ , agree that they should also kno= the
pragmatics o5 =ords and phrases to convey their messages correctly.
t a di55erent perspective/ kno=ing a7out (%%% =ords cannot 7e enough in some
circumstances. This su55iciency may change according to the su7Dect o5 conversation. ,5 you
don<t have enough voca7ulary kno=ledge/ o5 course/ you have di55iculty in conversations
a7out politics/ science/ history etc.
3>4 Teac"er "o$!d &reent %rammatica! r$!e one at a time1 and !earner "o$!d
&ractice e2am&!e o* eac" one )e*ore %oin% on to anot"er
Language development is not Dust adding one rule a5ter another. Rather/ it involves
process o5 integrating ne= language 5orms and patterns into e3isting interlanguage.
That second language development is a sort o5 accumulation o5 rules is a 5alse
assumption.
,solated presentation and practice o5 one structure at a time does not provide learners
=ith an opportunity to discover ho= di55erent language 5eatures compare and contrast in
normal language use.
M' OP(N(ONS
, don<t 7elieve learning language is Dust accumulation o5 rules. 1o=ever/ it may 7e
true that learners should learn language 5rom simple through comple3 units.
0tudents should not learn language units in isolation. Rather/ they should learn in
communicative means 7y the help o5 a conte3t. Kconte3tual learning6
334 Teac"er "o$!d teac" im&!e !an%$a%e tr$ct$re )e*ore com&!e2 one
-ertain structures are acAuired 7e5ore others. 0econd language learners 7ene5it 5rom
the e55orts o5 native speakers and 5luent 7ilinguals to modi5y their speech to help second
language speakers understand.
Teachers should teach simple language structures 7e5ore comple3 ones. Teachers
should increase the comple3ity o5 their language intuitively as the learner<s pro5iciency
increases.
M' OP(N(ONS
'%
, certainly agree that some language structures are more easily learnt than others.
0tudents should learn simple structures 7e5ore comple3 one. lso/ natural language
learning process should 7e taken into account =hile teaching a second language.
354 Learner error "o$!d )e corrected a oon a t"e, are made in order to &re.ent
t"e *ormation o* )ad "a)it
Errors are natural part o5 language learning. This is true 7oth 5or the development o5
child<s 5irst language acAuisition and 5or second language learning o5 adults and children.
,5 errors are persistent/ especially =hen they are shared 7y most o5 the students in a
class/ it is important to 7ring the pro7lem to their attention.
E3cessive 5eed7ack on error can have a negative e55ect on motivation and teachers
should 7e sensitive to their students< reactions to correction. The type/ the amount o5
correction is related to the characteristics o5 students and the su7Dect.
,mmediate error correction in oral communication may em7arrass some students and
discourage them 5rom speaking. There5ore/ teachers should 7e care5ul.
M' OP(N(ONS
, don<t 7elieve learners errors can cause them to 5orm 7ad ha7its i5 they are not
corrected immediately. Getting corrective 5eed7ack prevent learners 5rom 7uilding
5ossiliHation o5 mistakes. FossiliHation may occur i5 you never correct students< mistakes.
1o=ever/ not having immediate correction does not mean these errors =ould 7e 5ossiliHed.
Especially in speaking lessons/ it =ould 7e 7etter to correct students< mistakes at the
end i5 they don<t cause any communicative 7reakdo=n. #ther=ise/ interrupting students may
cause students to 5eel under stress and may prevent their oral communicative improvement.
364 Teac"er "o$!d $e materia! t"at e2&oe t$dent on!, to !an%$a%e tr$ct$re
t"e, "a.e a!read, )een ta$%"t
There =ill 7e a loss o5 motivation i5 students are not su55iciently challenged. 0tudents
also need to deal =ith Qreal< material i5 they are eventually going to 7e prepared 5or language
use outside the classroom.
Chen a particular 5orm is introduced 5or the 5irst time or =hen the teacher 5eels there
is a need 5or correction/ it is good to use narro=I5ocus materials K isolation o5 one element in a
conte3t =here others seem easy6
M' OP(N(ONS
,5 students have come across =ith a ne= language structure 5or the 5irst time/ narro=I
5ocus materials can 7e a good source o5 teaching structure. 1o=ever/ a5ter the very 5irst
presentation o5 ne= structure/ it is essential to come across =ith this structure through an
authentic material in a conte3t.
'(
374 W"en !earner are a!!o+ed to interact *ree!,1 t"e, co&, eac" ot"er mita-e
4air and group =ork provides more practice in speaking and participating in
conversations than a teacherIcentered class. ,t is 5ound that learners don<t produce more errors
than they do =hile talking to a pro5icient or native speaker. To the contrary/ they 5eel more
com5orta7le =hile in groups =ith people at the same level =ith them. 1o=ever/ learners at
similar levels cannot ordinarily provide each other =ith in5ormation =hat =ould help them
correct errors.
Group and pair =ork is valua7le addition to the variety o5 activities that encourage and
promote second language development.
M' OP(N(ONS
, also agree that language learners =ill 5eel more com5orta7le =hile interacting =ith
the learners at the same level =ith them. , don<t think they =ill copy each others mistakes.
1o=ever/ at the same time/ they =ill not have the chance to correct their o=n mistakes i5 they
have. For this reason/ the learners should interact 5reely 7ut at the same time/ their
communication should also 7e controlled and checked 7y the teacher and corrective 5eed7ack
should 7e given at the end i5 needed.
394 St$dent !earn +"at t"e, are ta$%"t
0ome aspects o5 the second language develop according to Qnatural seAuences o5
development and learners may 7e more likely to learn certain seAuences o5 development and
learners may 7e more likely to learn certain language 5eatures =hen they are developmentally
Qready.< #ther aspects o5 language/ ho=ever/ 5or e3ample/ voca7ulary/ can 7e taught at any
time/ as long as the learners are interested in the opportunity to learn and the teaching
methods are appropriate to the learner<s age/ interests/ and learning styles. Learners can learn
a great deal that noIone ever teaches them.
M' OP(N(ONS
, 7elieve students learn everything they can. The teacher should have reacha7le
e3pectations and sJhe should kno= the characteristics o5 hisJher learners. There is a natural
developmental seAuence in language learning and teacher should take it into account. lso/
the students< age/ level/ interests/ types o5 motivation etc. should not 7e neglected.
3:4 Teac"er "o$!d re&ond to t$dent error ), correct!, re&"rain% +"at t"e,
"a.e aid rat"er t"an ), e2&!icit!, &ointin% o$t t"e error
This kind o5 5eed7ack is called recast. ,t is 5ound to 7e the most common 5eed7ack
type in second language teaching. ,t is seen as an indirect and polite =ay o5 giving students
the in5ormation they need =ithout em7arrassing them.
Research =ith adults sho=s that learners are responsive to this kind o5 5eed7ack.
1o=ever/ in contentI7ased instruction =ith younger learner/ learners may sometimes not
notice that there is a 5eed7ack and correction. Rather they see it as a con5irmation o5 the
meaning. There5ore/ they may need more e3plicit 5orms o5 5eed7ack.
''
M' OP(N(ONS
This kind o5 5eed7ack can 7e help5ul. 1o=ever/ this also changes according to the
comple3ity o5 the target structure and the characteristics o5 students. 0ome errors may need
e3plicit 5eed7ack as they may skip to get attention. lso/ some learners may see recast as a
con5irmation o5 =hat they have said. For these reasons/ recasts may 7e a good =ay o5
5eed7ack/ 7ut prompts may 7e needed under some circumstances.
3;4 St$dent can !earn )ot" !an%$a%e and academic content im$!taneo$!, in c!ae
+"ere t"e $)ject matter i ta$%"t in t"eir econd !an%$a%e
There is more motivation in learning language =ith content 7ased instruction. There is
more opportunity to spend more time in contact =ith language. The range o5 voca7ulary and
language structure students come across are more varied.
0tudents in contentI7ased and immersion classes develop comprehension skills/
voca7ulary and general communicative competence in the ne= language. 1o=ever/ as there is
no 5ormI5ocused instruction/ sometimes there can 7e structural developmental errors.
ddition o5 5ormI5ocused instruction is help5ul.
M' OP(N(ONS
-ontentI7ased instruction is a good =ay o5 teaching language. Firstly the motivation
o5 this kind o5 instruction is very high. 0tudents< interest is raised and they learn language in a
meaning5ul conte3t and 5or a meaning5ul goal. t the same time/ they can improve their
language skills.
1o=ever/ not having enough pro5iciency may corrupt also their academic kno=ledge.
lso/ as there is not e3plicit instruction o5 speci5ic units in this kind o5 instruction/ students
may go on =ithout realiHing their mistakes and they may go on =ith 5ossiliHed errors a5ter
years o5 language learning.
For this reason/ contentI7ased instruction should 7e arranged in a =ay that =ill also
sometimes ena7le teachers to give e3plicit structural instruction. This instruction type may 7e
use5ul especially in universities =here students =ould need 7oth academic kno=ledge and
learn English 5or academic and departmental kno=ledge. This =ould 7e very motivational.
Conclusion
Language learning is a55ected 7y many 5actors. 4ersonal characteristics/ learners<
e3periences/ social and cultural environment/ structure o5 target and native languages/ age etc.
are among these 5actors.
Teachers cannot have control on all o5 these 5actors. 1o=ever/ a 7etter understanding
o5 them =ill permit teachers and learners to make the most o5 time spend together in t=in
processes o5 teaching and learning a second language.
'2