01 Word Perfect

To our language may be with great justness applied the observation of
Quintilian, that speech was not formed by an analogy sent from heaven. It did
not descend to us in a state of uniformity and perfection, but was produced by
necessity and enlarged by accident, and is therefore compound of dissimilar
parts, thrown together by negligence, by affectation, by learning or by
ignorance. (Samuel ohnson, a famous writer of dictionaries, !"#"$
!
.
Introduction
%ord&perfect' is a sourceboo( for advanced students of )nglish as well as teachers of )nglish le*icon and
le*icology at various levels. The boo( is initially aimed at those who wish to focus on )nglish structures and
broaden their socio&cultural awareness and, at the same time wor( on the theory of )nglish linguistics and
le*icology.
Linguistics covers several sub&branches, such as morphology, phonetics or le*icology. These sub&branches
e*amine language from various points of view and tend to overlap. Lexicology is a branch of linguistics which
studies words and their meaning (+eprn,(, p. !--$. Thus, the most fre.uent .uestions a student of le*icology is
li(ely to as( are/
%hat is a word01
%hat sort of relationship is there between a word and its meaning01
%hy are there several notions for one meaning01
%hy there e*ist words which have several meanings01
2ow come that there are so many )nglish e*pressions whose meaning is different from the meaning of their
individual words0
To answer the first .uestion (%hat is a word0$ we have to loo( closely at the theory of linguistic signs as well as
at some morphological issues. Therefore, Section I of this boo( e*amines selected phenomena of the word&
formative process, such as suffi*ation, prefi*ation, bac(&formation, conversion, portmanteau words and
compounds.
Section II analyses structural relations among words, i.e. how words behave. This part provides an opportunity
to study and practise homonyms, synonyms, antonyms, hyponyms, hyperonyms and le*ical fields.
Section III e*amines specific issues of the )nglish le*icon 3 words and groups of words with specific or
ambiguous meaning4meanings, which may cause difficulties for those who try to achieve language perfection.
These obscure word groups are/ collocations, idioms, i.e. metaphors, similes, proverbs and non&idiomatic idioms,
phrasal verbs, foreign words and phrases and confusing word&groups called false cognates'.
To sum up, %ord&perfect' is not a mere boo( of theory, nor is it a wor(boo(. %ord&perfect' is designed to
facilitate learning )nglish le*icology and le*icon hand&in&hand with the way that can be adapted to a classroom
setting or for private study. In preparing this boo(, I have tried to present a concise sum of what is (nown about
the )nglish language from the point of view of le*icology and also a set of e*ercises to practice each of the
le*ical and morphological issues involved.
The author of this boo( strongly recommends the users to use a good contemporary dictionary. 5 good choice
might be the Longmans Dictionary of Contemporary English
2
, the Longmans Language Activator
3
or the
Dictionary of Selected Collocations
4
as well as dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms. The users will find all of
these very helpful when completing the e*ercises and activities.
6inally, I should li(e to than( the 7ritish 8ouncil deputy Tim +hillips for his efficient and cheerful help. I am
also grateful to my colleagues )va 2omolov9 and +etra esens(9 for their comments on the structure and content
of this boo(.
!
.uoted in :ule, The Study of Language !;<=
>
Dictionary of Contemporary English. !;;=. 2arlow/ ?ongman @roup ltd. !;;=. pp !AA<. IS7B C&=<>&>-"=C&=
-
Language Activator. !;;#. 2arlow/ ?ongman @roup ltd. !;;#. pp. !=<". IS7B C&=<>&C#C;>&>
#
2I??, immie1 ?)%IS, Dichael. !;;". Dictionary of Selected Collocations. 2ove/ ?anguage Teaching
+ublications. !;;". pp. ><<. IS7B !&<;;-;A&==&!
Section I Unit 1 What is a Word? The Theory of Linguistic Signs
The initial .uestion is one of those simple .uestions with a large number of e*tremely complicated and
ambiguous answers. Therefore, many scholars, as well as several branches of science have been trying to answer
it/ for e*ample, linguistics (represented by 6erdinand de Saussure$ and philosophy of language, (represented by
?udwig %ittgenstein$. In this chapter we will discuss two .uestions/ %hat is a word0 and %hat does it mean to
(now a word0 as well as basic principles of the theory of linguistic signs.
6. de Saussure (!<=" 3 !;!-$ was the founder of modern structuralism. 2e believed that words and their
combinations 3 language form a system or structure. 2e also believed that a word has a dual nature. It consists of
the concept, signifi (i.e. the4a meaning$ and signifiant (i.e. acoustic image$.
8. E. Fgden and I. 5. Gichards developed SaussureHs theory of sign and suggested the semiotic triangle.
5 word, according to Fgden and Gichards, is of a comple*, tri&partite nature, involving referent (object$,
symol (word, its acoustic and written form$ and reference (concept, thought$. This theory is called the theory
of linguistic signs!
Semiotic triangle" #$%$#$&'$ (8FB8)+T or T2FI@2T$
%hat we thin( of when we read or hear a boo('
S()*+L #$%$#$&T
The word boo(' +hysical object
Thus, to understand a word means to (now its referent (colour, siJe, variants of a physical object$, symbol
(sound of the word and its written form$ as well as its meaning.
There is no need to point out that the same semiotic triangle varies from language to language/ while referent and
reference remain more or less the same in most languages, a Slova( uses the symbol (niha1 a 6rench uses
livre and a @erman reads and writes bucher. Such relationship between an object (referent$ and its symbol is
aritrary.
It is also true that the reference ,meaning4significance$ of a word depends on cultural and social bac(ground, i.e.
on extralinguistic reality! Sometimes it is li(ely to cause a great deal of difficulties for interpreters. 6or
e*ample, the te*t of the Goman&8atholic prayer, paternoster', is a tough nut' for translation because it does
not reflect the socio&cultural bac(ground of all believers/ the word !read used in the te*t implies a common
food made of ba(ed flour as well as a metaphorical re.uest for daily wealth. 2owever, in the 6ar )ast, the
nutritious and cultural role of !read is replaced by rice, which represents the most common food. Therefore
a 8hinese translator should better try to preserve the meaning of the prayer and use the words/ ...our daily rice
give us for the day. Thus to learn a4the meaning of a word we also need to (now its importance for a particular
culture or group of people.

To sum up, it is e*tremely difficult to say what a word is, or, what is a4the meaning of a word. To learn a word,
we need to ac.uire a sum of information about its meaning, forms, the physical object it represents as well as
cultural bac(ground of the word. 54the meaning often depends on e*tralinguistic phenomena, such as situation,
intonation or gestures.
-cti.ity 1" The meaning of any simple statement depends on the situation, intonation or gestures. 6or e*ample/
ST-T$)$&T )$-&I&/ '+&T$0T
The door is open. +lease come in. & someone has just (noc(ed
%hat a reliefK & someone who has lost the (ey
Bo wonder IHm cold. & someone sitting in a draughty room
Suggest as many meanings and situations for these statements as possible/ ItLs raining.'1 ILve had this dress
for years.'1 %ant a cigarette0'1 Bo need to e*plain.' and %here do you thin( youLre going0'.
Section 1 Unit 1 Terminology
To describe and e*plain word&formative processes we need terms specifically and accurately denoting them.
This chapter is an introduction to some of the terminology used in the study of word&formation, discussed in
Section I/
Word
Mefinition of a word' has been a tough nut' for linguists (see Init !$. Fne group of scholars may see four
different words/ have has had having" The other group of scholars distinguishes four variants of one word. Fn
this level, morphology and le*icology overlap. aroslav +eprn,(, a 8Jech linguist, defines word as a se.uence
of sounds (rarely a single sound$ or its representation in writing, that communicates the meaning. It cannot be
divided into smaller units of independent use, although a linguistic analysis may uncover in it more than one
morpheme.' (+eprn,(, p. !-"$.
)orpheme
Dorphemes are minimal units of analysis, recognised in morphology. 6or e*ample, the word un#gentle#man#ly
consists of four morphemes.
%ree morpheme
6ree morphemes are morphemes which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. $al% & operate go"
*ound morpheme
7ound morphemes are those that normally do not stand alone but which are typically attached to another form,
e.g. suffi*es &ed' #s' #ist etc. (see units A, "$ or prefi*es pre# ' re# ' etc (see units -,#,=$.
Lexeme ,Lexical unit2
?e*eme or le*ical unit is an abstract unit umbrellaing' all different word forms, such as inflectional variant, e.g.
go goes going gone and orthographic variants, e.g. center ( centre"
Stem
Stem is the basic word&form without bound morphemes, e.g. overdressed" Dress functions as the stem1 over#
and ( ed function as affi*es.
Lexicology
?e*icology is a sub&branch of linguistics which studies words and their meaning, i.e. lexis.' (+eprn,(, p. !--$.
)orphology
Dorphology is a sub&branch of linguistics which deals with the internal structure of words.
Semiotics, 3ragmatics
Semiotics (@ree( semeion sign$ is the study of signs, both verbal and nonverbal (the latter includes body
language, i.e. gestures and facial e*pressions$. This term is e.uivalent to semiology, coined by Saussure.
3ragmatics (or sometimes sociopragmatics'$ is the study of the relation between the language sign and its user.
Lexicon
The le*icon, i.e. vocabulary is not a mere list of words in a dictionary 3 comple* structural patterns interrelate in
all the words of the language.
-cti.ity 1" 5nalyse these le*emes into stems and morphemes. 8omment on the number and meanings of
individual morphemes. Identify prefi*es, stems, suffi*es. The first one has been done for you as an
e*ample/
).g. untoucha!le
3refix Stem Suffix
a$ farming c$ carelessness e$ untouchable
b$ farmhand d$ immoral f$ ungentlemanly
Bow thin( of words such as/ @erman, 2amburger, 8heeseburger. Mo you (now about how these words were
coined0
Section 1 Unit 4 Word5formation 3refixation ,12 &egati.e 3refixes
Several types of word&formative processes may form new )nglish words/ affi*ation, conversion, compounding
or bac( formation. 5ffi*ation is a summary term for both prefi*ation and suffi*ation. +refi*ation is the process
of placing prefi*es in front of the root of a word, e.g. pre&coo(, dissatisfy or underground. +refi*es can modify,
negate or completely change the meaning of a word. 5ccording to the meaning prefi*es give to words scholars
recognise =" varieties of )nglish prefi*es. %e will discuss two groups of )nglish prefi*es/ The first group
consists of prefi*es forming negatives, describing a reverse process or disparaging the original attribute. The
second group of )nglish prefi*es specifies siJe or degree, facilitates orientation or provides further information
about location and time.
1! &egati.e prefixes" &egation, re.erse process, disparaging
a2 &egation
%ords with negation& forming prefi*es have not', without' or opposite to' as part of their meaning, e.g./
a5 moral, theist in5 complete, decisive
dis5 obey, approve, il5 ,efore 6l72 liberal, literacy
un5 wise, helpful im5 ,phonetic reasons2 perfect, mature
non5 smo(er, inflammable, medical ir5 ,efore 6r72 relevant, regular

2 #e.erse process
%ords with prefi*es indicating reverse process describe the process of removal or an action that has the opposite
effect, e.g./
de5 frost, rust
dis5 connect, infect
un5 do, mas(
c2 8isparaging
Misparaging prefi*es' suggest little value or importance, as well as unpleasant, unsuccessful or imperfect things
or results of actions, e.g./
mal5 treat, function
mis5 hear, understand
pseudo5 intellectual, scientific
Spelling of words formed by these prefi*es varies. 6or e*ample, words formed by the prefi* de& can be written
with a hyphen or as one word (e.g. de&regulate1 deregulate$.
-cti.ity 1" 6orming negatives'. ?oo( at the words listed below. %rite down their negative forms ne*t to the
appropriate prefi*/ un5 9 non5 9 ir5 9 im5 9 in59 il5 9 ill59 dis5 9 mal5 !
nutrition perfect committal probable ability legible respect
believer belief obedience tie wrap adjustment odorous
fortune logical replaceable assorted responsible resident ma(e
2owever, there e*ists a group of )nglish words whose stem resembles a negative prefi*, e.g. undue1 to
disappoint1 inborn1 etc. These words may be confusing for a learner of )nglish because they do not mean the
opposite when they lose their negative prefi*'. Thus, the opposite of inborn' is not born' but perhaps learned1
the opposite of to disappoint' is to please and the opposite of undue is inade.uate'. 5 Slova( e.uivalent of
such false opposites may be the word&pair nen9vidieN' vs. On9vidieN'. Therefore, the sentence I hate nobody'
is difficult to translate to the Slova( language. Fther e*amples of such false opposites which may confuse
learners are/
discharge unnerve invaluable ingrained disappoint indifferent disclose infamous
discourage unto inset inflammable dissolve inbred disfigure inlaid
-cti.ity 1" Gemove false negative prefi*es' and discuss the meaning and word&class of new words, e.g./
!. to disillusion (verb$ 3 to destroy pleasant but false dreams of somebody1
>. illusion (noun$ 3 false dream.
Section 1 Unit : Word5formation 3refixation ,12 3refixes Specifying Si;e and 8egree
)*cept for positive or negative attitudes, prefi*es may also specify orientation, i.e. time, place, scope or ran(.
6or e*ample, a megastore, hypermar(et and supermar(et are variants of the same referent 3 mar(et and they
differ only in siJe and assortment.
There are twelve prefi*es which specify siJe and degree/
a$ +refi*es arch5 9 .ice5 9and co5 refer to people and specify their ran(s, titles or partnerships, e.g./

co5 author, educational, leader
arch5 angel, du(e, deacon
.ice5 premier, chairwoman

b$ +refi*es hyper5 9 mega5 9 ultra5 9 and o.er5 indicate e*tremes/ if somebody is hyperactive or ultramodern
they are e*tremely creative and very modern. +refi*es hyper5 and ultra5 combine predominantly with
adjectives, prefi* mega5 combines mostly with nouns. +.er5 is perhaps the most popular word&formative
element of those mentioned/ it combines with verbs, nouns and adjectives. 2ere is a list of words with these
meanings/
hyper5 cautious, critical, devoted, natural
ultra5 left, orthodo*, secret, )nglish
mega5 bid, production, buyout
o.er5 cautious, wor(, load, pay, play, fives

+refi*es under5 and mini5 may sometimes form the opposites to the words with prefi*es hyper5 , mega5 , ultra5
and o.er , for e*ample/ to underpay1 to underestimate, underweight and mini&city, minimar(et or minibudget.
These prefi*es refer to a smaller version of a particular thing or indicate paucity. +refi* under5 may also specify
position beneath or below something, e.g./ underground, underline, underarm, underclothes, underscore, underlit,
underlip, under&glass, underside. Under5 also combines with numbers to indicate age, e.g./ the under&fives.
c$ +refi* out5 combines with other verbs, nouns and adjectives to form verbs. It suggests better performance or
result than the original word, e.g./
to run to grow to jump to live to swim to wit
to outrun to outgro< to out=ump to outli.e to outs<im to out<it
d$ 6inally, prefi* su5 is of a very ambiguous nature. %ords that result from connection with this prefi* may
indicate some of these/
1! hierarchy Sub&branch, sub&class, sub&continent, sub&culture, sub&plot, sub&system
1! location Submarine, subsoil, subterranean, subway, suboceanic, subtitle
4! inferiority Substandard, subnormal, subsonic, sub&Sha(espearean (style$
-cti.ity 1" Ge&write these sentences using the prefi*es presented in a$1 b$1 c$ and d$. +reserve the same meaning.
!. ItHs .uite normal to criticise children if you thin( something is wrong but I do feel you canHt be too critical.
>. :ou must be very careful about what you say about appearance. Teenagers are e*tremely sensitive persons.
-. Too active children who canHt (eep still need special treatment.
#. ?aJiness is the main enemy of most schoolchildren.
=. Dost teachers canHt stand students who try to be more clever than the teachers are.
A. +arents tend to give certificates too much importance.
". There is no objective point of view 3 abilities are estimated to be either better or worse than they really are.
<. 5s children grow older they usually grow weary of bad habits, such as biting nails or using bad words.
;. Inhappy memories live longer than happy ones.
!C. Dost teachers are too busy and paid too little money.
!!. +rimary schools offer education for pupils under thirteen.
!>. Pery ambitious students are more successful than their less ambitious colleagues.
!-. 6rom the cultural point of view, most modern )nglish course&boo(s are below the re.uired standard.
-cti.ity 1" Miscuss which of the sentences above are true and which you believe are false.
Section 1 Unit > Word5formation 3refixation ,42 3refixes %acilitating +rientation
There e*ists a great number of prefi*es which help us to gauge location, distance, time and order. These prefi*es
may also indicate orientation of a person or movement, e.g. pro&socialist or anti&social. Dost of these prefi*es
have ?atin or @ree( origin.
a2 3refixes facilitating orientation
anti5 cloc(wise, social !. negative attitudes, >. negative orientation
pro5 socialist !. positive attitudes
contra5 indicate, flow !. one thing that has the opposite effect to another1 contradiction
counter cloc(wise, flow !. actions that oppose another actions4activities1 counteraction
auto5 suggestion, biography !. automatic process1 >. Something to, for or about oneself
2 3refixes specifying location and distance
extra5 terrestrial !. very1 >. Futside
fore5 shore, leg !. front part1 >. 7efore
inter5 marry !. between1 >. 8onnection
intra5 venous !. one thing e*isting within another
pan5 5frican !. involves the whole group or nation
tele5 scope !. distant action or location
trans5 plant !. transmission across the place mentioned1 >. complete change
c2 3refixes specifying time and order
ex5 husband !. used&to&be person1 >. Futside
neo5 gothic !. adaptation of a previous e*ample
post5 war !. after1 >. reference to postal service
pre5 marital !. before1 >. already1 -. 8ombination with dates/ pre&!;"CHs research
proto5 type !. early stages in development
re5 marry, new, cycle !. second action or activity
-cti.ity 1" Fdd man out'. Indicate the word without prefi*/
!. a$ reappear b$ Gelease c$ re&e*amine d$ repossess
>. a$ prefi* b$ pre&plan c$ +redestined d$ pre&paid
-. a$ neo&7aro.ue b$ neo&colonialist c$ neo&Tudor d$ neolithic
#. a$ e*&inmate b$ e*&pupil c$ e*&tenant d$ e*cess
=. a$ transse*ual b$ Transcendent c$ trans&siberian d$ transfusion
A. a$ counter&accusation b$ 8ounterargument c$ 8ounterpart d$ counter&strategy
". a$ pro&feminist b$ pro&%est c$ +roposition d$ pro&conservative
-cti.ity 1" -nti5 can be used with two different meanings. %rite ! in the space provided if it means that one
thing opposes another. %rite > if it means that one thing prevents another from happening.
5nti&sic(ness tablets should be ta(en two hours before starting a journey.
QQQQQ
5fter fitting the anti&theft device to her car, she hoped it would not be stolen again.
QQQQQ
The anti&apartheid movement in South 5frica gained a lot of publicity when Belson Dandela was released.
QQQQQ
5lthough it is more than three years since his wife died, he is still ta(ing anti&depressants.
QQQQQ
+ut anti&freeJe in your radiator to prevent water from freeJing.
QQQQQ
Toothpastes containing fluoride and anti&bacterial properties should be able to eradicate tooth&decay.
QQQQQ
Section I Unit ? Word5formation Suffixation ,12 &oun5ma@ers
Bew )nglish words may be also specified by suffi*ation, i.e. the process of adding inflections behind the root of
the word, e.g. careless1 useful or (itchenette. Suffi*es almost always modify the meaning of the original word.
There are several systems classifying )nglish suffi*es. Dost scholars recognise derivational suffi*es and
inflectional suffi*es. Inflectional suffi*es may form noun plurals (the @ermans$1 genitive case (headmasterLs$1 -
rd
person singular (spea(s$1 past tense (wor(ed$1 contracted forms (weHre$1 comparatives and superlatives (bigger1
the biggest$ or participles (spea(ing$. 2owever, some scholars dispute the productivity of this word&formative
process and consider the resulting words to be variants of the original le*eme. Fn the other hand, derivational
suffi*es effectively modify the meaning of the original word/ they may change the word class, specify the word
or generalise it. Dost scholars recognise suffi*es forming nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. In this chapter
we are going to discuss suffi*es forming abstract and concrete nouns as well as suffi*es added to specific word
classes/
1! -stract5 noun5ma@ers"
5age frontage, mileage 5ful spoonful, cupful 5ism 8ommunism
5dom (ingdom, stardom 5hood brotherhood, childhood 5ocracy Theocracy
5ery drudgery, slavery 5ing planting, farming 5ship friendship, hardship
1! 'oncrete5noun5ma@ers"
5eer engineer, rac(eteer 5ette (itchenette, usherette 5ster gangster, gamester
5er wor(er, coo(er let boo(let, starlet
5ess stewardess, lioness ling duc(ling, underling
4! -d=ecti.eAnoun5ma@ers"
5ese +ortuguese, apanese 5ist Socialists, loyalist
5,i2an +arisian, republican 5ite ?uddite, socialite
:! &ouns from .ers"
5age brea(age, wastage 5ation e*ploration, education 5or actor, supervisor
5al refusal, revival 5ee addressee, payee
5ant informant, lubricant ment amusement, e.uipment
>! &ouns from ad=ecti.es"
5ity rapidity, falsity 5ness carelessness, (indness
-cti.ity 1" 8hoose the appropriate suffi* (5ee9 5ist9 5ant9 5,i2an9 5arAerAor$ and identify the doer/
!. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person to whom a letter is addressed.
>. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who writes dramas.
-. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is an e*pert in meteorology.
#. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person in charge of a library.
=. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who buys things.
A. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is an e*pert in pathology.
". 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person to whom something is to be paid.
<. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person being e*amined. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who e*amines them.
;. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who e*plains by demonstrating.
!C. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a ruler who tyrannises their people.
!!. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is somebody who is nominated for an office.
!>. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a pharmaceutical chemist, i.e. a person who ma(es up medicines.
!-. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who practices manicure as their profession.
!#. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who is guilty of arson, i.e. illegal setting fire.
!=. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQ is somebody who has escaped from prison. 5n QQQQQQQQQQ is characterised by escapism.
!A. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who gives information.
!". 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who lives in civil life and is not serving in the armed forces.
!<. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person who is being blac(mailed. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is the one who blac(mails.
!;. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is a person responsible for managing a trust.
>C. 5 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ is an official (eeper of records and registers.
Section I Unit B Word5formation Suffixation ,12
Cer5ma@ers, -d=ecti.e5ma@ers and -d.er5ma@ers
1! Cer5ma@ers"
5ate urinate, chlorinate 5ify beautify, modify
5en deafen, ripen i;e ,U!S2 Aise modernise, advertise
1! -d=ecti.e5ma@ers"
5ed pointed, blue&eyed 5ic atomic, 8eltic 5less careless, childless
5esDue Eaf(aes.ue 5,i2al editorial, accidental 5ly friendly, absolutely
ful useful, handful 5ish foolish, feverish 5ous ambitious, desirous
5y sandy, hairy 5ale drin(able, washable 5i.e attractive, e*plosive
4! -d.er5ma@ers"
5ly .uic(ly, happily 5<ard,s2 southward, onwards 5<ise cloc(wise, lenghtwise
-cti.ity 1" Ise your dictionary and complete the table with appropriate word classes where possible/
C$#* &+U& -8E$'TIC$ -8C$#*
!. generation
>. organisational
-. national
#. lu*ury
=. hard
A. to apologise
". abundant
<. sensitivity
;. slowly
!C. to own
!!. to defend
!>. dream
!-. to agree
!#. invention
!=. procedure
!A. historical
!". to employ
!<. science
!;. political
>C. to dismiss
-cti.ity 1" ?oo( at the verbs printed in old and write down the appropriate word form in the space provided/
!. ?eary is a rather pompous QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . policy
>. The stri(e has now been QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . policy
-. Geviewers were so QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ that the play closed in a wee(. dismiss
#. ?ast >CC QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ led to a stri(e. dismiss
=. The new 7D% has a very QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ design. in.ent
A. 6lushing toilet was probably the greatest scientific QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . in.ent
". I found him most QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . agree
<. 2e was very QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ surprised by her coming. agree
;. 5n QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ supply of meat lowered prices to the historical minimum. aundance
!C. There was food in QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ at the party. aundance
!!. This hotel room is our most QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ model. luxury
!>. Beighbours envied my QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ geraniums. luxury
!-. This new brand of nail varnish ta(es only -C seconds to QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . hard
!#. Muring the crisis we suffered many QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . hard
Section I Unit F Word5formation *ac@5formation
7ac(&formation is a process opposite to the process of suffi*ation and prefi*ation. 7ac(&formation describes
forming of a new, shorter le*eme form the original, longer one by the means of deleting and imagined affi*.
5 word of one type (usually a noun$ is shortened to form another word of a different type (for e*ample, a verb$.
Thus, language behaves' li(e Dathematics 3 words follow mathematical' patterns, e.g./
cra;y (adjective$ 3 y R craJ craJ S e R cra;e (noun$
la;y (adjective$ 3 y R laJ laJ S e R la;e (verb$
Dost bac(&formed' words are verbs, formed mostly from nouns with the suffi* ion, for e*ample/
action ,noun2 ion G ,to2 act ,.er2
cohesion ,noun2 ion G ,to2 cohese ,.er2
emotion ,noun2 ion G ,to2 emote ,.er2
laser ,noun2 ion G ,to2 lase ,.er2
2owever, there is also a limited number of other word classes formed by bac(&formation, e.g./
surrealist ,noun2 ist G surreal ,ad=ecti.e2
Dost bac(&formed' words, such as to cohese' or to lase' are relatively new and thus we may not find them in
old dictionaries. Bevertheless, they are e*cessively used in advertisements or commercials.
-cti.ity 1" Melete the suffi*es and try to form the word&class suggested in brac(ets. Ise new words in
e*planatory sentences/
accreditation (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
contraception (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
double&glaJing (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
enthusiasm (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
option (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
peddler (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
self&destruction (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
transcription (noun$ 3 QQQQQQQQQ R QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ (verb$
-cti.ity 1" Melete suffi* of the underlined words. 6orm verbs and complete sentences. The first one has been
done for you as an e*ample/
!. She wor(s as an editor. She edits articles for The Sun"QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
>. %e need a baby&sitter. %e need somebody to QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
-. Some donations e*ceeded our e*pectations. 5n anonymous donor QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
#. +aranoia can be a terrible affliction. The disease QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
=. Separation of infectious patients is inevitable. Somebody call the ward nurse to QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
A. 5ir&conditioning needs to be fi*ed. The room isnHt QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
". 7irth of their first son gave rise to an outburst of enthusiasm. )verybody QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
<. The time has come for action. The time for tal(ing is past, we must QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
Section I Unit H Word5formation 'on.ersion
Some )nglish words can change their word class without changing their form. Thus, they can function as nouns
(e.g. a )other$ or as verbs (to mother somebody$ without any affi*es or inflections
=
. The position of such word
in the sentence is the only indicator of its word class. 8ompare/
MonHt mother me all the timeK
MonHt call me )otherK
Such change of a word class without any derivative means is called con.ersion. Some scholars have noticed that
converted words ...are found to be semantically more precise and therefore also more specialised.' (Pache(, p.
<=$.
Fbserve the difference between the impression given by the original, non&converted verb and verbs newly arisen
by conversion/
a$ 2e was eyeing her very closely.
2e was <atching her very closely.
b$ She elo<ed her way through the crowd.
She pushed people to ma@e her <ay through the crowd.
c$ They uttonholed me in the street and demanded information.
They stopped me in the street and demanded information.
Bot only are the sentences with converted words more descriptive and emotional but usually they are also
shorter.
8onversion employs a vast number of words related to parts of human body, clothing or instruments people use.
2owever, the meaning of the converted words may vary from the meaning of the non&converted words. 6or
e*ample, a s%irt denotes a womanLs garment that hangs from the waist. 2owever, to s%irt something does not
denote the action of wearing a s(irt but to be on the move along the edge of something. Try to guess the meaning
of the following sentences/
a$ I have to shoulder the responsibility. f$ I foot the bill.
b$ She fingered the sil( gently. g$ 2e palmed off his opponents.
c$ %e headed South. h$ 8oat the ca(e with chocolate.
d$ The +olice collared him as he tried to escape. i$ The shop assistant poc(eted the financial difference.
e$ 2e belt his raincoat. j$ The goalie booted the ball.
-cti.ity 1" Bames of instruments and appliances often share the same form with verbs, e*pressing the activity or
activities performed by them. 6or e*ample/ a hammer 3 to hammer. 6orm verbs and nouns and finish sentences/
6ill in these words/ water, paint, sweep, nail, shovel, plane, iron, ra(e, comb, belt, coat, arm, oil. Some words
may be used more than once.
!. 5 gardener usually uses aQQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ fallen leaves.
>. 5 housewife usually uses anQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ creased clothes.
-. 5 florist usually uses QQQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ plants and flowers.
#. 5 repairer usually uses QQQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ s.uea(y hinges.
=. 5 janitor usually uses a QQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ away snow.
A. 5 soldier usually uses an QQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ himself.
". 5 coo( usually uses chocolate to QQQQQQQQQQQQ ca(es.
<. 5n underta(er usually uses a QQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQ soil .
=
e*cept for inflectional suffi*es, such as &s' #ed' #ing etc.
;. 5 carpenter usually uses a QQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ wood smooth.
!C. +eople use QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ their coats or raincoats.
!!. 5 mechanic usually uses paint to QQQQQQQQQQQ the bodywor(.
!>. 5 MI: enthusiast uses nails to QQQQQQQQQQQ pictures on the wall.
!-. 5 hairdresser uses a QQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ tangled hair.
!#. 5 sweeper uses a QQQQQQQQQQQQ to QQQQQQQQQQQ filthy floors clean.
Section I Unit 1I Word5formation
3ortmanteau Words" 'lippings, *lendings and -cronyms
8lippings, blendings and acronyms are subclasses of so called portmanteau words' which consist of fragments
of two or more words. 'lipping is a relatively new trend in )nglish language which economises' words.
8lipping clips', i.e. shortens le*emes whilst preserves the original meaning. 7asically, any part of the word
may be clipped/
Fp art R Fptical S art
+op art R +opular S art
+ro&am R +ro S 5merican
Sci&fi R Science S fiction
2i&fi R 2igh S technology
Sit&com R Situation S comedy

*lending is also a new, trendy and eye&catching process which blends', i.e. joins fragments of two or more
words to create a new form. The meaning is being retained. )nough of the le*eme is usually retained so that the
elements are recognisable/
7runch R 7rea(fast S lunch
Smog R Smell S fog
8Jenglish R 8Jech S )nglish
5mtrac( R 5merican S trac(
In most cases, the second element is the one which controls the meaning of the whole. So, 8Jenglish is a (ind of
)nglish, not a (ind of 8Jech. This is why the resulting le*eme is 8Jenglish and not, say, O)ngcJech'.
-cronym is a word coined by ta(ing the initial letters of the words in a title or a phrase and using them as
a new word
A
'. The most common e*amples of )nglish acronyms are/
67I R 6ederal 7ureau of Investigation
8I5 R 8entral Intelligence 5gency
I6F R Inidentified 6lying Fbjects4Fbjects
GI+ R Gest in peace
GS+85 R Goyal Society for the +revention of 8ruelty to 5nimals
55 R 5lcoholics 5nonymous1 5utomobile 5ssociation
-cti.ity 1" )*plain the meaning of the following portmanteau words/
)urovision R
Interpol R
F*bridge R
Goc(umentaries R
Se*ational R
Swatch R
-cti.ity 1" Bow, do the opposite. Suggest a blending for these word&pairs/
7edroom S sitting room R
7reath S analyser R
@uess S estimate R
2elicopter S airport R
8hannel S tunnel R
A
DiT,(ov9, p. AA
Information S commercials R
F*ford S famine R
+rototype S person R
Slang S language R
:ale S 2arvard R
Section I Unit 11 Word5formation 'ompounds ,12
5 compound is a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one le*ical stem. The resulting compound
functions as a single item with specific meaning and grammar. Dany scholars consider compounding to be the
most productive word&formative process in )nglish
"
. @enerally, there are seven ways of compound&formation/
!. noun J noun" cloc(watcher1 bac(pac(1 s(inhead1 woman 3 doctor1 sleeping sic(ness1
>. .er J noun" pic(poc(et1 (ill&joy1 cut&throat1 or noun J .er" birthcontrol1
-. .er J .er" ma(e&believe1 go&go (dancer$1
#. ad=ecti.e J noun" fast&food1 hardware1 or noun J ad=ecti.e" childproof1 bullet&proof1 foolproof1
=. ad=ecti.e J ad=ecti.e" pro 5merican1 open&ended1 ready&made1
A. particle J noun" off&7roadway1 off&off&7roadway1
". .er J particle" handout1 outcast (see Section III1 Init >-$.
The most productive of these is the combination of particles and nouns. Fn the other hand, the most rare is the
combination of two verbs. There also e*ist special groups of compounds. These are/
<. phrase compounds" sister&in&law1
;. 6self5forms7" oneself1 themselves1
!C. rhyme5moti.ated compounds" brain&drain1
!!. neo5classical compounds" neo&classicism1 5nglophone.
-cti.ity 1" 8lassify these compounds according to the categories above and e*plain their meaning. %hat is the
resulting word&class0 The first has been done for you as an e*ample/
compound category )eaning <5class
!. lac@ird 4" European song!ird the male of $hich is !lac% noun
>. lac@out
-. lac@mail
#. <hite5collar
=. <hite5lie
A. red5handed
". redric@
<. greenhouse
;. green5eyed monster
!C. lue5pencil
!!. lue5collar
!>. lue5looded
!-. greyhound
!#. grey5headed
!=. yello<5ellied
!A. yello<hammer
-cti.ity 1" Ise some of the compounds from 5ctivity ! to complete the story/
ac( was a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ wor(er with rather QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ manners. In spite of the fact that he had
only finished one of numerous QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ universities, he had great plans for the future. ac( always
desired to be a famous person and to see his name in the tabloid press. 2owever, his life was rather plain. In
addition, ac( was rather QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ so there was no chance he would save somebodyHs life or rescue a
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ man from being smashed by a car. Thus, I couldnHt believe my eyes to see his name on the
cover of most newspapers one day/ during a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ in the local theatre ac( prevented panic by
imitating a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
"
Ute(auer, p. ;;
-cti.ity 4" Imagine you are a tabloid press journalist. Da(e the following headlines more sensational. Ise
compounds you have learned in activities ! and >/
F66I8) %FGE)G +G)P)BTS +5BI8
?58E F6 )?)8TGI8 8IGG)BT ?)5MS TF IDIT5TIB@ 5 :)??F% 7IGM
+GFPIB8I5? IBIP)GSIT: @G5MI5T) S5P)S T2) )?M)G?:
Section I Unit 11 Word5formation 'ompounds ,12 #hyme5moti.ated 'ompounds
Ghyme&motivated compounds are usually composed of two elements. The major motivating factor is the rhyme,
e.g. flower&power1 or brain&drain. 6ormation of rhyme&motivated compounds is a very productive process
e*cessively used in advertising or journalese style and, conse.uently in everyday speech. Bew le*emes often
become catch&phrases' because they are usually very lucid and cogent.
5 specific group of rhyme&motivated compounds are alaut moti.ated compounds. 5blaut is a term defining
vowel change or alternation of two elements, e.g. JigJag1 or tic(&toc(. 5blaut&motivated compounds are used to
imitate child&li(e speech or to stress interjections. )specially literary te*ts greatly utilise rhyme and ablaut&
motivated compounds because they sound more figuratively and emotionally. 6or e*ample, synonyms of the
word mish&mash' (mi*ture, melange, combination$ do not imply the same emotional effect (anger,
disappointment$ e*pressed in the sentence/ This is not soup neither it is sauce or spread !ut a mish#mash of all
these*+
Fne of the literary rather than le*icological or morphological terms defining a similar phenomenon is
alliteration 3 repeated use of the same letter or sound, usually the first letter of successive words. It is often used
in poetic language (e.g. ...born on the swollen, swaying, swishing seas$, publicity (e.g. MonHt Mrin( Mrive$ and
newspaper headlines (6ighting 6ootball 6ans 6ace 6ines$.
-cti.ity 1" +ut each of the following collo.uial e*pressions in the correct place in the sentences below according
to its meaning/
rat5race chit5chat mish5mash <ishy5<ashy dilly5dally
;ig;ag flip5flops sing5song so5story creepy5cra<ly
a$ Tired of the pressure of the competitive business world, she decided to leave the QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ and ta(e
over a small souvenir shop in the mountainous Borth.
b$ Mo not waste time in idle QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ & spea( to the pointK
c$ Tom StoppardHs last play is a confusing mi*ture. It is neither a comedy, a tragedy nor an absurd play but a
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ of all three.
d$ I never read those bland, QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ editorials in Sunday newspapers.
e$ @o, send this letter and come straight bac(. MonHt QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ on the way.
f$ The narrow path QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ down to the cliffs.
g$ IHm getting tired of your QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ about losing your job and being ill and oldK @o and find a
jobK
h$ To (eep our spirits up on the long journey we had a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
i$ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ are cheap, open sandals, each consisting of a rubber or plastic sole and a strap
between the toes.
j$ Dy wife suffers from arachnophobia. %henever she sees a spider she screams/ ThereHs a
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQK'
-cti.ity 1" Instructions as in 5ctivity !/
tittle5tattle hot5head riff5raff shilly5shally tell5tale topsy5tur.y
a$ She found the whole flat and realised she had been robbed of her precious jewellery.
b$ 2e denied any involvement in the arson but the police found QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ traces of (erosene on his
s(irt.
c$ The yacht club only accepts upper&class people, not ordinary QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
d$ Fh, donHt believe all the gossip saying about her. TheyHre just QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
e$ 2e is too impulsive, IHm afraid. %e donHt need any QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ for such a delicate operation.
f$ :ou must decide now. If you QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ any longer none of your admirers will marry you.
Section II Unit 14 Structural #elations among Words
5s we have already pointed out in the &ntroduction, ?e*icology not only analyses what words are (i.e. internal
relations within individual words$ but also how words behave' in a te*t or conte*t (i.e. external relations
between words$. There are two types of relations among words/ paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations/
Syntagmatic relations analyse words within a sentence. +aradigmatic relations analyse relationships between
words in a language/
Syntagmatic
#elations
I
:ou
+eter
The +resident
5 lot of families
may
can
neednHt
will
could
do
watch
learn
deliver
suffer
it
the TP
)nglish
the speech
many hardships
now
tonight
anymore
at " oLcloc(
after the war
3
a
r
a
d
i
g
m
a
t
i
c

r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s

In section II we will e*amine A types of paradigmatic relations/
!. Synonymy1
>. 5ntonymy1
-. 2omonymy1
#. +olysemy1
=. 2yponymy and 2yperonymy
A. ?e*ical fields.
Section II Unit 1: Synonymy ,/ree@ 6same7 J 6name72
The meaning of synonyms is identical or partly identical but the graphemic forms (the signifiant$ differ.
5 perfect synonym can substitute its counterpart in any conte*t, however formal or informal. Fn the other hand,
it is a generally accepted fact that perfect synonymy is hard to find. Isually one of the synonymic pair is/
a$ more formal (insane 3 lunatic$
b$ more general (refuse 3 reject$
c$ more emotive (reject 3 decline$
d$ more scientific (salt 3 sodium chloride$
e$ more literary (all une 3 livelong une$
f$ more collo.uial (turn down 3 refuse$
g$ more regional (autumn 3 fall$
h$ more child&li(e (daddy 3 father$
i$ of a collocational difference (%ingly, royal and regal are synonyms but the mail has to be royal in the IE$.
Idioms and idiomatic e*pressions, such as metaphors and similes are very specific synonyms too. 6or e*ample,
to die', to pass away' and to (ic( the buc(et' may share the same meaning, however, their usage depends on
the situation. Indoubtedly, to pass away' sounds more sympathetically and considerately while to (ic( the
buc(et' might insult or hurt the interlocutor, especially a mourner. The group of words or e*pressions used to
avoid referring too directly to unpleasant, embarrassing or personal matters are represented by a special group of
synonyms, called euphemisms! 2owever, their meaning may vary from the original meaning/ sometimes,
euphemisms may sound humorous (to go to the toilet 3 to answer a call of nature$ or even ironic (to be fat 3 to be
horiJontally challenged$. The method of substituting too direct phrases has been e*cessively used in the press.
This journalistic tendency has recently been named political correctness.
-cti.ity 1" Gewrite the following sentences, replacing the euphemisms, in italics, with more simple, direct
words or phrases/
a$ IHm afraid your mother passed a$ay last night.
b$ %heel chairs facilitate the life of the differently a!led"
c$ :our results are hardly sufficient"
d$ There is some wor( even for the optically challenged"
e$ Senior citi,ens are entitled to free travel.
f$ The house had seen !etter days"
g$ Incle )rnest is no longer $ith us"
h$ %hereHs the nearest pu!lic convenience0
i$ %hoHs pinched my soc(s0
j$ %e had to have our cat put to sleep.
($ %e were obliged to dispense $ith DaryHs company last wee(.
l$ The state has an obligation to help the less privileged mem!ers of the community.
m$ The house needs some attention"
n$ Ds. @reen has shown insufficient effort in the e*ecution of her duties.
o$ The meeting of the presidents of the P# group had a negative outcome.
p$ She was a !it tipsy I must admit.
.$ This political programme addresses predominantly those living on the su!sistence level"
r$ :ou must have been $rongly informed"
s$ 7londes are said to be simple"
t$ @randma can hardly $al%"
-cti.ity 1" The following sentences are too direct. Try to replace the e*pressions in italics with euphemisms/
a$ Fur neighbour is very old. j$ She stole my wedding ringK
b$ Their son is fat and ugly" ($ 2e has pimples all over his face.
c$ IHm going to vomit" l$ The +rime Dinister lied to journalists.
d$ :ou were !lind drun% at the party. m$ The T&shirt is very !adly#made"
e$ :our essay is very careless. n$ It would be stupid to divorce him now.
f$ MonHt spea( ru!!ish. o$ 8oo(K The food is horri!le*
Section II Unit 1> -ntonymy ,/ree@ 6opposite7 J 6name72
5ntonyms e*press the opposite meaning of two (or more$ le*emes, e.g. alive 3 dead1 good 3 bad1 husband 3
wife. 7eyond doubt, these word&pairs are opposite but there is a certain relationship between them.
The first e*ample (alive 3 dead$ postulates, if used in a sentence, that the person, animal or agent is either alive
or dead. There is no third possibility, i.e. we can not say Oto be a bit dead1 Oto be a little alive. Such opposition is
complementary, and, therefore, we call these antonyms complementary. Fther e*amples of complementary
antonymy are/ single 3 married or finished 3 unfinished. 8omplementary opposites are not gradable.
Fn the other hand, there e*ists a vast number of antonyms with more than one opposite, e.g. cold 3 hot, warm,
scalding, lu(ewarm or old 3 young, new. Thus, to say the water is not hot' does not imply that water is cold. If
there e*ists the third option (e.g. cold 3 hot, warm, etc.$ or, if antonyms are gradable, we may spea( about
antonymy in narro< sense.
There also e*ists a group of antonyms which logically imply each other. 6or e*ample, the sentence ohn
married Dary' implies that Dary married ohn. Similarly, the sentence oe bought the car from im' implies
that im sold the car to oe. This sort of relationship between words is called con.erseness. The le*emes are
denoted con.erse terms.
5part from the three types of opposition, there also e*ists so called multiple opposition. Dultiple opposition
defines relationship between words that may function as opposites in some conte*ts. e.g. child' may in some
conte*ts represent an opposite to the words mother', parent' or adult'. Fther e*amples of multiple
opposition may be/
a$ scales, e.g. hot 3 warm 3 lu(ewarm 3 cold 3 freeJing1
b$ ran(s, e.g. field marshal 3 colonel 3 lieutenant 3 sergeant 3 private1
c$ cycles, e.g. Donday 3 Tuesday 3 %ednesday1 or anuary 3 6ebruary, etc.
-cti.ity 1" 6ind antonyms to the following words/ clean, dry, familiar, tight, strong, heavy, dull, handsome,
brave, lend, freeJe, shout, better, loud, wild, rude, indifferent, scheming, scalding, scold, narrow&minded, sly.
-cti.ity 1" 6ind a suitable antonym from the given words/
little slight slightly wea( nice moderate poor
low light slac( wea( in mild calm
heavy traffic strong point badly hit
heavy seas strong wind bad smell
heavy rain strong cheese bad headache
heavy luggage strong beer high cost (price$
heavy blow severe pain grave error (mista(e$
heavy drin(er s.uare meal great demand
-cti.ity 4" Identify five groups of words, according to their meaning. Miscuss whether they represent a$ scales1
b$ ran(s or c$ cycles/
a$ sober j$ chubby s$ rector
b$ thin ($ tipsy t$ vice&rector
c$ a full moon l$ admiral u$ private
d$ blind drun( m$ plump v$ winter
e$ dean n$ first lieutenant w$ a crescent moon
f$ fat o$ second lieutenant *$ lecturer
g$ a new moon p$ spring y$ autumn
h$ field marshal .$ reader J$ emaciated
i$ well&oiled r$ colonel aa$ summer
Section II Unit 1? Komonymy
Komonyms are words with identical phonological or graphic forms (signifiV$ and with different meaning, e.g.
can (tin1 noun$ 3 can (be able to1 verb$. Scholars recognise three types of homonyms/
!. Komophones 3 they are identical in the sound form of le*emes (son 3 sun$1
>. Komographs 3 they are identical in spelling (lead 3 lead$1
-. %ull homonyms ,or real homonyms
F
2 3 they are identical in both form and spelling (file 3 file$.
2omonyms, especially homophones can be classified to be confusing word pairs4groups'/ they can cause
confusion when writing1 they may be difficult to be loo(ed up in a dictionary and they may lead to applying
wrong grammar rules.
-cti.ity 1" Mivide the following word pairs into three groups/ (!$ homophones1 (>$ homographs and (-$ full
homonyms/
a$ hole 3 whole f$ miner 3 minor ($ morning 3 mourning
b$ sea3see g$ pale 3 pail l$ be 3 bee
c$ wind 3 wind h$ were3where m$ chips 3 chips
d$ bored 3 bored i$ nose 3 (nows n$ one 3 won
e$ bean 3 been j$ piece 3 peace o$ rein 3 rain 3 reign
-cti.ity 1" %rite a homophone for each of the following words/
a$ two 3 h$ way 3 o$ steel 3
b$ eye 3 i$ wear 3 p$ seiJe 3
c$ guest 3 j$ here 3 r$ principal 3
d$ waste 3 ($ pair 3 s$ caught 3
e$ male 3 l$ wait 3 t$ sale 3
f$ been 3 m$ allowed 3 u$ pane 3
g$ bare 3 n$ red 3 v$ boulder 3
-cti.ity 4" Some homophones in 5ctivity > will help you to complete the following jo(es. The humour depends
on homophones in each one/
!. 5 %aiter, what do you call this0
5 ItHs QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ soup, madam.
5 I donHt care what itHs been. %hat is it now0K
>. 5 2ave you ever hunted QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ0
5 Bo, I always hunt with my clothes on.
-. 5 %hat is the effect of seven days dieting0
5 They ma(e one QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
#. 5 2ow can I get rid of my headache0
5 2it your head against a window and the QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ will disappear.
=. 5 6ortune teller/ would you li(e your palm QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ, madam0
5 Bo, I li(e the colour it is now.
A. 5 5 teacher/ Stop fightingK :ou (now the school rules 3 no fighting QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQK
5 5 student/ 7ut we were not fighting QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ, sir. %e were fighting .uietly.
<
+eprn,(, p. !=!

Section II Unit 1B 3olysemy
+olysemy describes words with two or more meanings. The phonological or graphemic form (signifiant$ of
polysemantic words is identical but signifiV, the meaning slightly differs. Isually, the meaning of polysemantic
words is partly identical or semantically related, e.g./
7ulb/
!. thic( rounded underground stem of certain plants, (e.g. tulip bulb$1
>. pear shaped glass container for the filament of an electric light (electric bulb$.
Dan/
!. 2uman being1
>. Dale1
-. 5dult male
Fperation/
!. +lastic1
>. Dilitary.
-cti.ity 1" The following sentences have two different meanings, due to the ambiguity of the words in italics.
)*plain the two meanings of each sentence/
a$ The driver was driving on the right side of the road.
b$ :ou should (now the answer.
c$ 7londes never appeal to me.
d$ The Dorning Star is a popular newspaper.
e$ SheHs a very curious person.
f$ ItHs a very cheap magaJine.
g$ 2e is e-pected to arrive at si*.
h$ ane is very fair.
i$ ames was a very funny child.
j$ They did not recognise the new +rime Dinister.
($ Gespect him, heHs a very po$erful man.
l$ 2e li(es to entertain everybody.
m$ The boss might have phoned.
n$ IHm not prepared to set off yet.
o$ She too( advantage of her friendHs (nowledge.
p$ The stranger was rather suspicious.
.$ 2alf the wor(ers in the factory are idle.
-cti.ity 1" The ambiguity of the meaning may also result from the synta*. )*plain the two meanings of each
sentence/
a$ %eHre having my mother&in&law for lunch.
b$ ThereHs a Jebra crossing somewhere down the road.
c$ :our dog is chasing a man on a bicycle.
d$ I had to wa(e up early this morning to open the door in my pyjamas.
e$ Mid you (now that deep breathing (ills germs0
f$ Mid you get up grumpy this morning0
g$ IHve made this chic(en soup.
h$ The police are loo(ing for a man with one eye called %ilson.
-cti.ity 4" 5 pun is a humorous use of a word or phrase which has two meanings. +uns are eye&catching and
sometimes, provo(ing, and therefore they are used not only in jo(es but also in advertising. )*plain the
following puns by giving two possible meanings (often one meaning is literal and the other figurative$.
a$ %25T %I?? :FI @IP) :FIG 65DI?: 6FG 7G)5E65ST0 S5: 82))S)K
b$ 6FG 5 6)% +FIBMS :FI 85B ?FS) 5 6)%.
c$ %)H?? @IP) :FI G)M&85G+)T TG)5TD)BT. (FG 7?I), FG 7GF%B, FG :)??F%$.
d$ ITHS BFT %FGT2 M:IB@ 6FG 5 MGIBE.
e$ :FIG PI)%S 5G) G)6?)8T)M IB T2) DIGGFG.
Section II Unit 1F Kyponymy ,/ree@ 6under7 J 6name72 and Kyperonymy ,6ao.e7 J 6name72
The terms hyponymy and hyperonymy denominate the hierarchy of words, e.g. a flower (hyperonym$ 3 a tulip
(hyponym$. The words rose sunflo$er !lue!ells or forget#me#nots represent co5hyponyms! Thus, a hyperonym
is the subordinate' word which is more general, and a hyponym is the more specific one. 2yponymy describes
what happens when one says/ W:X is a (ind of W' , e.g. 5 daffodil is a (ind of flower. %hen the relationship
between le*emes is more comple*, we spea( about le*ical fields (see Init !<$.
-cti.ity 1" Datch the pairs. Try to e*plain words on the right, using the structure/ W:X is a (ind of W'/
Korse Lid
8eer 'alf
%rog Litten
Lion %a<n
/oat 3uppy
Sheep Tadpole
$lephant %oal
'at 'u
8og Lam
-cti.ity 1" Try to write dictionary entries for these objects or persons. The first has been done for you as an
e*ample/
!. 5 spanner (8$ n is a (ind of tool used !y mechanics to fasten nuts"
>. 5 marine QQQQQQQ is a (ind of QQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
-. 5 wastepaper bas(et QQQQQQQQ is a (ind of QQQQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
#. 5 dictating machine QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
=. 5n optician QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
A. 5 cement mi*er QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
". 5 driveway QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
<. 5 sofa QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
;. 5 dispatching officer QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
!C. +etrol QQQQQQQQ QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
-cti.ity 4" %e use the relationship between hyponyms and hyperonyms when we need to e*plain a new word
un(nown to our interlocutor. +retend that you are customers in a stationerHs shop and try to buy' some of the
following objects without saying their name. Miscuss what these objects are made of, what they loo( li(e, what
they are for, etc./
a$ ?epiaca p9s(a h$ Fb9l(a
b$ XoT,vaY(a i$ 6i*(y
c$ Mier(ovaY j$ EruZidlo
d$ Te(ut[ odstra\ovaY pre(lepov ($ +oJn9m(ovV blo(y
e$ 6asci(el na do(umenty l$ +oJn9m(ovV blo(y s lepiacou vrstvou
f$ Eancel9rs(a spin(a m$ Mis(eta
g$ +rie(lepov[ papier n$ B9pl\ do guliY(ovVho pera
Section II Unit 1H Lexical %ields
?e*ical fields are also classified as semantic fields or lexical configurations! They illustrate the structural
relations between words. ?e*ical fields may be organised/
a$ hierarchically/ (from general to specific$, e.g. animals 3 amphibians 3 frogs 3 toads
b$ linearly/ e.g. red 3 orange 3 yellow 3 green 3 pin( 3 blac(
?inear le*ical fields (hyponymy and hyperonymy$ have already been discussed in Init !". 5 hierarchical le*ical
field can be illustrated by a chart adopted from 5. ?ehrer
;
/
8oo( ! 7a(e!
8oo( >
Steam 7oil ! 6ry 7roil Goast 7a(e >
Simmer 7oil > SautV Meep 6ry
6rench 6ry
@rill 7arbecue
+oach Ste
w
7raise
The chart helps us to identify synonyms and near synonyms/ words are synonyms if they appear in the same
space.
-cti.ity 1" find words that belong to the same category/
a$ mallet e$ remedy i$ contagious disease m$ coo(er
b$ carving for( f$ ra(e j$ lawn mower n$ hole puncher
c$ shovel g$ spade ($ post&it o$ nose job
d$ adhesive tape h$ measles l$ pin p$ spoon
-cti.ity 1" Suggest le*ical fields, categories and sub&categories for the following words/
a$ diseases1
b$ garden tools1
c$ (itchen utensils1
d$ stationery.
-cti.ity 4" Fdd one out. @ive reasons for your choice and discuss them with your partner/
a$ 8omputer b$ calculator c$ adding machine d$ printer
.ou cant use a printer for counting"/////////////////////
b$ Miary b$ notepad b$ carbon&paper b$ post&it
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ
c$ +hotocopier c$ fa*&machine c$ word&processor c$ typewriter
d$ 6or( d$ watering can d$ gloves d$ spoon
;
Ute(auer, +./ Essentials of English Linguistics"
e$ 6lower e$ flower&pot e$ bed e$ vegetables
Section III Unit 1I Specific Issues of the $nglish Lexicon
The )nglish language, as well as any other language in the world was produced by necessity and enlarged by
accident, and is therefore compound of dissimilar parts thrown together by negligence, by affectation, by
learning or by ignorance', paraphrases Samuel ohnson, a famous writer of dictionaries in the !<
th
century.
5ny broadly&read person (nows that the )nglish language faced a long history of foreign influences. Scholars
usually recognise the 8eltic influence, ?atin influence, Scandinavian influence, 6rench influence and ?atin and
@ree( influence in Diddle 5ges and modern times (Ute(auer, pp. -&A$. )ach of these enriched the )nglish
le*icon by more or less e*cessive scope of e*pressions. The 8elts, for e*ample, introduced several proper
names, such as 0inchester 1loucester and 0orcester" Dost ?atin terms were connected with agriculture (vinum
( $ine$, trade (pondo ( pound$ or household articles (cuppe ( cup$. The Scandinavians introduced numerous
names of places ending in &!y, #thorp, #!ec%, &dale and &th$aite" The influence of the 6rench ( Bormans is
reflected in many words related to the highest administration/ cro$n state government chancellor prince
du%e mar2uis viscount and many others. +lenty of legal and church terms are also of the 6rench origin/ 3ustice
3ust 3udge sue plea attorney traitor as well as service saviour saint virgin sacrifice miracle etc. In
addition, the 6rench imported an enormous amount of words describing fashion, such as costume garment
figure ornament etc.
Gecently, the )nglish language has also faced the process of 5mericanisation (and adopted words such as
.an%ee or teenager$ and massive immigration from the countries of the 8ommonwealth (that enriched the
)nglish le*icon with words such as chapati curry purdah or moulah$. This is perhaps the reason why there are
so many irregularities, e*ceptions to grammatical rules or e*pressions that have to be learned as a whole in the
)nglish language.
In Section III we are going to e*amine the specific issues of the )nglish le*icon, which are prone to cause
difficulties for )nglish language learners. These e*pressions should be learned as whole units because their
component words do not give the learner any clue what the whole unit means, or, in many cases they may be
completely misleading. To learn these obscure e*pressions we also need to be aware of the cultural and social
bac(ground (e.g. idioms, proverbs, metaphors, similes$1 the process of development of the )nglish language (e.g.
tendency toward monosyllabysm 3 phrasal verbs$ or interference between languages (false cognates$. %e will
also study word groups ma(ing oneLs )nglish sound natural and helping to build effective vocabulary 3
collocations. Thus, in Section III we will e*amine/
!. 8ollocations1
>. Bon&idiomatic idioms1
-. +hrasal verbs1
#. Bominalised phrasal verbs1
=. Detaphors and similes1
A. +roverbs1
". 8onfusing %ord +airs1
<. 6alse cognates1
;. 6oreign words.
Section III Unit 11 'ollocations
'ollocations are combinations of words which are more probable than others. These pairs of words occur
together so often that when we see one word, we strongly e*pect the other word. 8ollocations, i.e. strong ties
between words occur in all languages. 8ommon Slova( collocations are/ %456ov7 ot7,%a1 technic%8 pr96iny or
,7sadn: ro,diel" The most important (inds of )nglish collocations are/

-d=ecti.e J noun fatal accident golden opportunity
Cer J noun accept responsi!ility undermine self#confidence
&oun J .er the gap $idened a fight !ro%e out
-d.er J ad=ecti.e highly desira!le significantly different
Cer J ad.er discuss calmly lead eventually to

8ollocations are one of the most important ways to ma(e oneHs )nglish sound natural. Storing combinations li(e
declare $ar impose rigid discipline or serious professional misconduct in oneHs memory is one of the best ways
to build an effective vocabulary.
The most fre.uent )nglish collocations are made with some of these words/ !ig' very' 2uic% and rather"
2owever, most collocations consist of a great number of verbs which come before or after a noun1 adjectives that
may combine with the noun or phrases which contain the noun. 6or e*ample/
-''+))+8-TI+&
Perbs/ !oo% find have hunt for let loo% for offer provide rent reserve search for
5djectives/ comforta!le high#class lu-ury lu-urious permanent poor satisfactory sha!!y sheltered
spacious standard suita!le superior temporary
+hrases which contain the noun/ scarcity of shortage of
Fther e*amples of common collocations are/
-8CI'$
Perbs/ accept act on adopt as% as% for disregard follo$ get give go against
ignore offer profit from receive refuse re3ect see% solicit s$eep aside
ta%e
5djectives/ Admira!le !ad !adly needed !lunt cautious considered elementary
e-cellent e-pert fatherly friendly good invalua!le relia!le sensi!le
un!iased $elcome
+hrases which contain the noun/ ;iece of
- '+&T#-'T
Perbs/ <rea% carry out dra$ up enter into finalise fulfil get get out of give up
go through grant implement %eep to lose terminate
Perbs/ # !inds s!" to do st" comes into effect=to an end runs runs out
5djectives/ <inding e-clusive final good huge important profita!le
+hrases which contain the noun/ # in terms
8ommon collocations starting from verbs are/
'#ITI'IS$" !itterly fiercely harshly 3ustly mildly openly pu!licly rightly strongly unfairly
8$'L-#$" !oldly categorically confidently defiantly emphatically firmly openly une2uivocally
%UL%IL" amply completely entirely not altogether partially
3$#%+#)" !adly !rilliantly credita!ly fla$lessly poorly
CISIT" fre2uently rarely regularly
-cti.ity 1" Datch verbs on the left and adverbs on the right to form collocations. Ise them in sentences/
!. W-IT a$ &n person in $riting !elatedly
>. U&8$#$STI)-T$ b$ Cruelly gently mercifully
-. T#( c$ >irmly forcefully strongly
#. TI$ d$ ?!stinately categorically adamantly
=. TK-&L e$ ;rofusely $armly from the !ottom of my heart
A. #$%US$ f$ Loosely neatly securely
". +33+S$ g$ @epeatedly steadily valiantly
<. )+'L h$ Constantly consistently grossly
;. I&%+#) i$ E-pectantly in vain impatiently
Section III Unit 11 Idioms
Idioms are phrases or sentences whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words and which
must be learnt as a whole unit, e.g. to ma(e ends meet or to be as fit as a fiddle. Scholars distinguish various
types of idiomatic e*pressions, such as phrasal verbs, metaphors, similes or proverbs.
Dost idioms are informal or collo.uial e*pressions. 2owever, students of )nglish should be aware of the history,
cultural heritage or regional varieties of a particular nation that most idioms reflect. This is the case of the
famous idiom all roads lead to Gome' which dates bac( to ancient times and refers to the system of Goman
roads. There is also a big group of idioms which may be traced bac( to the 7ible (the apple of somebodyLs
eye', the tree of life'$. 7roadly read readers are sometimes able to recognise the author of an idiom. 6or
e*ample, a famous 5merican scholar, inventor and writer 7enjamin 6ran(lin fathered several catch phrases
which entered the )nglish le*icon. The most popular ones are/ )arly to bed and early to rise ma(es a man
wealthy, healthy and wise' or Fne today is worth two tomorrows'.
Bevertheless, most idioms were coined by an anonymous author and the place or circumstances of their birth are
also unclear. 2owever, they represent a very rich area of the le*icon because they can be more figurative,
descriptive and emotional than other types of e*pressions, e.g./

2ealthy Ip and about
%ealthy Golling in money, in the money, with money to burn
Fver&optimistic ?oo(ing at the world through rose&tinted spectacles
Fverloaded Ip to oneLs ears in wor(
8onfused Inable to ma(e head or tail of something
Indifferent 7urying oneLs head in the sand
?aJy Bever lifting a finger
Mying (2aving$ one foot in the grave1 (to be$ at deathLs door
Interestingly, some idioms, their usage and precise wording may be shared between two or more languages, e.g.
Slova( and )nglish/ to have ones foot in the grave to go do$nhill to have ones head in the clouds to !ury one
s head in the sand Ato !eB the end of the $orld Ato haveB a good head for figures to !ite off more than one can
che$ to tighten ones !elt" These idioms may be classified as calDues.
5nother group of idioms, when compared with the )nglish ones varies in a particular word or phrase, e.g./
An Englishman $ould sayC A Slova% $ould sayC
ItHs all @ree( to me. e to pre m\a Tpaniels(a dedina.
2eHs on his last legs. Delie J poslednVho.
2eHs his old self. IZ je Jase ten, Yo b[val.
2eHs up and about. IZ je Jase na noh9ch.
If the meaning of an idiom can be identified from the meaning of its individual words, we may spea( about
idiomatic idioms.
Infortunately, there e*ists a big group of idioms whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of their
components. Fn the contrary, the component words of an idiom may confuse learners. These idioms are non5
idiomatic!
-cti.ity 1" These idioms are non&idiomatic. Try to guess their meaning4s and chec( your answer with your
dictionary/
She cut me dead!
They get on li@e a house on fire!
They are at loggerheads!
She ga.e me the cold shoulder!
2e had to rea@ into his nest5egg!
I <as in the red!
They felt the pinch!
ItHs a piece of ca@e! 4plain sailing!
ItHs eyond me!
2eHs out of his depth!
Ta@e it <ith a pinch of salt!
They pulled the <ool o.er your eyes!
Section III Unit 14 3hrasal Cers
+hrasal verbs are one of many results of the tendency of the modern )nglish language towards monosyllabism,
i.e. the trend to shorten or economise' le*ical units. Thus, verbs such as to get up' 1 go on' or give up',
formed by a simple, usually monosyllabic verb (e.g. set, get, go, ta(e, etc.$ and an adverbial element (e.g. off, on,
out, etc$, termed phrasal .ers are becoming more and more popular in the )nglish le*icon. The meaning of the
resulting word may be the same as the meaning indicated by its components (e.g. to get out$ or, may be
completely different (e.g. to ma(e for' 3 to go$. If we can guess the meaning of a phrasal verb from the
meaning of its components, we classify them to be non5idiomatic phrasal .ers. Fn the other hand, if the
meaning of a phrasal verb cannot be identified from the meaning of the separate words, we may spea( about
idiomatic phrasal .ers. +hrasal verbs may also have several meanings (e.g. to see through$. Students of
)nglish should be aware of the fact that phrasal verbs are usually more collo.uial and informal than their non&
phrasal counterparts.
+hrasal verbs are e*tremely active and form numerous variants with different meanings. The verb to set' forms
more than ACC phrasal verbs, e.g. to set out1 to set off1 to set bac(, etc.
7asic elements forming phrasal verbs are/
Perb S +article e.g. to go off
Perb S +reposition e.g. to ta%e over
Perb S +article S +reposition e.g. to get on $ell $ith somebody
Mictionaries usually indicate the position of the object because it may change the meaning of a phrasal verb/
!. I sa$ through the plan. R I recognised the deception of the plan.
>. I sa$ the plan through" R I reserved the plan until it was completed.
-cti.ity 1" The following phrasal verbs are non&idiomatic. Some of them behave' li(e cal.ues, i.e. naming
units that slavishly translate' the word from one language to another, e.g. at all costs 3 Ja (aZd] cenu. Try to
guess their meaning/
a$ call off c$ stand for e$ pay off g$ strain off i$ thin( up
b$ come off d$ give bac( f$ put off h$ tal( over j$ get on (well$
-cti.ity 1" Datch sentences and their non&phrasal counterparts. @uess the meaning of the phrasal verbs/
!. The dog <ent for him. a$ The +olice in.estigated it.
>. I feel for you. b$ She thought of a brilliant plan.
-. The +olice loo@ed into it. c$ I said goodye to him at the station.
#. She did up her laces. d$ The dog attac@ed him.
=. 2e called on her. e$ She <ent to<ards the living room.
A. She made for the living room. f$ 2e resemles his Dother.
". 2e launched into a long speech. g$ The logo symolises the company.
<. She hit on a brilliant plan. h$ She tied her laces.
;. The logo stands for the company. i$ 2e .isited her.
!C. 2e ta@es after his Dother. j$ 2e egan a long speech.
!!. I sa< him off at the station. ($ I sympathise with you.
!>. 2e chatted her up! l$ 2e flirted with her.
!-. They laid on a good meal. m$ to give a bed for the night
!#. 2e =umped at that idea. n$ to minimise importance
!=. 2e played do<n its importance. o$ to tell somebody to stay away from somewhere
!A. She rought off a big deal. p$ to disagree with something
!". They put us up for the night. .$ to finish the conversation
!<. %e were cut off! r$ to provide food
!;. She pulled his argument apart. s$ to e*tinguish fire
>C. ItHs time to set off! t$ to begin journey
>!. 2e <arned us off his fields. u$ to be enthusiastic about an idea
>>. IHd better ring off now. v$ to be disconnected
>-. She put the fire out! w$ to destroy somebodyLs argument
>#. She doesnHt hold <ith bull&fighting. *$ to succeed in a big deal
Section III Unit 1: &ominalised 3hrasal Cers
5 characteristic feature of the structure of )nglish words is the process of shortening polysyllaic lexemes and
tendency to<ards monosyllaism. To prove this, osef Pache(, a famous 8Jech scholar suggests a simple
e*periment 3 a brief analysis of any medium&siJed )nglish te*t will show that the monosyllabic words
contained in the te*t are more numerous than the disyllables, trisyllables, etc., ta(en together. In contrast, an
analogous analysis of a corresponding 8Jech te*t is bound to reveal that the monosyllables in it constitute a clear
minority. This tendency toward monosyllabism is even more evident in collo.uial speech/ polysyllabic words
are shortened so as to reduce them to monosyllables or at most disyllables 3 see e*pressions such as ,oo from
,oological garden, la! from la!oratory or e-am from e-amination+ (Pache(, p. #>$.
The tendency towards monosyllabism has resulted in the popularity of abbreviations (see Init !C$, the higher
fre.uency of homophones (see Init !A$ and bac( formation (see Init <$. The tendency to shorten polysyllabic
words to monosyllables or at most disyllables has resulted in e*pansion of phrasal verbs to both formal and
informal styles.
The popularity of phrasal verbs has stimulated the relatively recent trend of nominalisation, i.e. change of
word&class from noun to verb, e.g. to slip#up ( a slip up1 to set#up ( a set#up" These conversed' phrasal nouns
usually share the same or similar meaning as the corresponding phrasal verbs. Sometimes, nominalised forms of
phrasal verbs are also classified as compound nouns (see Init !!$ 2owever, not all phrasal verbs form
nominalised forms.
-cti.ity 1" 8ompare the meaning4meanings of these phrasal verbs and their nominalised forms. Ise them in
sentences/
a$ *#$-L8+W& T+ *#$-L 8+W&
b$ '-ST5+%%S T+ '-ST +%%
c$ '+C$#5U3 T+ '+C$# U3
d$ '#-'L58+W& T+ '#-'L 8+W&
e$ 8+W&%-LL T+ %-LL 8+W&
f$ %$$8*-'L T+ %$$8 *-'L
g$ K-&8+UT T+ K-&8 +UT
h$ K+L85U3 T+ K+L85U3
i$ I&3UT T+ 3UT I&
j$ +UT'-ST T+ '-ST +UT
($ +UTL$T T+ L$T +UT
l$ +UT3UT T+ 3UT +UT
m$ S$T*-'L T+ S$T *-'L
n$ S$T5U3 T+ S$T U3
o$ TU#&+C$# T+ TU#& +C$#
p$ U3L$$3 T+ L$$3 U3
.$ U3TU#& T+ TU#& U3
r$ W-LL+UT T+ W-LL +UT
-cti.ity 1" Getell the article in your own words/
S?I+&I+S ?)M TF EI8E FIT
There has been a cover&up of slip&ups in 7odybuild, the well (nown diet food factory with several international
outlets. Ine*plained setbac(s, high staff turnover, fre.uent wal(outs and many other brea(downs led the 2ead
Fffice to crac( down on slip&ups. They hired an undercover detective to give feedbac( on the up(eep and set&up
of the factory. The detective found out that the terminal had a series of covered&up brea(downs. There had been
a mi*&up of input data for months which actually caused the general fall&off. The main programmer was (ic(ed
out and, despite their recent setbac(s, the company is now hoping for an upturn in both output and sales.
Section III Unit 1> )etaphors and Similes
5 special group of idioms are metaphors and similes. )etaphors are words or phrases indicating something
different from the literal meaning, even though related to this meaning in some way. 5 common metaphor is to
have a heart of stone'. The word stone' in the metaphor associates hardness, coldness and perhaps death. Thus,
the metaphor figuratively describes a person who could be !$ inhuman1 >$ unyielding in their opposition or -$
obdurate (fml$.
Similes on the other hand compare one thing, event or .uality with another, using words as' and li(e'. +opular
similes are/ to be as brave as a lion'1 to have a face li(e a mas('. In the structures as S adjective S as', the
first as' is often dropped, e.g. De is !rave as a lion"
The most fre.uently used similes are/
as pretty as a picture as good as gold as strong as an o*
as different as chal( and cheese as old as the hills as busy as a bee
as fat as a pig as dead as a doornail as hungry as a wolf
as fit as a fiddle4rain as blind as a bat as happy as the day is long
as (een as mustard as hard as a stone as red as a beetroot
as large as life as flat as a panca(e as innocent as a new&born babe
as easy as pie4578 as .uic( as lightning as cool as a cucumber
-cti.ity 1" 8omplete conversations. Ise some of the similes listed above/
a$ 2ow has immy behaved himself0 DeEs !een AasB good as gold"
b$ 2owLs your 6ather now0 2e seems QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ, than( you.
c$ %ho will lift the piano0 ohn. 2eLs QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
d$ %ill you give us a lift0 5ctually, I canLt. %ithout my glasses ILm QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
e$ Mid ac( suffer from pre&e*am nerves0 Fn the contrary, QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
f$ Mo you spea( with your son about his girl&
friends0
Bo, he goes QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ whenever
I mention them.
g$ %hat are your twin&sons li(e0 %ell, surprisingly they are QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
h$ %ill you have sandwiches or soup0 ILm QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . Ill have both.
i$ Mid your (ids enjoy the trip to ?eeds castle0 They were QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ to (now everything
about the place, especially about torture instruments and the
dungeon.
-cti.ity 1" 6orm .uestions. 8omment on when and where these situations could happen/

j$
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ 0
Bot on your lifeK 2eHs drun( as a lord five times a wee(K
($
IHve heard that a hundred times before. ItHs as old as the hills.
l$
2ow could he0 2eHs poor as a churchmouse.
m$
2ow dare youK )verybody (nows I was sober as a judgeK
n$
She doesnHt need it. SheHs thin as a ra(e.
o$
I .uite li(e it e*cept for the history class. ItHs dry as dust.
p$
%ell, my 6ather lived to a ripe old age even though he dran(
li(e a fish and smo(ed li(e a chimney.
.$
Bo, they were selling li(e hot ca(es so when I got into the
shop, they were all sold out.
r$
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ0
Bo, she was busy as a bee. She was ma(ing ca(es for her niece
Hs wedding.
Section III Unit 1? 3ro.ers
+roverbs are a specific group of idioms used to comment on a situation. The comment may e*press a simple
philosophy of life or include a piece of advice to the listener, perhaps with a note of warning or encouragement.
Diguel de 8ervantes considered proverbs to be short sentences drawn from long e*perience' which reflect the
genius, wit and spirit of a nation. This is also the reason why the meaning and the form of proverbs as well as the
choice of words vary from nation to nation. 6or e*ample, a Borwegian would say/ MonHt sell the pelts before
you have shot the bear.' Fn the other hand, an )nglishman would say/ MonHt count your chic(en before they
are hatched.'
+roverbs are uni.ue and individual. Bevertheless, sometimes they may share some of these characteristics/
!. #hyme/ )arly to bed and early to rise ma(es a man healthy, wealthy and wise1
>. Symmetrical, inary structure" Fnce bitten, twice shy1
-. 'omparisons" 7lood is thic(er than water1 +revention is better than cure1
#. #epetition" Bo gains, no pains.
The meanings of some proverbs may be traced bac( to the history of a particular nation. Some of the most
famous proverbs reflecting history are/ <e$are of 1ree%s !earing gifts' 0hen in @ome do as the @omans do and
@ome $asnEt !uilt in a day. Bevertheless, most proverbs have lost their relationship to particular situations and
simply reflect observations of daily events and morals.
-cti.ity 1" oin phrases from the two lists to form ten common sayings about people or the way they behave/
!. 7eggars 5. saves nine.
>. 5ll that glitters 7. is not gold.
-. 5 bad wor(man 8. before a fall.
#. 5 stitch in time M. run deep.
=. Too many coo(s ). is the mother of invention.
A. MonLt loo( 6. crying over spilt mil(.
". Becessity @. a gift horse into the mouth.
<. +ride comes 2. blames his tools.
;. ?et sleeping dogs I. nothing gain.
!C. Bothing venture . spoil the broth.
!!. Still waters E. lie.
!>. ItLs no use ?. canLt be choosers.
-cti.ity 1" Datch each of the proverbs above with its meaning in the following sentences/
5. Gegretting and worrying about mista(es that
cannot be rectified does no good.
@. +eople who are not good at their wor( criticise
materials and tools rather than admit their own
failings.
*! 5 person that is .uiet may have many hidden
talents.
2. %e must be satisfied with what we can afford.
'! 8orrecting a fault early will save a great deal of
time and trouble later.
I. If you listen to too many advisors, you may not
succeed.
8! 5ppearances can be deceptive. . 8riticising the .uality of gifts can hurt the donor.
$! %hen the need is urgent, a solution is found. E. Those who do not ris( canHt e*pect achieving
something.
%! MonHt invite trouble for yourself by mentioning
problems.
?. Fverestimating of oneHs abilities and boasting may
initiate failure.
-cti.ity 4" %hich of the proverbs in the 5ctivity ! describe situations from the list below0
ItHs not my fault I havenHt finished this typing yet. ItHs not a very good machine and the stuff I have to copy
is very difficult to read.
%ell, itHs a pity but itHs in the past now and thereHs nothing we can do about it.
5s( her out to dinner. If you donHt, youHll never (now if she li(es you.
2e was over&confident. 2e thought he couldnHt go wrong but then he got complacent and failed the all&
important e*am.
Mo we really need so many of us to do this job0 %onHt we get in each otherHs way0
%ell, the cassette recorder he gave you may have a few defects, but you shouldnHt complain. It cost you
nothing.
Section III Unit 1B 'onfusing Word 3airs
5fter several years of intensive studying, learners of foreign languages usually face the situation when they can
spea( .uite fluently, however, they cannot avoid ma(ing minor mista(es. Some of these mista(es might occur
due to the interference of the studentHs mother tongue. 6or e*ample, Slova( students are prone to confuse word
pair 3u!ilant ()nglishB ( 3u!ilant (Slova($. Such phenomena are sometimes denoted false friends. Students of
)nglish may also find it difficult to ma(e the difference between words with similar spelling or between
5mericanisms and 7ritishisms. %e may classify these as confusing <ord pairs. The most fre.uent confusing
word&pairs are/
!$ 'ultural facts, e.g./ (<ritish describes people and things that come from anywhere in the Inited Eingdom,
which includes )ngland, %ales, Scotland and Borthern Ireland1 English describes people and things that
come from )ngland$1
>$ -merican and *ritish expressions e.g. (<arrister usually presents arguments for each side in 7ritain1
Attorney is an 5merican term for a person, lawyer who represents someone else in legal matters$1
-$ $xpressions <ith similar component <ords, e.g. lastly ( at last1 or spelling, e.g. dairy ( diary'
compliment ( complement' device ( devise etc.
-cti.ity 1" 8hoose the correct word for each space/
$.entually 3 (adv$ ultimate, happening at last after a lot of complications1
3ossily 3 (adv$ perhaps or possibly in the future (may be used after the modals/ can, could, may, might$1
%inally 3 (adv$ something happens last.
a2 QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ, I went to bed. d2 :ou will be learning ne*t wee(0 QQQQQQQQQQQQ.
2 She was QQQQQQQQQQQQ the best writer of her
century.
e2 2e felt ill and QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ died.
c2 QQQQQQQQQQQQ, he succeeded. f2 :ou might QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ meet him.
Coyage 3 (n$ journey by sea or in a spacecraft1
Eourney 3 (n$ travelling from one place to another by land, air or sea
Tra.el 3 (n$ travelling, especially abroad/
a2 8olumbus made his famous QQQQQQQQQQQQ in
!#;>.
d2 Mid you have a good QQQQQQQQQQQQQ0
2 The QQQQQQQQQQQQ of Sinbad the Sailor' are
always appealing to the young audience.
e2 The cost of QQQQQQQQQQQ increases.
c2 QQQQQQQQQQQ in the mountains can be slow and
dangerous.
f2 The QQQQQQQQQQQQQ from Mover to ?ondon
usually ta(es - hours by car.
In the end 3 (adv. of time$ 3 finally
-t the end 3 (adv. of time4place$ 3 at the end of something
a2 2e got more and more angry. QQQQQQQQQQQQ he
just wal(ed out of the (itchen.
2 QQQQQQQQQQQQQ of the course, all candidates will
be capable of spea(ing fluent )nglish.
+n time 3 punctual, not late
In time 3 in time for something1 opposite to late'
a2 The !!/!= train left QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . d2 %ill you be home QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ for dinner0
2 +lease, be QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ . e2 The party began and finished QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
c2 I hope the ca(e is ready QQQQQQQQQQfor the party. f2 )verybody should come QQQQQQQQQQQQ .
Sensile 3 reasonable
Sensiti.e 3 easily hurt or damaged, emotionally upset
a2 She gave me some QQQQQQQQQQQ advice. c2 5 poet musnHt be too QQQQQQQQQQ to criticism.
2 MonHt laugh at him, heHs very QQQQQQQQQQQQQ . d2 It was QQQQQQQQQQQ of you to loc( the door.
Section III Unit 1F %alse %riends ,%alse 'ognates2
It is true that the term 6alse 6riends' resembles a soap&opera title rather than a serious linguistic concept. %alse
friends describe confusing word&pairs or groups of words that loo( or sound similar but their meaning, grammar
or usage differs. These misleading similarities vary from language to language. Slova( learners may consider the
following words to be false cognates/ hymn ( hymna' recreation ( re%re7cia' medecine ( medec9na etc.
The most common false friends are words of ?atin or @ree( origin that may resemble modern )nglish words but
their meaning, grammar or usage is different. Sometimes, literal translation may also result in noveau* false
friends, e.g. actual is something e*isting in fact, real1 present denotes something current, e*isting now$.
-cti.ity 1" ?oo( up these words in your dictionary and compare their meaning in )nglish and in your mother
tongue/
5bsolve 3 absolvovaN
5gent 3 agent
7enJine 3 benJ,n
8ommission 3 (omisia
8ompasses 3 (ompasy
8onservatory 3 (onJervat^rium
8reed 3 (rVdo
)vidence 3 evidencia
6aculty 3 fa(ulta
6iscal 3 fiT(9_
8hemist 3 chemi(
Danifestation 3 manifest9cia
Dinute 3 min]ta
Domentum 3 moment
Botes 3 notes
+atient 3 pacient
+ioneer 3 pionier
+repare 3 preparovaN
+romotion 3 prom^cia
Gealise 3 realiJovaN
Smo(ing 3smo(ing
Sympathy 3 sympatia
Techni.ue 3 techni(a
Technology 3 technol^gia
Transparent 3 transparent
Pest 3 vesta
Pisit 3 viJita
Pital 3 vit9lny
-cti.ity 1" )*plain these e*pressions and use them in sentences/
enemy agent actual costs flawless techni.ue sympathetic loo(
travel agent actual words advanced technology nice loo(
cleaning agent present&day attitudes medical technology sympathetic character
o*idising agent present&day fashion a college of technology (ind wife
-cti.ity 4" Study the meaning of the following pairs of words/ ingenious ( ingenuous' economic ( economical'
human ( humane' rational ( rationale' to dust ( to undust"
Section III Unit 1H %oreign Words and 3hrases
5 lot of )nglish' e*pressions and words come originally from other languages. They have been adopted during
periods of ?atin, Sa*on or 6rench e*pansion. 2owever, most of them are now so absorbed into )nglish that they
are no longer thought of as foreign. Bevertheless, some words and phrases have retained their original spelling,
pronunciation or foreign identity. 6oreign words are predominantly used in culinary e*pressions (e.g. hors d
oeuvre' saut8$, architecture (e.g. facade' avant garde$ and legal documents (e.g. persona non grata' status 2uo'
!ona fide' per capita' post mortem' pro rata' ad nauseam$. 2owever, foreign words and phrases also thrive in
common speech. Thus, )nglishmen often wish each other !on voyage1 or !on appetite' arrange rende,vous, or
comment on life Cest la vie"
-cti.ity 1" @uess the meaning of the following e*pressions. Ise them to complete sentences below/

*las
'arte lanche
'ul5de5sac
8tente
$ncore
$ntourage
/ourmet
/rand prix
'hic
&uo.eaux riches
a$ The advantage of living in a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ is that there is no through traffic.
b$ Fur teacher didnHt tell me how he wanted the project carried out. She gave me QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ to do it
my way.
c$ The 6rench QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ was won by D. Schumacher.
d$ She chooses her hair&style and ma(e up so that she is in the latest fashion. She always loo(s very
QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
e$ 2e was very e*cited when his first film was released but now, having made doJens of films, heHs fairly
QQQQQQQQQQQQQ about it.
f$ 5 snob tends to loo( down on the QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ as people who have money but no manners.
g$ If we ta(e Miana out to dinner, we must choose a good restaurant. SheHs a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
h$ Dodels usually do not travel alone but are surrounded by a large QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ of agents, secretaries
and other staff.
i$ The audience li(ed his performance so much that at the end they shouted QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ K
j$ 5t the moment there is a QQQQQQQQQQQQQ between the two states. Gelations are much better.
-cti.ity 1" Ise the following words to complete the sentences/
status Duo ona fide pro rata
per capita ad nauseam persona non5grata
.ice .ersa post mortem curriculum .itae
a$ Muty&free goods may be purchased only by !ona fide travellers. +lease show your air tic(et when buying.
b$ 5pplicants for this job should submit a detailed QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
c$ Gental rates for our flats are -C pounds a day. ?onger periods will be charged QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ with no
reductions, so a one&wee( rental will be >!C pounds.
d$ Mue to his criminal past he was a QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ , having been barred from )ngland since !;;-.
e$ Some people would li(e to preserve the QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ in the company, but the others want change.
f$ 5 great many Slova(s spend their holidays in the 8Jech Gepublic, and QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ .
g$ The QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ e*amination of the body showed that he died of lung cancer.
h$ 8anada has QQQQQQQQQQQQQQQ income of about !" CCC dollars.
i$ IHm afraid he is rather a boring person. 2e goes on and on QQQQQQQQQQQQQQ about his teenage stunts.
SI7)8T IBM)W
5cronyms !C
5ffi* >
5lliteration !>
5ntonyms, complementary !=
5ntonymy !=
5ntonymy in narrow sense !=
5rbitrary relationship !
7ac(&formation <
7lends, blendings !C
7ound morpeheme >
8al.ues >!,>>
8lippings !C
8o&hyponyms !<
8ollocations, >!
8ompounds !!, !>, >-
8ompounds, ablaut motivated !>
8onfusing word pairs >"
8onversion ;
8onversness !=
)uphemisms !#
)*tralinguistic reality !
6alse friends (6alse cognates$ ><
6oreign words and phrases >;
6ree morpheme
2omographs !A
2omonymy !A
2omophones !A
2omophones !A
2yperonymy !<
2yponymy !<
Idioms >!
Idioms, idiomatic >!
Idioms, non&idiomatic >!
?e*eme, le*ical unit >
?e*ical configurations !<, !;
?e*ical fields !<, !;
?e*ical unit, le*eme >
?e*icology >
?inguistics, see Introduction
?inguistic sign !
Detaphors >#
Dorpheme >
Dorpheme, bound >
Dorpheme, free >
Dorphology >
Dultiple opposition !=
Bominalisation >-
+ragmatics >
+hrasal verbs >>, >-
+hrasal verbs, idiomatic >>
+hrasal verbs, nominalised >-
+hrasal verbs, idiomatic >>
+hrasal verbs, non&idiomatic >>
+olitical correctness !#
+olysemy !"
+ortmanteau words !C
+refi* >, -,#,=
+roverbs >=
Geal homonyms !A
Geference !
Geferent !
Gelations among words, e*ternal !-
Gelations among words, internal !-
Gelations among words, paradigmatic !-
Gelations among words, structural !-
Gelations among words, syntagmatic !-
Semiotics >
Semiotic triangle !
Signifiant !
SignifiV !
Similes >#
Sociopragmatics >
Stem, root >
Suffi* >, A,"
Symbol !
Synonymy !#
Tendency towards monosyllabism >-
Theory of linguistic sign !
%ord, Mefinition of a word >

8FBT)BTS
Introduction
Section I
Unit 1 What is a Word? The theory of Linguistic Signs !
Unit 1 Terminology >
Unit 4 Word5formation 3refixation ,12 &egati.e prefixes -
Unit : Word5formation 3refixation ,12 3refixes Specifying Si;e and 8egree #
Unit > Word5formation 3refixation ,42 3refixes %acilitating +rientation =
Unit ? Word5formation Suffixation ,12 &oun5ma@ers A
Unit B Word5formation Suffixation ,12 Cer5ma@ers, -d=ecti.e5ma@ers, -d.er5ma@ers "
Unit F Word5formation *ac@5formation <
Unit H Word5formation 'on.ersion ;
Unit 1I Word5formation 3ortmanteau <ords" 'lippings, *lendings and -cronyms !C
Unit 11 Word5formation 'ompounds ,12 !!
Unit 11 Word5formation 'ompounds ,12 #hyme5moti.ated 'ompounds !>
Section II
Unit 14 Structural #elations among Words !-
Unit 1: Synonymy !#
Unit 1> -ntonymy !=
Unit 1? Komonymy !A
Unit 1B 3olysemy !"
Unit 1F Kyponymy and Kyperonymy !<
Unit 1H Lexical %ields !;
Section III
Unit 1I Specific Issues of the $nglish Lexicon >C
Unit 11 'ollocations >!
Unit 11 Idioms >>
Unit 14 3hrasal Cers >-
Unit 1: &ominalised 3hrasal Cers >#
Unit 1> )etaphors and Similes >=
Unit 1? 3ro.ers >A
Unit 1B 'onfusing Word 3airs >"
Unit 1F %alse %riends ,%alse 'ognates2 ><
Unit 1H %oreign Words and 3hrases >;
Su=ect Index
*iliography
7I7?IF@G5+2:
DIUU`EFPa, @abriela. (!;;-$. Le-icology of English" Bitra / P5 +GIBT. !;;-. pp. ;>. IS7B <C&<=!<-&;=&!
+)+GB`E, aroslav. (>CCC$. Le-ical Semantics" In / Gudiments of )nglish ?inguistics (ed. +. Ute(auer$. +reTov /
Slovacontact. >CCC. pp. >->. IS7B <C&<<<"A&C#&#
UT)E5I)G, +avol. (!;;-$. Essentials of English Linguistics" +reTov / Slovacontact. !;;-. pp. !#-. IS7B <C&
;C!#!"&!&#
UT)E5I)G, +avol. (>CCC$. 0ord#formation" In / Gudiments of )nglish ?inguistics (ed. +. Ute(auer$. +reTov /
Slovacontact. >CCC. pp. >->. IS7B <C&<<<"A&C#&#
P582)E, osef. (!;;C$. A Linguistic Characterology of )odern English" +raha / St9tn, +edagogic(V
Ba(ladatelstv,. >CCC. pp. !-<. 7eJ IS7B

:I?), @eorge. (!;<=$. The Study of Language" 8ambridge / 8ambridge Iniversity +ress. !;<=. pp. >>C. IS7B
C&=>!&-!<""&"

01 Word Perfect

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