INVESTMENT MATERIALS

Introduction
When a restoration or appliance is being made by a lost wax process, the wax pattern is embedded in an investment material. The wax is then removed from this mould, and the space which it occupied is filled by the material of which the restoration or appliance is to be made for example.The wax pattern of an inlay or other cast restoration is embedded in a heat resistant investment material which is capable of setting to a hard mass. The wax is removed from such a mould usually by burning out, before casting the molten alloy.

Definition:
An investment can be described as a ceramic material which is suitable for forming a mold into which a metal or alloy is appropriately cast. The procedure for forming the mold is described as investing.

Ideal properties: . The investment should be easily manipulated. !ot only should it be possible to mix and manipulate the mass readily and to paint the wax pattern easily, but the investment also should harden within a relatively short time. ". The investment mold must have sufficient strength of room temperature to permit ease in handling and enough strength at higher temperatures to withstand the impact force of the molten metal. #. $n being heated to high temperatures, the investment must not decompose to give off gases that could damage the surface of the alloy. %. &nvestment should have enough expansion to compensate for shrin'age of the wax pattern and the metal that ta'es place during the casting procedure. (. )hould be porous enough to permit the air or gases in the mold cavity to escape easily during the casting procedure. *. )hould produce a smooth surface and fine details and margins on the casting.

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+. &nvestment material should be comparatively inexpensive. Composition: &n general, an investment material is a mixture of three different types of materials. ,efractory material- .sually form of silicon dioxide, such as /uart0, tridymite, cristobalite or a mixture of these. 1inder material- 2ommon binder used for dental casting gold alloy is calcium sulphate hemihydrate, phosphates and ethyl silicate. Other Chemicals: )uch as sodium chloride, boric acid potassium sulphate, graphite, copper powder or magnesium oxide.

Classification
&nvestment materials are classified into. 3ypsum bonded investment Type & Type && Type &&&

". 4hosphate bonded investments #. 5thyl silicate bonded investments #

Gypsum onded In!estments

A6A specification !o. " for casting investments for dental gold alloys encompasses three types of investments. The types are determined by whether the appliance to be fabricated is fixed or removable, and the method of obtaining the expansion re/uired to compensate for the contraction of the molten gold alloy during solidification. Type &&nvestments are those employed for the casting of inlays or crowns when the alloy casting shrin'age compensation is accomplished principally by thermal expansion of the investment. Type &&- &nvestments are also used for the casting of inlays or crowns, but the ma7or mode of compensation is by the hygroscopic expansion of the investment. Type &&&- .sed in the fabrication of partial dentures with gold alloys. Composition: The essential ingredients of the dental inlay investment employed with the conventional gold casting alloys are -hemihydrate of gypsum and a form of silica.

Gypsum:
The -hemihydrate form of gypsum is generally the binder for investments used in casting gold containing alloys with melting ranges below 88892. When this material is heated to the temperature re/uired for complete dehydration and sufficiently high to ensure complete castings, it shrin's considerably and fre/uently fractures. All forms shrin' considerably after dehydration between "8892 and %8892. A slight expansion then occurs between %8892 and approximately +889 and then a large contraction occurs. This latter shrin'age is most li'ely caused by decomposition, and sulfur gases, such as sulphur dioxide are emitted. This decomposition not only causes shrin'age but also contaminates the castings with the sulfides of the non-noble alloying elements such as silver and copper. Thus, it is imperative that gypsum investments not to be heated above +8892. &n this alloy proper fit as well as uncontaminated alloys are obtained.

Silica:
)ilica :)i$"; is added to provide a refractory during the heating of the investment and to regulate the thermal expansion. 6uring the

heating, the investment is expected to expand thermally to compensate partially or totally for the casting shrin'age of the gold alloy. &f the proper form of silica is employed in the investment, this contraction during heating can be eliminated and changed to an expansion. Silica exists in atleast 4 allotrophic forms: ; <uart0 "; Tridymite #; 2ristobalite and %; =used /uart0. <uart0 and cristobalite are of particular dental interest. When /uart0, tridymite or cristobalite is heated, a change in crystalline form occurs at a transition temperature chracteristic of the particular form of silica. =or example, when /uart0 is heated it ensures from a low form, 'nown as -/uart0 to a high form, called -/uart0, at a temperature of (+(92.

&n a similar manner, cristobalite undergoes an analogous transition between "8892 and "+892 from low called -cristobalite to a high called -cristobalite. The -allotropic forms are stable only at the transition temperature noted, and an increase to the lower or form occurs on cooling in each case. The density decreases as the -form changes to the -form, with a resulting increase in volume that is exhibited by a rapid increase in the linear expansion, conse/uently, the shrin'age of gypsum can be counterbalanced by the inclusion of one or more of the crystalline silica.

Modifiers:
&n addition to silica, certain modifying agents, cooling matter, and reducing agents such as carbon and powdered copper are present. The reducing agents are used in some investments to provide a nonoxidi0ing atmosphere in the mold when the gold alloy is cast. )ome of the added modifiers, such as boric acid, and sodium chloride, not only regulate the setting expansion and the setting time, but they also prevent most of the shrin'age of gypsum when it is heated above #8892.

Setting time: According to A6A specification !o. " for dental inlay casting investment, the setting time should not be shorter than ( minutes nor longer than "( minutes. .sually, the modern inlay investments set initially in > to ? minutes. )ufficient time should be allowed for mixing and investing the pattern before the investment sets.

Normal Settin" E#pansion

The purpose of setting expansion is to aid in enlarging the mold to compensate partially for the casting shrin'age of the gold. A6A specification !o. " for Type & investment permits a maximum setting expansion @in airA of only 8.*B. The setting expansion of such modern investment is

approximately 8.%B. &t can be regulated by retarders and accelerators. A mixture of silica and gypsum hemihydrate results in setting expansion greater than that of the gypsum products when it is used alone. The silica particles probably interfere with the intermeshing and interloc'ing of the crystals as they form. Thus the thrust of the crystals is outward during growth and they increase expansion.

Cariables other than the exothermic heat of reaction also influence the effective setting expansion. As the investment sets, it essentially gains sufficient strength to produce a dimensional change in the maximum pattern as setting expansion occurs. Also, the softer the wax, the greater the effective setting expansion, because the softer wax is more readily moved by the expanding investment.

$y"roscopic Settin" E#pansion

&f the setting process of gypsum is allowed to occur under water, the setting expansion will be more than doubled in magnitude. This is because to hemihydrate allowed to react under water is related to the additional crystal growth permitted. A6A specification !o. " for Type && investments re/uires a minimum setting expansion in water of allowed is "."B. A number of factors are important in the control of the hygroscopic expansion. ."B while the maximum

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1. Effect of composition The magnitude of setting expansion of a dental investment is generally proportional to the silica content of the investment. =iner the particle si0e of silica greater the expansion. -hemihydrate will produce a greater expansion than hemihydrate. Effect of water:powder ratio: The highest the W-4 ratio of the original investment water mixture, the less the hygroscopic expansion. Effect of spatulation: Dixing time and hygroscopic expansion as well. Effect of time of immersion: The greatest amount of hygroscopic setting expansion is observed if the immersion ta'es place before the initial set. The longer the impression of the investment in the water bath is delayed beyond the time of the initial set of the investment, the lower is the hygroscopic expansion.

Effect of the amount of water added: The magnitude of hygroscopic expansion is in direct proportion to the amount of water added during the setting period until a maximum expansion occurs, no further expansion is evident regardless of any amount of water added. 5xpansion can be detected when water is poured into a vessel containing only small, smooth /uart0 particles. The water is drawn between the particles by capillary action and thus causes the particle to separate, creating an expansion. The effect is not permanent after the water is evaporated, unless a binder is present. The greater the amount of the silica or the inert filler, the more easily the added water can diffuse through the setting material and the greater is the expansion.

T%ermal E#pansion
The thermal expansion of a gypsum bonded investment is directly related to the amount of silica present and to the type of silica employed. A considerable amount of /uart0 is necessary to counterbalance the contraction of gypsum during heating.

The contraction of the gypsum is entirely balanced when the /uart0 content is increased to +(B. The investments containing cristobalite expand earlier and to a greater extent than those containing /uart0. The desirable magnitude of the thermal expansion of a dental investment depends on its use. &f hygroscopic expansion is to be used to compensate for the contraction of the gold alloy, as for the Type && investment. A6A specification !o. " re/uires that the thermal expansion be between 8B and 8.*B at (8892. Eowever, for Type & investment, which rely principally on thermal expansion for compensation, the thermal expansion must be not less than B nor greater than .*B. Another desirable feature of an inlay investment is that its maximum thermal expansion be attained at a temperature not higher than +8892. Thus when a thermal expansion techni/ue is employed, the maximum mold temperature for casting of gold alloy should be less than +8892.

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Effect of Water:Powder ratio The magnitude of thermal expansion is related to the amount of solids present. Therefore it is apparent that the more water that is used in mixing the investments, the less is the thermal expansion that is achieved during subse/uent heating. Effect of chemical modifiers: The addition of small amounts of sodium, potassium, or lithium chlorides to the investment eliminates the contraction caused by the gypsum and increases the expansion without the presence of an excessive amount of silica. Strength: According to A6A specification !o. ", the compressive strength for an inlay investment should not be less than ".%Dpa tested " hours after setting. Eeating the investment to +8892 may increase or decrease the strength as much as *(B, depending on the composition. The greatest reduction in strength on heating is found in investments containing sodium chloride.

&t%er "ypsum in!estment considerations:

Fineness: The fineness of the investment may affect the setting time, the surface roughness of the casting and other properties, fine particle si0e is preferable to a coarse one, the finer the investment, the smaller are the surface irregularities on the casting. Porosity: 6uring the casting process, the molten metal is forced into the mold under pressure, as the molten metal enters the mold, the air must be forced out ahead of it. &f the air is not completely eliminated, a bac' pressure builds upto prevent the gold alloy form completely filling the mold. The common method for venting the mold is through the pores of the investment. 3enerally, the more gypsum crystals that are present in the set investments, the less is its porosity. The particle si0e of the investment is also a factor. The more uniform the particle si0e, the greater is its porosity.

'%osp%ate onded In!estments

The rapid growth in use of metal ceramic restorations and increased use of a higher melting alloys have resulted in a increased use of phosphate bonded investment. As suggested by )'inner : >*#; The definite advantage of this type of investment is that there is less chance for contamination of gold alloy during casting and hence could be the investment of the future. The present trend is towards the use of less expensive base metal alloys, most of which re/uire phosphate investments. Composition: These investments, li'e the gypsum investments consist of refractory fillers and a binder. The filler is silica, in the form of cristobalite, /uart0, or a mixture of the two and in the concentration of approximately ?8B. The purpose of this filler is to provide high temperature thermal shoc' resistance :refractoriness; and a high thermal expansion. The binder consists of magnesium oxide and a phosphate :Donoammonium phosphate;.

2olloidal silica li/uid suspensions are available for use with the phosphate bonded investments in place of water ##B dilution of colloidal silica is re/uired. 2arbon is often added to the powder to produce clean castings, and facilitate the @devestingA of the casting from the mold.

Settin" Reaction
The chemical reaction for the binder system that causes the investment to set and harden is !E%E"4$% F Dg$ F (E"$ !E% Dg4$% *E"$

Settin" and T%ermal E#pansion

)ubstitution of colloidal silica solution instead of water considerably increases the expansion. When phosphate bonded investments are mixed with water they exhibit the same shrin'age as gypsum bonded investments. This contraction is practically eliminated when a colloidal silica solution replaces the water. The early thermal shrin'age of phosphate investments is associated with the decomposition of the binder, magnesium ammonium

phosphate and is accompanied by the evolution of ammonia, which is readily apparent by its odor.

(or)in" and Settin" Time

4hosphate investments are mar'edly affected by temperature. The warmer the mix, the faster it sets. The setting reaction itself gives off heat, and this further accelerates the rate of setting. The more efficient the mixing better the casting in terms of smoothness and accuracy. The ideal techni/ue is to mix, as long as possible, yet have enough time for investing. Dechanical mixing under vacuum is preferred.

Et%yl Silicate onded In!estments

5TEGH )&H&2AT5 bonded investments are being used in the construction of the high fusing base metal partial denture alloys. These investments are losing popularity because of the more complicated and time consuming procedures involved. The silica is the binder which may be derived from ethyl silicate or sodium silicate.

he !E"C IO# The silica is bonded by the hydrolysis of ethyl silicate in the presence of hydrochloric acid. The product of the hydrolysis is the formation of a colloidal solution of silica acid and ethyl alcohol. )i :$"2(E%; F %E"$
E2l

)i:$E;% F %2"E($E

5thyl silicate has the disadvantage of containing inflammable components because sodium silicate and colloidal silica are more common binders used. These investments are supplied with two bottles of special li/uid to be mixed with the investments. $ne bottle contain diluted water soluble silicate solution such as sodium silicate, the other bottle usually contains diluted acid solution such as solution of E2l. 1efore use of the e/ual volume of each bottle is mixed so that hydrolysis can ta'e place and freshly prepared silicic acid is formed. The 4owder- li/uid ratio is used according to manufacturers instruction. This type of investment can be heated to 8>892 and compatible with higher fusing alloys. ?892 and is