SMART GRID

Introduction
Concept of Smart Grid started with the idea of Advanced
metering infrastructure with the aim of improving demand
side management and energy efficiency and constructing self
healing reliable grid protection.
Initially perceived scope was later expanded to cope up to the
new requirements and demands.
Smart Grid (SG)
Smart Grid also called
Smart Power Grid
Intelligent grid
Future grid
Intelligrid
Intergrid
Intragrid

Smart Grid
Comparison
EXISTING GRID SMART GRID
ELECTROMECHANICAL DIGITAL
ONE WAY COMMUNICATION TWO WAY COMMUNICATION
CENTRALIZED GENERATION DISTRIBUTED GENERATION
FEW SENSORS SENSORS THROUGHOUT
MANUAL MONITORING/RESTORATION SELF-MONITORING/SELF-HEALING
FAILURES AND BLACKOUTS ADAPTIVE AND ISLANDING
FEW CUSTOMER CHOICES MANY CUSTOMER CHOICES
Definition - SG
An electric system that uses information, two-way, cyber-
secure communication technologies and computational
intelligence in an integrated fashion across electricity
generation, transmission, substations, distribution and
consumption to achieve a system that is clean, safe, secure,
reliable, resilient, efficient and sustainable.


DIFFERENT RESEARCHERS

DIFFERENT FOCUSES

DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVES
From a Technical Perspective
Systems in SG
Smart infrastructure system
advanced electricity generation, delivery and consumption
advanced information metering, monitoring and management
advanced communication technologies
Smart management system
advanced management and control services
Smart protection system
advanced grid reliability analysis, failure protection,
security and privacy protection services.

Objectives of smart grid

To accommodate a wide variety of generation centralized and
distributed, intermittent and dispatchable.
To communicate with energy management system in smart
buildings to enable customers to manage their energy use and
reduce their energy cost.
To provide improved power quality to the users.
To provide real time information, lower operation cost and
electricity available to everyone.


Objectives of smart grid
To use information technology for monitoring and control to optimize
its capital and operational cost
To predict and instantly respond to system problems in order to avoid
power outages and power quality problems
To make the nation energy independent
To provide employment

Smart Grids is not felt to be a necessity only for the integration
of distributed generation, renewable energy sources and plug-in (hybrid)
cars into the electricity grid but also for active participation of consumers
for improvements in overall system efficiency, meet the peak demand
without investment in generation and variable pricing system.

Smart Grid
Smart grid initiatives seek to improve operations,
maintenance and planning by making sure that each
component of the electric grid can both 'talk' and
'listen'. Another major component of smart grid
technology is automation.
Smart Grid
In many places, a power company will only know that service
is out if a customer calls. In a smart grid scenario, if service is
interrupted the company will know right away because certain
components of the grid (smart meters in the affected area, for
instance) stop sending data. By ensuring that all the
components of the grid -- from transformers to power lines to
home electric meters -- have IP addresses and are capable of
two-way communication, the company can manage
distribution more efficiently, be proactive about maintenance
and respond to outages faster.

Smart Grid
Four types of technology will drive the advancement of smart
grids:
Integrated, automated communication between components
of the electric grid.
Sensing and measurement technologies.
Automated controls for distribution and repairs.
Improved management dashboards and decision support
software.

Smart Grid
The U.S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
directed the National Institute of Standards and Technology
(NIST) to coordinate the research and development of a
framework to achieve interoperability of SG systems and
devices.
Although a precise and comprehensive denition of SG has
not been proposed yet, according to the report from NIST, the
anticipated benets and requirements of SG are the following:
Smart Grid
1) Improving power reliability and quality;
2) Optimizing facility utilization and averting construction of
back-up (peak load) power plants;
3) Enhancing capacity and efciency of existing electric power
networks;
4) Improving resilience to disruption;
5) Enabling predictive maintenance and self-healing responses
to system disturbances;
6) Facilitating expanded deployment of renewable energy
sources;

Smart Grid
7) Accommodating distributed power sources;
8) Automating maintenance and operation;
9) Reducing greenhouse gas emissions by enabling electric
vehicles and new power sources;
10) Reducing oil consumption by reducing the need for
inefcient generation during peak usage periods;
11) Presenting opportunities to improve grid security;
12) Enabling transition to plug-in electric vehicles and new
energy storage options;
13) Increasing consumer choice;
14) Enabling new products, services, and markets
Smart Grid
Domain Actors in the Domain Customers The end users of
electricity. May also generate, store, and manage the use of
energy.
Markets The operators and participants in electricity markets.
Service Providers The organizations providing services to
electrical customers and utilities.
Operations The managers of the movement of electricity.
Bulk Generation The generators of electricity in bulk
quantities. May also store energy for later distribution.
Transmission The carriers of bulk electricity over long
distances. May also store and generate electricity.
Distribution The distributors of electricity to and from
customers. May also store and generate electricity.

Smart Grid
In 2001, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) began a series of
Communications and Controls Workshops focused on the integration
of distributed energy resources
The U.S. federal government has also established its policy for SG,
which is reected in two Acts of Congress.
The rst one is the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007
which species studies on the state and security of SG; establishes a
federal advisory committee and intergovernment agency task force;
frames technology research, development and demonstration;
directs the advancement of interoperability; and creates a matching
fund program to encourage investment in SG.
The second one is the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of
2009 [240], which includes $3.4 billion in funding for the SG
Investment Grant Program and $615 million for the SG
Demonstration Program. The result of these programs is expected to
lead to a combined investment of over $8 billion in SG capabilities.
Smart Grid
Several major SG standardization roadmaps and studies in the
following:
1) United States: NIST IOP Roadmap
2) European Union: Mandate CEN/CENELEC M/441
3) Germany: BMWi E-Energy Program, BDI initia- tive -Internet
der Energie
4) China: SGCC Framework
5) Japan: METI Smart Grid roadmap
6) Korea: Smart Grid Roadmap 2030
7) IEEE: P2030
8) IEC SMB: SG 3 Roadmap
9) CIGRE: D2.24
10) Microsoft: SERA.
In order to drive all the dimensions of the future standards of
SG, a cooperative standardization roadmap crossing different
areas, countries, and organizations is desired.
In the meantime, those existing standards may need to be
developed and revised to adapt to the changes within
technical, political, and regulatory aspects.
In order to promote the development of SG, governments,
academia, industry, and research organizations have put a
great deal of effort in pilot projects, programs, and eld trials.
To assess the recent progress, especially in the industrial
sector : 17 major projects, programs, and trials-need to read
it.
Smart Grid Infrastructure System
Two-way ows of electricity and information lay the
infrastructure foundation for the SG.
The smart infrastructure can be subdivided into the smart
energy subsystem, the smart information subsystem, and the
smart communication subsystem, respectively.



Traditional Power Grid
Electricity is often generated at a few central power plants
byelectromechanical generators, primarily driven by the force of
owing water or heat engines fueled by chemical com- bustion or
nuclear power.
In order to take advantage of the economies of scale, the
generating plants are usually quite large and located away from
heavily populated areas.
The generated electric power is stepped up to a higher voltage for
transmission on the transmission grid.
The transmission grid moves the power over long distances to
substations.
Upon arrival at a substation, the power will be stepped down from
the transmission level voltage to a distribution level voltage.
As the power exits the substation, it enters the distribution grid.
Finally, upon arrival at the service location, the power is stepped
down again from the distribution voltage to the required service
voltage(s)
In Smart Grid
The electric energy generation and the ow pattern in an SG
are more exible. For example, the distribution grid may also
be capable of generating electricity by using solar panels or
wind turbines.
In contrast to the power generation in the traditional power
grid, smarter power generation becomes possible as the two-
way ows of electricity and information are supported.

DG in Smart Grid
A key power generation paradigm enabled by SG will be the
distributed generation (DG).
DG takes advantage of distributed energy resource (DER)
systems (e.g. solar panels and small wind turbines), which are
often small-scale power generators (typically in the range of 3
kW to 10,000 kW), in order to improve the power quality and
reliability.
For example, a microgrid, which is a localized grouping of
electricity generators and loads, can disconnect from the
macrogrid so that distributed generators continue to power
the users in this microgrid without obtaining power from
outside.
Thus, the disturbance in the macrogrid can be isolated and the
electric power supply quality is improved.
In Smart Grid
A Study from the International Energy Agency pointed out that a
power system based on a large number of reliable small DGs can
operate with the same reliability and a lower capacity margin than a
system of equally reliable large generators.
Implementing DG(s) in practice is not an easy proposition due to
several reasons.
First, DG involves large- scale deployments for generation from
renewable resources, such as solar and wind, whose yield is,
however, subject to wide uctuations.
In general, the generation patterns resulting from these renewables
and the electricity demand patterns are far from being equal
Therefore, effective utilization of the DG in a way that is cognizant of
the variability of the yield from renewable sources is important.
Secondly, the usual operation costs of distributed generators
for generating one unit of electricity are high compared with
that of traditional large-scale central power plants.
Considering the DGs potential benets on power quality, a
systematic research on how to balance the high capital costs
and the reliable power supplies brought by DG is essential.
DG in SG
Today limited penetration
In future SG is expected to adopt a large number of
distributed generators to form a much more decentralized
power system
It may evolve from the present system in three stages:
1) Accommodating DGs in the current power system;
2) Introducing a decentralized system of DGs cooperating
with the centralized generation system;
3) Supplying most power by DGs and a limited amount by
central generation.
VPP
The development and deployment of DG further leads to a
concept, namely Virtual Power Plant (VPP), which manages a
large group of distributed generators with a total capacity
comparable to that of a conventional power plant.
This cluster of distributed generators is collectively run by a
central controller.
The concerted operational mode delivers extra benets such
as the ability to deliver peak load electricity or load-aware
power generation at short notice.
Such a VPP can replace a conventional power plant while
providing higher efciency and more exibility.

VPP
Note that more exibility al- lows the system to react better to
uctuations. However, a VPP is also a complex system
requiring a complicated optimization, control, and secure
communication methodology.
A suitable software framework that can be used to help
implement the concept of a VPP in future power systems in
reqd.
The importance of Service Oriented Architecture in
implementing the VPP is to be investigated.
On the Transmission Side
Factors such as infrastructure challenges (increasing load
demands and quickly aging components) and innovative
technologies (new materials, advanced power electronics, and
communication technologies) drive the development of smart
transmission grids.
The smart transmission grid can be regarded as an integrated
system that functionally consists of three interactive
components: smart control centers, smart power transmission
networks, and smart substations.
New features, such as analytical capabilities for analysis,
monitoring, and visualization
On the Transmission Side
The smart power transmission networks are conceptually built
on the existing electric transmission infrastructure. How- ever,
the emergence of new technologies (e.g new materials,
electronics, sensing, communication, computing, and signal
processing) can help improve the power utilization, power
quality, and system security and reliability, thus drive the
development of a new framework architecture for
transmission networks.
The basic congurations of high-voltage substations have not
changed much over the years, the monitoring, mea-
surement, and control equipment have undergone changes.
On the Transmission Side
Major characteristics of a smart substation shall include
digitalization, autonomization(Self-governing), coordination,
and self-healing.
By supporting these features, a smart substation is able to
respond rapidly and provide increased operator safety.
On the Distribution Side
For the distribution grid, the most important problem is how
to deliver power to serve the end users better.
However, as many distributed generators will be integrated
into the smart distributed grid, this, on one hand, will increase
the system exibility for power generation, and on the other
hand, also makes the power ow control much more
complicated, in turn, necessitating the investigation of smarter
power distribution and delivery mechanisms.
Two in-home power distribution systems in which the
information is added to the electric power itself and electricity
is distributed according to this information.
The rst one is a circuit switching system based on alternating
current (AC) power distribution, and the other is a direct
current (DC) power dispatching system via power packets.
The packetization of energy is an interesting but challenging
task since it requires high power switching devices.
Researchers have shown that silicon carbide junction gate
eld-effect transistors are able to shape electric energy
packets.
Hence, the system proposed in [235] has the potential as an
intelligent power router.
More specically, supplied electricity from energy sources is divided
into several units of payload.
A header and a footer are attached to the unit to form an electric
energy packet.
When the router receives packets, they are sorted according to the
addresses in the headers and then sent to the corresponding loads.
Using energy packet, providing power is easily regulated by
controlling the number of sent packets.
In addition, many in-home electric devices are driven by DC power
and have built-in powerconversion circuits to commutate AC input
voltage. Thus, DC- based power distribution is feasible.
These systems will make in-home power distribution systems more
efcient and easier to control energy ow.


Microgrid
Distributed generation promotes the devel- opment of a new grid
paradigm, called microgrid, which is seen as one of the cornerstones
of the future SG
The organic evolution of the SG is expected to come through the
plug-and-play integration of microgrids.
A microgrid is a localized grouping of electricity generations, energy
storages, and loads. In the normal operation, it is connected to a
traditional power grid (macrogrid).
The users in a microgrid can generate low voltage electricity using
distributed genera- tion, such as solar panels, wind turbines, and
fuel cells.
The single point of common coupling with the macrogrid can be
disconnected, with the microgrid functioning autonomously.
This operation will result in an islanded microgrid, in which
distributed generators continue to power the users in this microgrid
without obtaining power from the electric utility located in the
macrogrid.
Thus, the multiple distributed generators and the ability to
isolate the microgrid from a larger network in disturbance will
provide highly reliable electricity supply.
This intentional islanding of generations and loads has the
potential to provide a higher local reliability than that
provided by the power system as a whole.
Using microgrids in the distribution system is straightforward
and also simplies the implementation of many SG functions.
This includes improved reliability, high penetration of
renewable sources, self-healing, active load control, and
improved efciencies.
For example, in order to realize self-healing during outages,
microgrids can switch to the islanding mode and as a result
the users in microgrids will not be affected by outages.
Introduction
The electricity generation sector of many countries is domi- nated by
nuclear and fossil fuel power plants.
Environmental pollution due to fossil fuel power plants has been
instrumental for natural calamities, such as globalwarming.
The Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster on 11 March 2011 conveys a
spiteful warning regarding catastrophic consequences due to
accidents in nuclear power plants.
Such combined concerns owing to conventional fossil fuel and
nuclear power plants are stimulating widespread utilization of
renewable-energy-based electricity generation across the globe.
As a consequence, attempts have been made for integration of
large- and small-scale renewable energy sources with the main
power grid.
Introduction
Dispersed generations are usually integrated with the
distribution system in the form of distributed generation units
(DGs) and micro- grids (MGs).
Bulk power generation sources from renewable energies can
be categorized as DGs, and small-scale generation with
associated loads can be called as MGs.
Wind farms and solar farms having provision for exporting
power to the main grid are examples of DGs.
Small-scale DGs associated with domestic or commercial loads
come under the category of MGs. MGs are designed to
operate in either a grid-connected mode or in islanded mode
(autonomous).

A grid-connected MG can either export or import power from the
main power grid. In the islanded mode of operation, the MG will be
dis- connected from the main grid by an isolation switch at the point
of common coupling (PCC)
Although renewable energies have numerous advantages compared
to energy sources based on fossil fuels and nuclear fuels, the high
penetration of the DGs can lead to many operational stability issues
for the smart grid.
These operational stability issues with renewable sources mainly
arise due to their intermittent nature and lack of inertia; the
foremost stability issues are frequency instabilities and power ow
oscillations.
The stability margin for stable frequency and power ow operation
of smart grids decreases with the penetration of renewable energy
sources
Renewable energy sources pertaining to DGs and MGs are
integrated to the main grid either through direct connection or
through power-electronic-based converters.
Constant speed wind turbines can be an example for a directly
connected renewable source,while solar panels are integrated to
main power grids through controlled inverters.
Directly connected renewable sources have operational limits owing
to grid synchronization issues as well as due to the intermittent
nature of renewable energies.
This limitation can be overcome by interfacing the renewable source
to the main grid through power-electronic- based inverters.
DGs interfaced through inverters can maintain grid synchronism
even under wider variations of frequency of renewable energy
sources.
The schematic diagram of DGs interfaced to the smart grid
using a power electronic inverter and a coupling inductor is
shown in figure.
In case of DGs pertaining to solar farms, solar panels are
connected to a common DC bus through DC-to-DC converters
that main- tain the DC bus voltage at a constant value
irrespective of the variations in solar insolation levels.
The DC bus serves as the input to the inverter, which converts
the DC voltage to AC voltage to maintain synchronism with
smart grid; the inverter is connected to the smart grid through
coupling inductors or isolation transformers.
Schematic diagram of solar-farm and wind-
farm-based DGs

In the case of wind farms, wind turbines are linked to the DC
bus through controlled rec- tiers, which maintain the DC bus
voltage at a constant value irrespective of variations in wind
speed
Grid synchronization and power ow control of inverters for
DGs are achieved through a micro-controller-based grid syn-
chronizing controller(GSC)
Since the terminal voltage of a grid-connected inverter is
prescribed by the main power grid, the GSC operates the DG
inverter in a current-controlled mode so that the power
exported to the main grid is restricted to preset values. The
preset values are determined in real time by a maximum
power point tracking(MPPT)algorithm, so that maximum
power can be extracted from the renewable source for given
operating conditions
Many wind farms are connected to Local network at low,
medium or high voltage
The injection of wind power has impact on Voltage magnitude
at the PCC
The effect on Voltage magnitude depends on the strength of
the utility distribution network at the point of coupling as well
as the active and reactive power of the wind generator
The strength of the system at the point of coupling under
consideration is decided by the short circuit power called the
fault level at that point.

STABILITY ISSUES IN SMART
GRIDS WITH DGS AND MGS
The stability issues in smart grids with high penetration of DGs
and MGs arising from their diverse operational characteristics
compared to conventional plants
Lower Angular Stability Due to
Lower Overall System Inertia
In conventional power grids, the inertial support from the rotating
mass of the synchronous generators plays a major role for
maintaining the grid frequency during transient periods.
In the smart grid, the majority of the DGs and MGs are interfaced to
the main grid through power-electronic-based converters.
These power electronic converters electrically decouple the DGs and
MGs from the smart grid when disturbances take place in the smart
grid.
Hence, these DGs and MGs typically deliver no inertial support
during power grid transients, such as transmission line faults,
sudden load change, etc.
Hence, the increased penetration of DGs and MGs results in lower
system inertia for the smart grid.
The lower the system inertia is, the higher the vulnerability is for
smart grid to voltage and frequency instabilities due to transients.

Lower Voltage Stability Due to
Lower Power Sharing Support

The power electronic converters in DGs and MGs are operated in the current
control mode, the power exported to the smart grid is limited to preset values.
Therefore, during contingencies in the smart grid, the power sharing support
from DGs is much less compared to that of conventional power plants.
Conventional power plants can meet the increased power demand during
various contingencies with the kinetic energy stored in the rotating mass of
synchronous generators.
As MGs are switched to islanding mode of operation during contingencies in the
main power grid, the power sharing sup- port from MGs can be considered as
zero.
Hence, the current- controlled operation of DGs and islanded operation of MGs
can lower the total power generation within the smart grid, in turn declining the
voltage prole.
Therefore, high penetration of DGs and MGs can deteriorate the immunity of the
voltage prole of the smart grid during various power system contingencies.
Low-frequency Power
Oscillations

The MPPT algorithm in the GSC of a DG sets the maximum
power output value for the DG inverter for that operating
condition of renewable source.
Depending on the frequency of the MPPT update, the output
of the DG inverter will have variations.
These variations in each DG in the smart grid can aggregate
into oscillations in total power generation. These continual
changes in the power sharing ratio (DG) of DGs can produce
rotor oscillations in synchronous generators. These oscillations
can be severe when the penetration of DGs becomes very
high.
Worsening of Smart Grid
Transient Prole During MG
Islanding
MGs are designed to switch over from the grid-connected mode to
islanded mode when disturbances or contingencies occur in the
smart grid.
The inuence of MG islanding on frequency stability of smart grid :
The islanding operations of MGs in a smart grid owing to
disturbances in the latter can introduce sudden changes in the power
demand of synchronous generators.
Hence, the islanding operation of MGs results in a power imbalance
in the smart grid.
The power imbalance can either accelerate or decelerate the
synchronous generators.
The islanding operation of MGs during disturbances or contingencies
in the smart grid can trigger grid frequency variations.
Depending on the penetration of MGs, these variations can result in
frequency instability in the smart grid unless proper remedial actions
are performed
Inability to Serve as System
Reserve
The reserve power generation plays a vital role for stable op-
eration of a power grid. The intermittent nature of renewable
sources makes the DGs unsuitable to serve as system reserve.
Through the addition of storage elements (such as batteries),
DGs can be operated as system reserve; hence, increased
penetration of DGs can degrade overall smart grid reserve,
unless conventional plants are operated to cater to system
reserve.