Interval-Class Content in Equally Tempered Pitch-Class Sets: Common Scales Exhibit Optimum

Tonal Consonance
Author(s): David Huron
Source: Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Spring, 1994), pp. 289-
305
Published by: University of California Press
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Music
Perception
1994 by the regents of the
Spring 1994,
Vol. 1
1,
No.
3,
289-305 university of California
Interval-Class Content in
Equally Tempered
Pitch-Class
Sets: Common Scales Exhibit
Optimum
Tonal Consonance
DAVID HURON
Conrad Grebel
College, University of
Waterloo
Pitch-class sets
(such
as
scales)
can be characterized
according
to the
inventory
of
possible
intervals that can be formed
by pairing
all
pitches
in the set. The
frequency
of occurrence of various interval classes in a
given pitch-class
set can be correlated with
corresponding
measures of
perceived
consonance for each interval class. If a
goal
of
music-making
is to
promote
a
euphonious effect,
then those sets that exhibit a
pleth-
ora of consonant intervals and a
paucity
of dissonant intervals
might
be
of
particular
interest to musicians. In this
paper,
it is shown that the
pitch-class
sets that
provide
the most consonant interval-class invento-
ries are the
major
diatonic
scale,
the harmonic and melodic minor
scales,
and
equally tempered equivalents
of the
Japanese
Ritsu
mode,
the common
penta
tonic
scale,
and the common "blues" scale. Conso-
nant harmonic intervals are more
readily
available in these sets than in
other
possible
sets that can be drawn from the 12
equally tempered
pitch
chromas.
Introduction
All known musical cultures make use of a select
repertoire
of
pitches
from which musical works are assembled. In Western tonal
music,
such
sets of
pitches
are
typically arranged
in
ascending/descending pitch-
orderings
called scales.
Ignoring pitch orderings,
we can borrow the term
"scale" to denote more
broadly any pitch-class repertoire
used in music-
making.
In some
cultures,
certain scale tones are
intentionally
varied or
inflected in
pitch (Wade, 1979). However,
in most
cultures,
scale tones are
of fixed or semistable
pitch,
and
pitch perceptions appear
to be dominated
by culturally
normative
categorical perceptions (although
see
Serafine,
1988).
Hundreds of scales are known to have been used or
explored
at
various times in various
parts
of the world.
Although many
scales have
been
explored by
Western
composers,
the number of scales in Western
musical
practice
remains
quite
small;
the diatonic
major
and harmonic
Requests
for
reprints may
be sent to David
Huron,
Conrad Grebel
College, University
of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario,
Canada N2L 3G6.
289
290 David Huron
minor scales account for the vast
majority
of Western music. The common
pentatonic
scale accounts for a
significant portion
of music in the Far East
(especially China).
As
pointed
out
by
the Gestalt
psychologists,
the
specific pitches
used in
a scale are less
important
than the intervallic
relationships
between the
tones. Provided the
log frequency
distances remain the
same,
a musical
work can be
transposed
in
pitch
without
changing
the essential
perceptual
experience.
This fact attests to the
perceptual preeminence
in music of
pitch
intervals over
pitches per
se. A scale can thus be
conveniently
charac-
terized
according
to a
recipe
of successive intervals rather than as a set of
actual
pitches.
Scales exhibit a
bewildering variety
of
properties.
Some scales have
variant
ascending
and
descending
forms
(as
in the case of the melodic
minor
scale).
Most scales can be characterized
according
to a
primary
or
final
pitch
-
as in the Western tonic or Indian sa. A
single
set of
pitches
can
be claimed
by
more than one
scale, depending
on what tone is deemed to
be the final or tonic
pitch
-
as in the case of the medieval modes.
In this
paper,
the focus will be on scales construed as unordered
pitch-
class sets that act as
pitch repertoires
for
music-making
activities. No
account will be taken of the
tonality
or
key-related implications
of such
sets. Scales with variant
ascending
or
descending
forms will be
analyzed
both as a
single
set and as two
independent pitch-class
sets. Our sole
interest will be on the interval structure of
pitch-class
sets and the
possibili-
ties afforded
by
each set for the creation of consonant harmonic intervals.
Finally,
for reasons that will become
apparent,
we must
unfortunately
limit this
investigation
to sets drawn from the 12
pitch
chromas of the
Western
equally tempered system
of
tuning.
In
principle, however,
the
hypothesis
tested and the method of
investigation
could be
applied
to
any
fixed-pitch system
of
tuning
in
any
musical culture.
Hypothesis
Musical intervals can be constructed
by using
either successions of
pitches (melodic intervals)
or concurrent
pitches (harmonic intervals).
Much of the world's music
(such
as the music of
Asia) appears
to stress the
melodic
aspects
of music. In Western music
by contrast,
there
appears
to
have been a
comparatively greater emphasis
on the vertical or harmonic
dimension of
music-making.
An
important phenomenon
related to the
sounding
of concurrent
pitches
is the
experience
of
sensory
consonance or
dissonance
(Greenwood, 1991; Helmholtz, 1863/1954;
Hutchinson &
Knopoff, 1979; Kaestner, 1909;
Kameoka &
Kuriyagawa, 1969a, 1969b;
Malmberg, 1918; Plomp
&
Levelt, 1965; Seashore, 1938; Vos, 1986;
and
Pitch-Class Sets and Tonal Consonance 291
others).
As static isolated
entities,
different harmonic intervals evoke differ-
ent
degrees
of
euphoniousness
-
although
such
perceptions depend
on the
spectral
content of the
participating tones,
their sound
pressure levels,
and
their
pitch register (Kameoka
&c
Kuriyagawa, 1969a, 1969b; Plomp
&
Levelt, 1965).
In the creation of
music,
musicians are
undoubtedly
motivated
by
a
wide
variety
of
goals.
If it is
hypothesized
that most musicians
prefer
to
create a
euphonious
sonic effect or music whose
sensory
dissonance is
somehow controlled or
limited,
one
might suppose
that these musicians
would seek to
promote
the occurrence of those intervals that exhibit a
high
degree
of tonal consonance.
By itself,
this
suggestion may
seem
musically
unsophisticated.
Cazden
(1945),
for
example,
has cautioned
against
con-
struing
consonance and dissonance in terms of "tonal isolates"
(brief
verti-
cal
moments).
Cazden has
suggested
that the
preeminent
factor in the
perception
of consonance and dissonance is the cultural context
-
pri-
marily culture-specific expectations
of resolution. This
important
caveat
notwithstanding,
it remains an
appropriate
task to
investigate
the
possible
influence of
simple sensory
consonance on
music-making.
Some
pitch-class
sets
may
better
supply
consonant intervals than other
pitch-class
sets. Krumhansl
(1990)
has
suggested
that there
may
be a correla-
tion between the
perceived
consonance of harmonic intervals and the avail-
ability
of such intervals in
commonly
used scales.
Specifically,
Krumhansl
has noted
informally
that the
inventory
of
possible
intervals in the common
pentatonic
and diatonic
major
scales
roughly correspond
to the
ranking
of
consonant and dissonant intervals
(p. 276).
Intervals
judged
as more conso-
nant
by
both Western and non-Western listeners
appear
to be more
readily
available in these scales. In this
paper,
we
propose
to test
formally
this obser-
vation. Two different
interpretations
of
"optimum
consonance" will be
identified,
and all
possible pitch-class
sets drawn from the
equally tempered
scale will be characterized
according
to these
interpretations.
To
anticipate
our
conclusions,
it will be shown that
among
the chroma sets that
provide
the
greatest opportunity
for the
generation
of consonant intervals are the
major
diatonic
scale,
the harmonic and melodic minor
scales,
the common
"blues"
scale,
the common
pentatonic
scale,
and the
Japanese
Ritsu mode.
Procedure
In order to
explore
the
relationship
between
pitch-class
sets and
perceived consonance,
two indices are
required: (1)
a
way
of
characterizing
the
frequency
of occurrence of various
intervals for
any given pitch-class
set,
and
(2)
an index of tonal consonance for intervals of
various sizes.
By relating
the number of
possible
intervals of each size with the
correspond-
ing
tonal consonance for each
interval,
it is
possible
to determine the
degree
to which a
given pitch-class
set maximizes the
potential
for
consonant-sounding
intervals.
292 David Huron
INTERVAL-CLASS INVENTORIES FOR PITCH-CLASS SETS
Each tone in a
given pitch
set can be
paired
with all other tones in the set. This means
that
any
set of fixed
pitches
establishes an
inventory
of
possible pitch
intervals.
Consider,
by way
of
example,
a six-note whole-tone scale in which successive
pitches
are two semi-
tones
apart:
C-D-E-Ftt -Gtt
-A
ft
. Pitches from this set can be
readily paired together
to
construct various intervals:
major
seconds
(two semitones), major
thirds
(four semitones),
tritones
(six semitones),
etc.
However,
other intervals
(interval
sizes
spanning
odd-
numbered
semitones)
are
impossible
to form
by selecting pitches
from this set.
In the case of
pitch
sets with octave
equivalence (i.e., pitch-class
or chroma
sets),
interval inventories show certain
regularities.
For
any given pair
of
pitch
classes
(such
as C
and
D),
a
large
number of intervals can be formed
(e.g., M2, m7, M9, ml4).
All
possible
intervals that can be formed
by using
two
pitch
classes are said to
belong
to the same
interval class
(Forte, 1973).
An interval class holds all intervals that are related
by
octave
transpositions, including complementary
intervals
(i.e.,
intervals related
by inversion).
Be-
cause of octave
duplication,
if a
pitch-class
set
permits
the creation of
major thirds,
it
necessarily permits
the creation of an
equivalent
number of minor sixths as well. In
princi-
ple,
a
given pair
of
pitch
classes cannot
provide
more intervals of one size than its
comple-
mentary (inverted)
interval. In Western set
theory,
all intervals
generated by
a
pitch-class
set can be classified as one of
just
six interval classes.
Interval-class content for a
given pitch-class
set can be
expressed by using
a six-element
interval vector
(Forte, 1973).
In the case of the whole- tone
scale,
for
example,
the associ-
ated interval vector is
[0, 6, 0, 6, 0, 3].
Each value in the interval vector indicates the
relative abundance of intervals of a
given
interval class that can be constructed from the
given pitch-class
set. All
pitch
sets
provide
unisons for
every
scale
tone;
in the case of
pitch-
class
(octave-equivalent) sets,
each tone also
produces
an octave interval.
Consequently,
the
number of
possible
unisons or octaves in a scale is uninformative. The first value in the
interval vector therefore
pertains
to the number of 1 -semitone
(or
11 -semitone . .
.)
inter-
vals that can be
generated
from the
pitch-class
set. In the case of the whole-tone scale
[0, 6,
0, 6, 0, 3],
no minor seconds
(or major
sevenths . .
.)
are
possible. Subsequent
values in the
interval vector
identify
the
frequency
of occurrence for interval classes
increasing
in size
up
to that of a tritone
(6 semitones).
Because intervals wider than a tritone are inversions of
intervals smaller than a
tritone, larger
intervals are
already
accounted for in the interval
vector. The six-element interval vector thus
provides
a
complete
characterization of the
potential
interval content for a
pitch-class
set.
A CONSONANCE INDEX
In addition to the interval-class
inventories,
a second index is needed that characterizes
the
degree
of tonal consonance for various interval sizes. Of course interval size alone does
not
entirely
account for the
perceived
consonance of two concurrent tones. As mentioned
earlier, spectral content,
sound
pressure level,
and
pitch register
are known to affect the
perception
of tonal consonance. In order to
compare
interval-class inventories with tonal
consonance,
we must assume that
spectral content,
sound
pressure level,
and
pitch register
do not
vary systematically
with the
type
of
pitch-class
set.
Expressed
more
informally,
we
must assume that all music
generated
from the various
pitch-class
sets are
played by
similar
instruments,
at
roughly
the same
loudness,
in
approximately
the same
pitch region.
Although major
strides have been made in
understanding
the
perception
of tonal conso-
nance,
some
controversy
remains
regarding existing
theories
(Vos, 1986).1
Because we must
1. Vos has identified several deficiencies in the
theory
of consonance
proposed by
Plomp
and Levelt
(1965)
and in the
theory proposed by
Kameoka and
Kuriyagawa
(1969a).
In
particular,
Vos has demonstrated
that,
at least in the case of musician
subjects,
perceived
consonance
("purity"
in Vos'
terminology) depends
on interval size in addition
to beats and
roughness.
Pitch-Class Sets and Tonal Consonance 293
TABLE 1
Measures of Tonal Consonance and Dissonance for Various
Harmonic Intervals
Dissonance
Consonance

Hutchinson & Kameoka &

Interval
Malmberg Knopoff Kuriyagawa
m2 0.00 .4886 285
M2 1.50 .2690 275
m3 4.35 .1109 255
M3 6.85 .0551 250
P4 7.00 .0451 245
TT 3.85 .0930 265
P5 9.50 .0221 215
m6 6.15 .0843 260
M6 8.00 .0477 230
m7 3.30 .0998 250
M7 1.50 .2312 255
discount
spectral content,
sound
pressure level,
and
pitch register
in this
study,
we can base
our consonance index
directly
on
empirical
records of listeners'
judgments
-
where
only
interval size has been
manipulated.
In this
way,
we avoid
having
to
rely
on an
existing
theoretical model of tonal consonance. For this
study,
an index of tonal consonance was
constructed
by amalgamating experimental
data from three well-known studies:
Malmberg
(1918),
Kameoka and
Kuriyagawa (1969a),
and Hutchinson and
Knopoff (1979)
-
as cited
in Krumhansl
(1990) (see
Table
1). Only
the
experimental
data
reported
in these studies have
been
used;
calculations of theoretical or
predicted
consonance or dissonance have been ex-
cluded. In
relying
on these
experimental
results,
we
recognize
that the
perceptual
data
might
reflect cultural
conditioning
via
exposure
to music
generated
within
commonly
used scales.
In
comparing
the
perceptual
data with interval-class
content,
differences between com-
plementary
intervals must be discarded. Recall that it is not
possible
for a
given pitch-class
set to
provide
more
opportunities
for the creation of
(say) major
thirds than for minor
sixths.
By definition,
for
any given pitch-class set,
the
opportunities
for
creating
a
given
interval must be identical to those for the
complement
of that interval.
Although
all three
perceptual
studies show the minor sixth to be
significantly
more consonant than the
major
third,
this difference is immaterial when the data are
compared
with interval-class invento-
ries. We
must, therefore, collapse
the
perceptual
data for
complementary
intervals so that
the data are commensurate with the six-element interval-class content.
A
single composite
index was calculated from the three
perceptual
studies as follows.
First,
the consonance data for
complementary
intervals within each
study
were
pooled (i.e.,
m2 +
M7,
M2 +
m7,
m3 +
M6, etc.).
The
resulting
values for each of the three
empirical
sources were normalized so that each had a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one. In ad-
dition,
the
signs
were
brought
into
agreement (the Malmberg
data
pertain
to
consonance,
whereas the other two studies measured
dissonance).
The three normalized sets of data were
then
averaged together
to
produce
a
single composite
consonance index shown in Table 2. This
index can be
regarded
as a
rough approximation
of the
perceived
consonance of
typical equally
tempered
interval classes constructed
by using complex
tones in the central
pitch region.
GENERATION OF PITCH-CLASS SETS
Because the
empirical
measures of tonal consonance
pertain
to
equally tempered pitches
only,
it is
possible
to
investigate only
those sets that can be drawn from the set of 12
equally
294 David Huron
TABLE 2
Interval Class Index of Tonal
Consonance
Interval Class Consonance
m2/M7 -1.428
M2/m7 -0.582
m3/M6 +0.594
M3 / m6 +0.386
P4/P5 +1.240
A4 / d5 -0.453
note. Based on normalized data from
Malmberg (1918),
Kameoka &
Kuriya-
gawa (1969a),
and Hutchinson &
Knop-
off
(1979).
The data have been
pooled
for
complementary
intervals.
tempered pitch
classes. Pitch-class sets
(such
as
scales)
can be classified
according
to the
number of tones used
-
the most well-known
being
the class of
heptatonic (i.e., seven-tone)
scales or sets. In this
study,
all set classes were
investigated
-
with the
exception
of sets
consisting
of
just
one or two tones. Sets
consisting
of a
single pitch
class are of little
interest,
whereas sets
consisting
of two
pitch
classes would
merely reproduce
the rank
ordering
of
the interval-class consonances
given
in Table 2.
By using
a
computer program,
it was
possible
to
generate
all
possible
sets that can be
drawn from the set of 12
pitch
classes. The number of
possible pitch-class
sets
consisting
of
three or more tones is
given by
the
following expression:
In total some
4,017 pitch-class
sets were
generated; however,
most of these sets are
simple
transpositions
of each other. There are also a number of
symmetries
in
pitch-class
sets that
considerably
reduces the total number of
unique
sets
(Balzano, 1982; Forte, 1973).
For
each set
generated,
the
corresponding
interval vector was determined.
OPTIMUM CONSONANCE MEASURES
In
relating
interval-class inventories to tonal consonance
measures,
one
might
distin-
guish
two different notions of
"optimum
consonance."
According
to the first
conception,
the
pursuit
of consonance
may
mean the
complete
absence of dissonant intervals and an
overwhelming preponderance
of consonant intervals. In this
case,
the
presence
of even a
single
dissonant interval would
necessarily
weaken the overall consonance
-
and so
would be "undesirable."
Accordingly,
we
might
define an
aggregate dyadic
consonance
value that is calculated
by multiplying
the number of intervals of a
given
size
by
the
associated consonance values
given
in Table
2,
and
summing
the results
together
for all
interval classes
(i.e., cross-product).
For
example,
in the case of the whole-tone scale
[0,
6, 0, 6, 0, 3],
the
aggregate dyadic
consonance would be
0(-1.428)
+
6(-0.582)
+
0(+0.594)
+
6(+0.386)
+
0(+ 1.240)
+
3(-0.453)
=
-7.167. Those
pitch-class
sets
that
provide many
consonant intervals and few dissonant intervals would tend to have
higher aggregate dyadic
consonance values.
Large negative
scores would indicate a set
that
provides many
dissonant intervals and
relatively
few consonant intervals.
Pitch-Class Sets and Tonal Consonance 295
An alternative
(or weaker)
notion of
"optimum
consonance"
might recognize
that
dissonances
ought
not to be
entirely
excluded from the
composer's palette. Rather,
the
presence
of dissonant intervals
ought merely
to be controlled or limited.
Specifically,
we
might
look for a rank
ordering
of the
prevalence
of various interval classes that is identical
to the rank
ordering
of their
respective perceived
consonances.
According
to this second
view,
an
optimum pitch-class
set would have fewer minor
seconds/major
sevenths than
major
seconds/minor
sevenths,
fewer
major
seconds/minor sevenths than tri
tones,
fewer
tritones than
major
thirds/minor
sixths,
and so on. To this
end,
a Pearson's coefficient of
correlation can be calculated
by comparing
the interval vector values for each
pitch-class
set with the
perceived
consonance data
given
in Table 2
(i.e., product-moment).
For exam-
ple,
in the case of the whole-tone
scale,
we would measure the correlation between
[0, 6, 0,
6, 0, 3]
and
[-1.428, -0.582, 0.594, 0.386, 1.240, -0.453] (Pearson's
r
=
-0.14).
A
high
positive
correlation would indicate that the
frequencies
of occurrence of the various inter-
vals that can be formed within the set are
directly
correlated with the
magnitude
of each
interval's
perceived
consonance.
RESULTS
Table 3 summarizes the
analytic
results for various
pitch-class
sets ac-
cording
to both
conceptions
of
optimum
consonance described above.
Each section of the table
pertains
to
pitch-class
sets
consisting
of a differ-
ent number of tones. Table
3F,
for
example,
tabulates the results for the
class of 7- tone sets. The sets are identified
(column 3) by
an
ascending
(scalelike) recipe
of semitone
steps.
In
addition,
the sets are identified
according
to standard labels devised
by
Forte
(1973).
The
corresponding
interval vectors are shown in column 4. The first column indicates the
aggregate dyadic
consonance for the
set,
whereas the second column
gives
the correlation between the interval vector and the index of
perceived
tonal consonance.
Only
the "best" sets have been listed for each cardinal
class
-
that
is, only
those
pitch-class
sets
showing
the
highest aggregate
dyadic
consonance
values, plus
all sets
displaying
consonance correlations
greater
than +0.5 are tabulated. At the
top
of each section of the
table,
the
total number of
unique
interval vectors is noted.
Excluding transpositions,
set
inversions,
and modal
variants,
a total of 189
unique
sets of three or
more
pitch
classes can be constructed
given
the 12 chromatic
pitches.
As an initial
observation,
we
might
note that the sets that
display
the
highest aggregate dyadic
consonance are found in
five-, six-,
and seven-
tone sets. Both smaller and
larger
set sizes
give generally
lower
aggregate
dyadic
consonance values. In the case of the consonance correlation val-
ues,
the results are somewhat different. As the number of tones in the set is
reduced,
it is
generally possible
to form
pitch-class
sets that
display
a
higher
correlation between the interval
inventory
and the interval conso-
nance data. For classes that have fewer than nine
tones,
for
example,
it is
always possible
to find at least one
pitch-class
set that exhibits a conso-
nance correlation better than +0.62.
However,
this is most
likely
an arti-
fact of the reduced
degrees
of freedom.
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299
300 David Huron
In the case of seven-tone
(heptatonic) sets,
the common
major
and
harmonic minor scales are ranked first and
third, respectively,
with
respect
to the
aggregate dyadic
consonance
(of
31
heptatonic
sets
having unique
interval
vectors).
With
respect
to the consonance
correlations,
the har-
monic minor and diatonic
major
scales are ranked first and
second, respec-
tively.
As our
study
enumerates all
possible
sets within each set
class,
the
ranking probability
can be calculated
directly.
In the case of the
aggregate
dyadic
consonance
values,
the
probability
of the
major
and harmonic
minor scale
being
ranked
among
the
top
three sets is .0023. With
respect
to the consonance
correlations,
the
probability
of the
major
and harmonic
minor scale
being
ranked
among
the
top
two sets is .0022.
Note that the
pitch-class
set for the
major
diatonic scale has close
parallels
in several non- Western musics. Most
notably,
the
major
scale is
virtually
identical to some of the most common thts used in the music of
northern India:
Bilval, Khamj, Kfi, svri, Bhairvi,
and
Kalyn
-
which in turn are
comparable
to the medieval modes:
Ionian, Mixolydian,
Dorian, Aeolian, Phrygian,
and
Lydian, respectively.
Notice also that both
the
ascending
and
descending
forms of the melodic minor scale can be
found
among
the
top
five
heptatonic
sets
given
in Table 3F.
Moreover,
the
combined nine-tone form of the melodic minor scale
(Table 3D)
ranks
third of the 12
possible unique
nine-tone
pitch
sets.
Because harmonic intervals are insensitive to
direction,
note that the
consonance correlation value for
any pitch-class
set will be the same as the
inverse for that set. In other
words,
the interval vector for
any given
ascending pattern
of tones will be the same if the
ascending pattern
is
treated as a
descending pattern.
In some
cases,
a set is
symmetric
-
with
identical
ascending
and
descending patterns.
The
major
diatonic scale is
one such
symmetric
scale. If the
ascending
scale
pattern (2, 2, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1)
is
reversed,
the result is
yet
another
major
diatonic
pitch-class
set
(Phryg-
ian
mode).
It has been noted
by many
music theorists that several common
pitch-class
sets used in Western music
(such
as the
major
diatonic
scale,
the whole-tone
scale, major/minor triads)
show such
symmetries (Forte,
1973; Rahn, 1980).
The harmonic minor scale is not
symmetric,
and so is
matched with its inverse scale in Table 3F.
In the case of the hexatonic
(six-tone) pitch-class sets,
the
highest ranking
set in terms of
aggregate dyadic
consonance is the
equally tempered equiva-
lent of the
Japanese
Ritsu mode
(the tunings
are not
quite
the
same)
. Like the
major
diatonic
scale,
the Ritsu mode is also
inversionally symmetric.
The
equally tempered equivalent
of the common "blues" scale ranks fifth of the
35
unique
hexatonic
pitch-class
sets in
aggregate dyadic
consonance and
ranks fourth in consonance correlation. In the case of
pentatonic (five-tone)
pitch-class sets,
the "common
pentatonic"
scale
(anhemitonic pentatonic
Pitch-Class Sets and Tonal Consonance 301
scale)
ranks the
highest
in terms of the
aggregate dyadic
consonance value.
With
regard
to the consonance correlation
measure,
the common
penta-
tonic scale is ranked fourth of 35
pentatonic
scales with
unique
interval
vectors. In
addition,
the common
pentatonic
scale is the
only ranking
five-
note scale that is
inversionally symmetric.
Having
examined the
preeminent scales,
we can now summarize the
results.
According
to both
interpretations
of
optimum
consonance out-
lined
here,
there is indeed a notable
conformity
between the
perceived
consonance of harmonic intervals and the
availability
of such intervals in
commonly
used musical scales. This
conformity
is
significantly higher
than
would be
expected by
a chance selection of tones from the
equally
tem-
pered
set.
Indeed,
the scales we have considered rank foremost of all
possible pitch-class
sets.
The results of Tables 31
(four-tone)
and
3J (three-tone)
are
suggestive
in
the context of Western harmonic
practice.
The
pitch-class
sets that most
conform to the index of tonal consonance turn out to be the most common
chords in Western music: the
major
and minor
triads,
and four common
four-note chords:
(in order)
the minor-minor
seventh,
the dominant sev-
enth,
the half-diminished
seventh,
and the
major-major
seventh chords.
The
augmented
and diminished triads rank fifth and sixth
(of 12)
in Table
3J,
but these sets show little correlation with the tonal consonance index.
These results
replicate
those of Hutchinson and
Knopoff (1978, 1979;
Table
1)
and Danner
(1985;
Tables
1-3)
where
pitch-class
consonance
was calculated for three-note chords
by using
a model of tonal consonance
perception.
In the case of these three- and four-note
sets,
it is
important
to
recognize
that the consonance measures do not reflect the consonance of the com-
plete
set of
concurrently sounding
tones
(such
as the consonance of "a
major triad"). Rather,
the consonance values reflect the collective conso-
nance of all
possible pairs
of tones drawn from the
given pitch
set.
Finally,
we
might
consider which of the two
conceptions
of
optimum
consonance best
predicts
the
analytic
results. That
is,
is musical
practice
most consistent with the
simple pursuit
of consonant harmonic intervals to
the exclusion of dissonant intervals? Or is musical
practice
most consistent
with a rank
ordering
of the
availability
of intervals with their
respective
degrees
of
perceived
consonance? Table 4
compares
the rank
ordering
of
the
aggregate dyadic
consonance values and the consonance correlation
values for common scales and vertical
pitch
sets. Evidence in favor of
either
conception
of
optimum
consonance would be reflected in a
signifi-
cantly higher ranking
for either the
aggregate dyadic
consonance values or
the consonance correlation values.
However,
Table 4 shows no
systematic
or
significant
differences between the results of the two different
analyses.
302 David Huron
TABLE 4
Comparison
of Results for Two
Conceptions
of
Optimum
Consonance
Consonance
Ranking
Correlation
Ranking
Melodic minor scale 3 3
Major
diatonic scale 1 2
Harmonic minor scale 3 1
Ascending
melodic minor 5 5
Descending
melodic minor 1 1
Ritsu mode 1 4
"Blues" scale 5 4
Common
pentatonic
scale 1 4
Minor-minor seventh chord 1 1
Major-major
seventh chord 3 3
Dominant seventh chord 5 2
Major
triad 1 1
Minor triad 1 1
Augmented
triad 4 4
Diminished triad 5 5
Hence we are unable to claim that one
conception provides
a better ac-
count of musical
practice.
Conclusion and Discussion
Any
set of
pitch
chromas
(such
as defined in a
scale)
delimits a set of
possible
harmonic
(and melodic)
intervals. A useful
analogy
is to liken a
musical scale to a
painter's palette
in which a limited set of resources is
preselected.
Pitches can be
paired together
in a manner
analogous
to the
way
an artist mixes
paints. Depending
on the available
paints
on the
palette,
certain colors or hues can or cannot be
readily produced.
Simi-
larly, depending
on the
pitch-class set,
various interval classes
(and
hence
intervals)
occur with
greater
or lesser
frequency.
A
frequency
distribution
of interval classes is
provided by
a set's interval vector. Pitch intervals can
be rated
according
to their
perceived euphoniousness
or tonal consonance.
If one of the
composer's
aesthetic
goals
is to
generate predominantly
conso-
nant
music,
an
appropriate
choice of
palette
would maximize the availabil-
ity
of consonant harmonic intervals while
minimizing
the
presence
of
dissonant harmonic intervals.
Alternatively,
a
composer might
aim to main-
tain the
availability
of dissonant
intervals,
but
only
in inverse
propor-
Pitch-Class Sets and Tonal Consonance 303
tion to their
degree
of dissonance. That
is,
as intervals become more
dissonant,
fewer of them can be
generated
from the
pitches
available on
the
composer's palette.
Beginning
with the 12
equally tempered pitch chromas,
a
large
number
of
unique
sets
(or scales)
can be
generated by selecting varying
numbers of
tones from this initial set. When the interval vectors for these sets are
compared
with measures of
perceived consonance,
certain sets
display
elevated consonance values.
Among
the
pitch-class
sets whose interval-
class inventories conform most
strongly
with an index of
perceived
conso-
nance are the three
preeminent
scales in Western music: the
major
diatonic
scale,
and the harmonic and melodic minor scales. The
high
consonance
values
displayed by
the harmonic and melodic minor scales are
especially
notable,
because the minor scales have resisted
previous attempts
to ac-
count for them
using
theories of consonance
(see
discussions in
Parncutt,
1989 and
Krumhansl, 1990, p. 53). Although
several of the most
popular
pitch-class
sets are
symmetric
with
respect
to
inversion,
the harmonic
minor and
complete
melodic minor scales are notable
exceptions.
The fact
that these scales exhibit a
high aggregate dyadic
and correlational conso-
nance
suggests
that the
pursuit
of tonal consonance
provides
a more
parsi-
monious account of the
popularity
of these sets than the formal
property
of
symmetry.
Moreover,
whereas the
perceptual
relevance of set inversion
is difficult to
interpret,
the
perceptual
relevance of tonal consonance is
clear.
In addition to the Western
major
and minor
scales,
the results are also
suggestive
for scales that are less
directly
associated with
equal tempera-
ment.
Equally tempered equivalents
of the common
pentatonic scale,
the
Japanese
Ritsu
mode,
and the common "blues" scale all
displayed high
or
optimum
consonance values. Other
pitch-class
sets
-
such as those corre-
sponding
to
major
and minor
triads,
and various seventh chords
-
similarly produce
interval-class inventories that conform
strongly
with an
index of
perceived
consonance. In the case of
aggregate dyadic
conso-
nance,
values
peak
for
pitch-class
sets
containing
between five and seven
tones
-
a
range
that
corresponds
to the number of tones in most of the
world's scales.
It would be
wrong
to view the results of this
study
as
endorsing
Western
musical
practice
to the
implied
detriment of some non- Western musics.
First,
the initial set of 12
equally tempered pitches
is
obviously
biased
toward Western musical
practice.
Second,
in
comparison
to most of the
world's
music,
Western music tends to be
highly harmonically
oriented.
Where scales
provide
the basis for
predominantly
melodic
music,
examin-
ing
the harmonic
properties
of these scales
may
be
inappropriate. (Indeed,
non-Western musicians
frequently
cite the
comparatively
small number of
scales used
by
Western musicians as
symptomatic
of the relative melodic
304 David Huron
impoverishment
of Western
music.) Note, however,
that the
hypothesis
tested here and the method of
investigation
used can be
applied
to
any
fixed-pitch system
of
tuning
for
any
musical culture
-
provided
the
appro-
priate
tonal consonance data is available for all intervals that
might
arise.
In
addition,
it is
important
to
emphasize
that this
investigation
has dealt
only
with
pitch pairs.
Little is known about the
perception
of three or more
concurrent
pitches (although
see
Parncutt, 1989).
Both the
dependent
and
independent
variables examined in this
study
consider
only simple pitch-
pairing.
With these caveats in
mind,
it remains a
significant
observation that
the most
commonly
used
pitch
sets in Western tonal music
provide
interval
inventories that conform well with
ratings
of
perceived
consonance.
Finally,
in this
study
no inferences can be drawn
regarding causality.
As noted
earlier,
it is
possible
that
empirical
measures of tonal conso-
nance are determined
largely by
listeners'
experience
with music com-
posed
within the
major
and harmonic minor scales. Even if consonance is
entirely
a learned
phenomenon,
the results of this
investigation suggest
a
significant coadaptation
of scales and
perceived
consonance.
However,
it
is
noteworthy
that the most
popular
accounts of tonal consonance
pro-
pose physical
and
psychophysical
mechanisms and exclude
experiential
factors
(Greenwood, 1991;
Kameoka &
Kuriyagawa, 1969a, 1969b;
Plomp
&c Level
t, 1965; although
see
Terhardt, 1974).
If these accounts of
tonal consonance are
correct,
then it
suggests
that scales have
adapted
to
the
idiosyncratic properties
of human
hearing,
rather than vice versa.
In
conclusion,
it is true that the
inventory
of
possible
intervals found in
Western musical scales
roughly correspond
to the
ranking
of consonant
and dissonant intervals. The more consonant intervals are more
readily
available in these scales than in other
possible pitch
sets that can be drawn
from the 12 chromatic
pitches.
Whereas the
origin
of these scales can be
attributed to the
simple pursuit
of tonal
consequence,
it
might
be
argued
that the
ongoing
use of these scales is a result of cultural inertia rather than
the continued
pursuit
of tonal consonance as a shared
goal
in music-
making. However,
in Huron
(1991)
is was shown that for common
prac-
tice
period music, composers
avoid dissonant intervals in
preference
to
consonant intervals
-
even when the interval
inventory
is controlled. Simi-
larly,
Huron and Sellmer
(1992)
showed that the
spacing
of
pitches
in
Western sonorities is consistent with the
goal
of
minimizing sensory
disso-
nance.
Together,
these three studies
imply that,
in common
practice,
musi-
cians have been motivated
-
at least in
part
-
by
the
remarkably simple
goal
of
creating euphonious
vertical moments.2
2. The author extends his thanks to Charles Morrison for comments on an earlier draft
of this article. Software
support provided by
Mortice Kern
Systems
is
gratefully
acknowl-
edged.
This research was
supported
in
part through
funds
provided by
the Social Sciences
and Humanities Research Council of Canada.
Pitch-Class Sets and Tonal Consonance 305
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