Jan F. Kreider “Introduction to the Buildings Sector” Handbook of Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning Ed, Jan F Kreider Boca Raton, Press LLC. 2001Introduction to the Buildings Sector ra yy Use Patterns in Buildings in the US Commercial Buildings = Industrial Processes, Jan F. Kreider ann Buildings * Residential Buildings Kreider Associates, LC 1.2 What Follows Introduction Buildings account for the largest sector of the US. economy. Construction, operation, and investment in buildings are industries to which every person is exposed daily. One of the major expenditures in the life eyde of a building is the operation of its space conditioning systems — heating, ventilation, and aie conditioning (HVAC) — dwarfing the initial cost of these systems or of even the entire building itself ‘Therefore, itis important to use the best, most current knowledge from the design phase onward through, the building lifecycle to mi taining a productive and comfortable indoor environment. HIVAC systems are energy conversion systems — electricity is converted to cooling or natural gas is converted to heat. Because itis important to understand from the outset the nature of energy demands placed on HVAC systems, that subject is discussed immediately below. The chapter closes with a short ‘outline of the rest of the book with its coverage of HVAC design, commissioning, operation, and. problem diagnosis. ie cost while 1.1 Energy Use Patterns in Buildings in the U.S. 11 is instructive to examine building energy use, sector by sector, to get an idea of the numbers and to clarify the differences between large and small buildings as well as between industrial and office buildings. ‘The next several sections discuss each. 1.1.1 Commercial Buildings In 1997, there were 4.6 million commercial buildings, occupying 58.8 billion square feet of floor space (PNNL, 1997). These buildings consumed 126.5 thousand Btu of delivered energy use (or 252.4 thousand Blu of primary energy) per square foot of space. Figure 1.1 shows that of the four main census regions, the South contains the highest percentage of commercial buildings, 38%, and the Northeast contains the least, 1606. ‘Commercial Buildings Disaggregated by Floor Space Sinty percent of US. commercial buildings range between 5,000 and 100,000 square feet, 8296 range between 1,000 and 200,000 square feet. The size class with the largest membership isthe 10,000-25,000, square foot range. Table 1.1 shows the size distribution in the US.‘Total Number of Buildings: 4.6 Million 25) 24 16 Total Feo space: 58.2 Bilion Square Fast ol a NORTHEAST MIDWEST 2120 2855 WEST, Percent of Bulings ImPercent of Foor pace — FIGURE 1.1 Commercial building geographical distribution, (From the 1995 Commercial Buildings ergy Con- sumption Survey.) TABLE | Size Distribution of U.S. Commercial Building Space ‘Comerial Building Size as of 1995, (percent of total oor space) ‘Syuare Foot Range 1,001 9 5,000 10.80% 5.001 10,000 120% 10,001 t0 25,000 19.50% 25,01 0 50,000 1B.10% S001 go 100,000 1.0% 100,001 to 200,000 150% 200,00 to 500,000 9.4096 ‘Over S00,000 9.0% ‘Commercial Energy Consumption and Intensity by Square Footage (1995) ‘Total consumption is fairly evenly distributed across building size categories; only the largest size category (over 500,000 square feet per building) showed a significant difference from any of the other categories. Buildings in the 10,001-25,000 square feet per building category have the lowest energy intensity of all categories. ‘Commercial Buildings Disaggregated by Building Type and Floor Space “The usage to which building space is put isa key influence on the type and amount of energy needed, Of the total square footage of commercial office space, 679% is used for mercantile and service, offices, ‘warehouses and storage places, of educational facilities. The average square footage for all building types ranges between 1,001 and 25,000 square feet. The largest building types, between 20,000.and 25,000 square feet, are lodging and health care facilites. Medium sized building types, between 10,000 and 20,000 square fet, are public order and safety, office, mercantile and service, and public assembly. Small building types less than 10,000 square feet, include warehouse and storage facilities, education facilities, food service, and sales. Table 1.2 summarizes sector sizes and typical floor sizes ‘Commercial End-Use Consumption ‘Mercantile and service, and office buildings consume almost 4096 of total commercial energy; in terms ‘of Btu per square foot. Education and health care facilities, lodging, and public assemblies also consumeintensity consumption ver 500,000 2 200001 to 500009 100,001 to 200,000} 50,001 to 100,000} 25,001 ta 50,000 10,001 10 25000] 5,001 to 10,000 Square Feet per But 1,001 te 5,000 12010080 69 4020 0 200 400 600 800 1,000 Blast. Tillon Btu FIGURE 12 Energy consumption and usage intensity for eight commercial building sie categories. (From the 1995 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey.) TABLE 1.2 Commercial Building Sector Size and Typical Floor Area 1995 Average and Percent of Commercial Building by Principal Building Type ( Foor Space Foor Space/ulding Building Type GP) Mercantile and Service 11260 Offce 70 WarchouselStorage 6670 Eduction 70 Public Aserbly nu10 Lodging 2500 Heath Care Food Service 1750 Food Sales 4690 Public Order and Safety 14610 Vacant (2) 18080 other a large amount of energy, making up another 40% of total commercial energy consumption. Table 1.3 summarizes the energy use intensities for the 12 most important categories. End Use Consumption by Task Finally, one must know the end use category — space heating, cooling, water heating, and lighting, Space heating and lighting are generally the largest energy loads in commercial office buildings. In 1995, energy consumed for energy loads. Space heating consumed 22%, and space cooling consumed 159% of commercial energy loads. On average, water heating is not high at 7%; actual load varies greatly according to building category. Health care facilities and lodging are unique in their high water heating loads; however, olfices, mercantile and service facilites, and warehouses require tinimal hot water, Figute 1.3 shows the distribution of energy end use by sector for 1995. Another way of idering the data in Figure 1.3 is to consider the end uses aggregated over all buildings but further disaggregated over the nine main end uses in commercial buildings. Figure 1.4 shows the data inthis way. hing accounted for 31% of commer ‘Commercial Energy Consumption and Intensity by Principal Building Activity (1995) ‘Commercial buildings were disttbuted unevenly actoss the categories of most major building charac- teristics. For example, in 1995, 63.0 percent of all buildings and 67.1 percent of all floor space were inTABLE 1.3 _End Use Consumption Intensity by Building Category 1995 Commercial Delvred End-Use Energy Consumption Intensities by Principal Building Type! (2000 BwiSP) Perce of Space space Water Total Building Type Heating Cooling Heating Lighting Consumption Ofice arr a 7 2 i Mercintile and Service 306, sa 5 bea 1% Education ae as ay 188 12% Health Care 52 99 6 v3 11% Lodging 2? au sit bs? Public Assembly 536 6 vs bs Food Service 309 ws m8 ” Warehouse and Storge 157 03 2 oa Food Sales 2s Ba oa 339 Vacant? ae 1 5s 4“ Public Order and Safety 27.8 ot aa 16a Others 596 93 153 267 All Buldings » é Ba 20a 908 10096 Note Parking garages and commercial buildings on muluilding manufacturing flies are exuded from CBECS 1995. Includes al end-use > Includes vacant and religious worship. “Includes mixed uses, hangars, crematorium, laboratories, and other Source: ELA, Commeril Buildng Energy Consumption and Expendicues 1995, April 1998, Table EU-2 p. 3 four building types: office, mercantile and service, education, and warehouse. Total energy consumption also varied by building type. Three of these — health care, food service, and food sales — had higher energy intensity than the average of 90.5 thousand Btu per square foot for all commercial buildings. Figure 1.5 shows the 13 principal building types and thei total consumption and intensity. ‘Commercial Building Energy Consumption by Fuel Type cipal energy types are used in U.S. commercial buildings: Five pri [Natural gas Fuel oil Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) Other and renewables On-site electric ‘Table 14 shows the relation between end use type in Figure 1.5 and the corresponding energy sources. Space heating, lighting, and water heating are the three largest consumers of energy. Natural gas and clectricty directly competed in three of the major end uses — space heating, water heating, and cooking. Im each of these three, natural gas consumption greatly exceeded electricity consumption, ‘Table 1.5 shows expected commercial sector energy use growth in the US. 1.1.2 Industrial Processes and Buildings ‘The industrial sector consists of more than three million establishments engaged in manufacturing, agriculture forestry, fishing, construction, and mining. In 1997, these buildings occupied 15.5 billion square feet of floor space and 37% (34.8 quadrillion Btus) of total US. primary energy consumption, After the transportation sector, the manufacturing sector consumes the most energy in the US. Of the 37% of primary energy consumption inthe industrial sector in 1997, 39% was used for manufacturing purposes and 4% was used for nonmanulacturing purposes. Thus, manufacturing establishments con- sume the majority of the energy in the industrial sector even though they are far outnumbered by ‘nonmanufacturing establishments. Because there is a lack of information regarding nonmanufacturingeae Ser — oo © mw 2 «© nergy Comune 1000 BF FIGURE 1.3 End use categories for commercial buildings bine act Heating a pace eating te Total Quads Lighting a as eating FIGURE 14 Commercial blding energy end uses aggregated overall building types Otice Mercantile and Service Education Health Care Lodging Public Assembly Food Service Warehouse Food Sales} Public Order and Safety Religious Worship Vacant eaintensity ‘Other monsumption 250 200 150 100 50 0 200 400 600 400 1000 1000 Btu/sq. ft Tillon Btu FIGURE 1.5. Energy usage and usage intensity by building type From the 1995 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption SurveyTABLE 14 Fuel Type Usage in Commercial Buildings Natur Fuel LPG enw. Ske Site Primary Gas O12) Ful) Other_Ea (4) Fleic Toul Percent Toul Space Heating ®) 158037 ou oie a2 lm Os Space Cooling (7) 002 03035 460% Lo Venton 017 ar? 320% Water Heating (8) 078007 om aoe 093 ao% 029 Lighting 121221590 39 Refrigeration Oe 016 240% Cooking 02s 002 02s 007 Office Equipment ota 13 other (9) 021 Oot est ROT Miscalancous(10) 03912 Os 132 720% 195 Toe aw 06m Space Heating Lighting Water Heating Cooling Office Equipment Cooking Refrigeration Ventilation otner mclecticty sprewrajaas 0 02 04 06 08 1 12 14 Quacillion Btu FIGURE 1.6 Gas and electric consumption in commercial buildings by task. (From the 1995 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey) sectors and the majority of energy is consumed in manufacturing, the manufacturing sector is the main. focus in this section ‘Standard industrial classification (SIC) groups are established according to their primary economic activity. Each major industrial group is assigned a two-digit SIC code. The SIC system divides manufac- turing into 20 major industry groups and nonmanufacturing into 12 major industry groups. In 1991, (of the 20 major industry groups in the manufacturing sector accounted for 88% of energy consumption for all purposes and for 4096 of the output value for manufacturing: Food and kindred products, Paper and allied products Chemical and allied product Petroleum and coal products Stone, clay, and glass products Primary Table 1.6 summarizes the key characteristics of the energy using SIC categories with an overview of cach, Table 1.7 shows the floor space inventory by SIC.TABLE 1.5 Expected Future Consumption Trends for Commercial Buildings ‘Commercial Primary Energy Consumption by Year and Fuel Type (quads and percents of toa)? Growth Rate, Year Natural Gas Petroleum’ _Gasl___—Renewable?_—Elcricity TOTAL —_1980-Year ‘ono 267 12) Bw 009m Na os Oh 1089 = 99037 bo 7% 009% NA, 912 71% LOK 997337 073 5% OOK 1% O02 OH 1103 THAAD zon 355 06 4% 009 1% 03,176 THH HOD DID ao 3a 0s? 3% 011% O03 OH 1273 TH aT La ao 4 Oss 3% 011% 0k HTT ROL ‘Now Petroleum induces distillate and residual fuels liquid petoleum gus, kerosene, and motor gasoline Includes site marketed and nonmaketed renewable energy. > 1997 site-to-source electricity conversion = 321, Source EIA, State Energy Data Report 1996, Fe. 1999, Table 13, p. 28 for 1980 and 1990; EIA, AEO 1999, Dec. 1998 “able A2, p 115-115 for 1997-2020 and Tale AIS, p. 135 for nonmaketed renewable ners. Sector Share of Total US. Eleticily Sector Share of US, Primary Energy Consumption in 1897 (etl = 107 Quads) __Consurpion in 1997 (lotat= 841 Quads) Instat eesicential ‘Taneperaton on one rete nausea FIGURE 1.7 Primary energy and electrical consumption inthe US. (1997) (Of total of 15.5 billion square feet of manufacturing space, 1790 is used for office space, and 839% is used for nonolfice space. Six groups account for 50% of this space: industrial machinery, food, fabricated ‘metals, primary metals, lumber, and transportation (PNNL, 1997), ‘Manufacturers use energy in two major ways: + To produce heat and power and to generate electricity + As raw material input to the manufacturing process or for some other purpose ‘Three general measures of energy consumption are used by the U.S. Energy Information Administra- tion (EIA). According to its 1991 data, the amount of total site consumption of energy forall purposes ‘was 20.3 quadrillion Blu. About two thirds (13.9 quadrillion Bu) of this was used to produce heat and power and to generate electricity, with about one third (6.4 quadrillion Btu) consumed as raw material and feedstocks. Figure 1.8 shows the relative energy use for the energy consuming SI > sectors Energy Use by Standard Industrial Classification Energy end uses for industry are similar to those for commercial buildings although the magnitudes are clearly different. Heating consumes 699% of delivered energy (45% of primary energy usage). Lighting is the second largest end use with 15% of delivered energy (279% of primary energy usage). Finally, venti= lation and cooling account for 8% each. Industrial Consumption by Fuel Type As with commercial buildings, a variety of fuels are used in industry. Petroleum and natural gas far exceed energy consumption by any other source in the manufacturing sectors. Figure 1.9 indicates the fuel mix characteristics,‘TABLE 1.6 General Characteristics of Industrial Energy Consumption SIC Standard Industrial Cove Major Industry Group Description High-Energy Consumers 20 Fond and kindred products ‘This goup converts raw materials nto Snished goods primarily 26 Paper andallied products by chemical (not physical) means. Heat i essential to thie 28 Chemicals and allied products production, and team provides much f the est, Naural as 29° Petroleum and col product byproduct and waste fue ae the largest sources of energy for 52 Stone, dsj; and gas products ‘ths group All, except food and Kinded products, are the most 33 Primary meu industries energy-intensive industri, High Value-Added Consumers 34 Fabricated metal products “This group produces high value-add transportation vehicles, 35 Industrial machinery and equipment industrial machinery, lctecal equipment, instruments, and 36 Hecttonic and other electric equipment miscellaneous equipment. The primary end uses are motor 3 Transportation equipment riven physical conversion of materia (eating, forming, 38 Instruments and related products assembly) and heat eating, dying and bonding. Natuel gsi 39 ——-Miscellaneous manufacturing industries the principal energy source, Low-Energy Consumers 21 Tobacco manufactures “This group ithe low energy-consuming sector and represents a 22 Textile mill products, ‘combination of end-use requirements Motor drive is one ofthe 23 Apparel and other textile products ey end wes 24 Lumber and wood producte 25 ——urniture and fixtures 27 Printing an publishing 30 Rubber and miscelancous plastics 31 Leather and leather produce Source: Energy information Adminstation, Office of Energy Markets and End Ue, Manufacturing Consumption of Energy 1991, DOE/EIA-0512(9). ‘TABLE 1.7 Industrial Building Floor Area Distribution 1991 Indusval Building Flor Space (10° square fet) ‘Oke Nonofice Toad sic Foor Space Flor Space Floor Space 20 Food 203 1207 10 21 Tobacco 6 51 36 22 Tastes o sai @s 23 Apparel a 451 523 24 Lumber By 135 87 25 Furniture ° su 56) 26 Paper n 27 9 27 Printing 351 a7 27 28 Chemica 1s a 9 29 Refining 105 bs 30 Rubber 768 6 31 Leather “4 3 32 stone, Cay 808 sot 33, Primary Metals nat na 34 Fabricated Metals 175 17 35° Industral Machinery 3 has) as 36 Electron Equipment 266 on 94 37 Transportation ao 76 ns 34 Innrumente bs v0 395 39 Mise, Manufacturing 32 190 2 Toul 26h a8 15589FIGURE 18 2 3 & Peoloun Natural Gas Coal—Renewable Elactioly —_Eleetrey Energy elated Losses FIGURE 1.9 Industral consumption by fuel type. 1.1.3. Residential Buildings Although residential buildings are not often equipped with engineered HVAC systems, it is important to understand usage by this sector because itis large and many of the design and operation principles {or large buildings also apply to small ones. The following data summarize residential energy use in the US. Figure 1.10 shows energy use by building type. Residential Sector Overview In 1993, there were 101.3 million households, oF 76.5 million buildings with an average of 2.6 people per household, The households consisted of 69% single-family, 259% multi-family, and 6% mobile homes. ‘These buildings consumed 107.8 million Btu of delivered energy (or 187-5 million Btu of primary energy) per household.Residential Bulidings Single-Family Detached ‘Two to Four Units Five or More Units ‘Single-Family Attached ‘Residential Buildings in 1990 Mobile Home 0.7 Primary Consumption: 15.1 quadridion Btu Site Consumotion: 92 quadelion Btu Commercial Bullaings office 28 Mercantile and Service 2 ‘Education Warehouse and storage Food Sales and Service ‘Assembly Health Care Lodging ‘Vacant other Commercial uitdings in 1988 Primary Consumption: 114 quadeiion Btu Site Consumption: &.8 quadrilion Btu o 2 4 6 8 0 i2 18 uacrition Bt Comparison of commercial and residential sector energy se TABLES US. Residential Buildings Disageregatd by ize Houschold Sie in Heated Floor Space a of 19 ‘Syuare Foot Range Fewer chan 599 1,000 19 1.599 1,010 1399) 2,000 102399 5000 oF more ‘More than 50% ofall residences range between 600 and 1,600 square feet; 23% are between 1,600 and 2,400 square feet, and 299% are in the 1,000 to 1,600 square feet range as shown in Table 1.8. Residential Energy Consumption Intensity Table 1.9 and Table 1.10 summarize residential fuel utilization, Natural gas and electricity are the key residential energy sources, Table 1.11 shows expected growth through the year 2020. 1.2. What Follows In order to cover all topics affecting the design and operation of HVAC systems in modern buildings, this book is divided into eight sections as follows: 1. Introduction to the Buildings Sector 2. Fundamentals 2.1 Thermodynamics Heat Transfer and Fluid Mechanies Basics 2.2. Psychrometries and Comfort‘TABLE 1.9 _Energy Consumption Intensities by Ownership of Unit 1999 Residential Delivered Energy Consumption Intensities by Ownership of Unit Per Square Ter Household Pr Houschold Taranto Ownership Foot (10° Btu) UO" Btu) Members 10" Bru) Total Consumption Owned mo Te ao Rented on 7 310 Public Housing 0 52 270 = Nonpublic Housing 670 m2 310 Source EIA, Household Energy Consumption and Expenditures 1993, Ox. 1995, Table p78 ‘Table 1.10 Residential End-Use Consumption by Fuel Type and by End Use 1997 Residential Energy End-Use Splits by Fuel Type (quads) Nawal Fed LPG enw Sie Primary Gas Ol __Fuel_Other En. (3) Hace Toul Poent Hese Toul Peet Space Heating aes M032 01S Ost 080 600 rst 710 37.39% Space Cooling on os 12 ur 9% Water Heating 127010 op? oo 03918 rae 269 142% Lighting 40 040 war 67% White Goods ons a7 082 249 Baye Cooking 016 ons 023 042 7 49% Electonics 027 027 Dae 086 Motors 0s 00s Ok 08 Heating Appicances 010 010 031 asi Other om 000 oat 010 oo Miscellaneous oa oat 10130 Toa Oo 0a O15 0m? 36 1094 100% TS _WOI 3. Economic Aspects of Buildings 3.1 Central and Disteibuted Utilities 3.2. Economics and Casting of HVAC Systems 4, HVAC Equipment and Systems 4. Heating Systems 42. Air Conditioning Systems 4.3. Ventilation and Air Handling Systems 45. Electrical Systems 5. Controls 5.1 Controls Fundamentals 5.2 Intelligent Buildings 6. HVAC Design Calculations 6.1 Energy Calculations — Building Loads 62. Simulation and Modeling — Building Energy Consumption 6.23 Energy Conservation in Buildings GA. Solar Energy System Analysis and Design 7. Operation and Maintenance 7.1 HVAC System Commissioning 7.2. Building System Diagnostics and Predictive Maintenance 8. Appendices‘Table 1.11 Expected Growth in Residential Energy Use ‘Residential Primary Energy Consumption by Year and Fuel Type (quads and percents of oa “Growth Rate Year Natural Gas Petroleum! Gosl_——Remewable® Electricity TOTAL —_—_=1980-Year inno 4a6 175 hw O06 Oe (NAT eal 36% 1500 Loo 990 452 127 W006 OM O63 4% IMS GIN 1653 100% 0.9% 097515 LAT 8% 006 0% 0.623% 1173 62%_1901 100% 14 2000 521 138 7% 006 O% 0.623% 1279 I 2006 100% 14 soo 332 123% 00S O% O46 3% IE SH 211 100% LA aor 594 11250 005 Om 0.70 3% 1509 66% 2290 100% 1% ‘Now: * Petroleum includes distil and residual ues, iqueied petroleum gs, Kerosene, and motor gasoline. Includes site marketed and now-inaketed renewable enery > 1980 Renewables are estimated at 10 qual Sources: EIA, State Energy Data Report 1996, Feb 19, Tables 12-18, p. 22-25 for 1980 and 1980; EIA, AEO 1993 Dec 1998, Table A2,p. 13-115 for 1997-2020 consumption and Table AB, p. 135 for nonmarketed renewable ener ‘The book is indexed for all detailed topics, and adequate cross-references among the chapters have been included, The appendices include the nomenclature and selected lookup tables References PNNL (1997). An Analysis of Buildings-Related Energy Use in Manufacturing, PNNL-11499, April, Energy Information Administration (EIA, 1995). 1995 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey.