Steptricity: A Physics Project Report

Harnessing Energy, Step by Step...

Abstract
The objective of this project is to generate power from the energy of human footsteps. This energy is harnessed by applying the concepts of electromagnetic induction. By constructing a device which does this, the feasibility of this idea is tested and demonstrated. The device consists of a grid of 12 pairs of magnets; each pair has a coil which cuts the magnetic field. This sets up an electromotive force (emf) in the coils. Through appropriate circuitry, a current is drawn from the induced emf and is used to illuminate an LED. Thus, this project helps one explore the possibilities of harvesting free human energy while giving one a deeper understanding of important physical phenomena.

Ria Mirchandani Application ID: 6620850

Table of Contents
1. Introduction 2. Conceptualizing My Project 3. Steptricity i. Background Theory ii. Conceptual Design iii. EMF Generation iv. Mechanical Arrangement v. Electrical Arrangement vi. Integration of Multiple Cells and Problems Faced vii. Results viii. Limitations ix. Future Scope of Development 4. Conclusion 5. Bibliography 6. Acknowledgements 1 1 4 5 6 9 10 12 14 15 16 17 18 18

Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

Introduction
At 9:00 am every weekday, 5.5 million Mumbai commuters disembark onto the platforms of Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST). 11 million feet hit the concrete platform at roughly one footstep per second, as the commuters rush to their various destinations. Each commuter spends mechanical energy when each footstep hits the ground, and exerts a force on it. What if this energy could be harnessed? In a world where our conventional energy sources such as coal and petroleum, are depleting as fast as our ice caps are melting, this is not a redundant question to ask. The threats of Global Warming are evident in the floods, cyclones and droughts that have ravaged our Earth in the recent past. Several companies have therefore set out to find alternative energy sources that could meet the demands of a rapidly growing and consuming population. Solar, wind, tidal, and hydropower are perhaps the most well-known renewable energy resources. But what about human energy? Human beings may be the number one energy consumers, but we also expend energy in each action we perform. We produce 100 Watts of power even when at rest. Harnessing this energy could help power small, essential devices such as light bulbs. This could reduce our total power intake by reducing the net power consumption of some devices we are dependent on to zero. The quest for energy efficiency, and the need to make technology environmentally benign, has led to the development of CleanTech or clean technology. It is a diverse range of products, services, and processes that harness renewable materials and energy sources, dramatically reduce the use of natural resources, and cut or eliminate emissions and wastes.

Conceptualizing My Project
Growing up in Mumbai, I often witnessed power failures due to the humungous population that had to survive off the power grid. I always wondered how we could use the strength of our population to give power back, rather than only consume. This, coupled with my fascination with CleanTech and with exploring the alternative sources of energy, pushed me to experiment with my own project on harvesting the energy of footfalls. I wanted to construct my own model of a device that could do just this, and use it to study how it could be implemented on a large scale in a crowded place like CST. If energy could be generated from humans, Mumbai, with its teeming millions, was an ideal location to do so. I met with Mr. Oliver Schneider, Commercial Director and co-founder of facility+innovate, an architecture and design firm that emphasizes the use of clean technology in all its buildings, in May 2010 in London. With a focus on energy efficiency and carbon reduction within the built environment facility+innovate, had also been exploring the use of piezoelectricity, electromagnetism and micro turbines to generate energy from footsteps. It was currently engaged in building a walkway for the 2012 London Olympics that illustrated the idea of harvesting energy through footfalls. The tiles of the staircase would be structured to generate a power of 0.7 Watts through electromagnetic induction; this power would be used to light up the OLED (organic LED) advertisement displays along the staircase. The advertising revenues would cover the costs, thus making the project completely self sufficient, in energy and financially.
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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

As I spoke to experts in the CleanTech field, I realized that there is more than one method of harnessing the energy of footfalls. These are detailed below. Various Technologies for harvesting energy through footfalls include: 1. Piezoelectricity Piezoelectricity is the property of a crystal (e.g., quartz) to develop a net charge when subjected to mechanical stress. Tension and compression generate voltages of opposite polarities in the crystal due to redistribution of the surface charge. The voltage generated is proportional to the applied force and is small in magnitude, but it can be easily used to produce a current. Piezoelectric materials are essentially ceramics that are physically strong, chemically inert and can easily undergo modification of shape for various purposes. These properties make it easy to construct piezoelectric tiles which can be flexed by a force, like a footstep. When connected to a complete circuit, the tile generates a current. Piezoelectricity was the first technology used to generate current through footsteps. Agencies such as DARPA in the US and companies such as POWERleap and Pavegen have been experimenting with it for a long time. 2. Rotational power This method involves storing the impact energy of a footstep as rotary motion of a flywheel. This flywheel would rotate the armature of a generator, producing current. Footsteps would fall on a spring-loaded platform setting it into motion. This energy would be converted into rotational energy through a sprocket wheel attached to it. This sprocket wheel is coupled to a ratchet wheel, which would allow only unidirectional rotation of the ratchet sleeve shaft, unlike the platform, which will be oscillating due to the springs. A footstep triggers the rotation of the sprocket wheel, then the ratchet and consequently the shaft, which sets the flywheel into rotation at a high velocity. The flywheel is attached to the generator, and rotates the generator field rotor, thus setting up an emf (electromotive force) that can be harnessed. 3. Electromagnetic Induction Generating a current through Electromagnetic induction is based on Lenzs law. The motion of a coil through a magnetic field, results in it breaking the lines of the field. This is called a change in magnetic flux. A change in flux induces an emf in the coil. When connected to a closed circuit, this emf is able to produce a current. Such an arrangement is dependent on the movement of the coil through the field (i.e., the change in flux). The change in flux is provided by the footsteps; the force of the footsteps would result in the platform supporting the spring to move down, cut the lines of the magnetic field and generate a current.

Why did I choose Electromagnetic Induction? After carefully analyzing the various methods which could be implemented to output a power from footsteps, I came to the conclusion that the method incorporating Electromagnetic induction was the best. It offered minimum losses, was durable, and was less complex in its construction.
The reasons why I ruled out the other methods are the following-

Limitations of Piezoelectricity While piezoelectricity had the advantage of being easy to deploy, it had the following disadvantagesPage 3

Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

Expensive at human scale Small amounts of electricity generated Effectiveness reduced with larger forces Low durability; tiles broke easily and did not last long

Limitations of Rotational Energy While this method had the advantage of being cheaper to implement, it had the following disadvantagesVarious mechanical components increased loss of energy in conversion Resistive forces such as friction between wheels further reduced efficiency Components are big; implementation on a plane surface would disrupt the normal fall of footsteps Advantages of Electromagnetic Induction While the conversion process for current generated by electromagnetic induction was more challenging, it had the following advantages over the other methods: Useful amounts of electricity generated (i.e., watts not milliwatts) High levels of reliability and lifespan
With the help of some professors and students from IIT Mumbai (The Indian Institute of Technology) to guide me, I embarked on my ambitious project, Steptricity.

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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

Steptricity
Aim: To generate power from energy harvested through footfalls, using the concept of electromagnetic induction. To store this energy in a capacitor, or use it to light up an LED. Thus, to experiment with the concept of clean energy and demonstrate it by converting human energy into usable power.

Background Theory Important Terms and Definitions

Magnetic field: The space around a magnet where its influence is felt. It is measured in Gauss (G) or Tesla (T). I T= 104G Magnetic flux: The total number of lines of force around a magnet is called magnetic flux. Electro magnet: It is an arrangement of a soft iron piece inside a solenoid. The magnet loses its property when the current in the solenoid ceases. Galvanometer: The device used to detect the presence and direction of a feeble current. Electric Power: The amount of electrical energy developed in one second. The electric power in a circuit is calculated using the equation P = VI. Emf: the potential difference between two points which results in a flow charge from the point at a higher potential to the point at a lower potential Solenoid: a coil of wire, usually cylindrical, in which a magnetic field is set up by passing a current through it Inductance: The property of an electric circuit by which an electromotive force is induced in it as the result of a changing magnetic flux. It is measured in Henries (H) Resistance: a material's opposition to the flow of electric current; measured in ohms () Diode: is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. Oscillation: It is a motion that repeats itself in a regular cycle.

The basic principle behind my model is electromagnetic induction. The implementation of this model also involved a deep understanding of mechanics, electronic circuits, and capacitors, which will be detailed ahead. When a charge moves through space, it produces a magnetic field around it. These magnetic field lines radiate outwards. Current is moving charge, and thus a current carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it. The converse of this effect is called electromagnetic induction. In 1831, Faraday noticed that whenever the number of magnetic lines of forces (magnetic flux) passing through a circuit changes, an emf is produced in that circuit. If the circuit is closed, a current flows through it. The emf and current so produced are called induced emf and induced current and last only while the magnetic flux is changing. This phenomenon is known as electromagnetic induction. Magnetic flux in a circuit can be changed through the following ways: a) by moving the magnet relative to the circuit of vice versa b) by changing current in the neighboring circuit c) by changing current in the same circuit d) by rotating the coil in a magnetic field

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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

Faraday developed two laws through experimentations that formed the basis of electromagnetic induction. They are the following: Faradays first law/Neumans law: when the magnetic flux through a circuit is changing, an induced emf is set up in the circuit whose magnitude is equal to the negative rate of change of magnetic flux. = - / t Faradays second law/Lenzs law: the direction of the induced emf or the current, in any circuit is such as to oppose the change that produces it. In essence, the current induced by a magnetic field in a particular direction, will flow in a direction such that the magnetic field produce by it will oppose the inducing magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic field, induced current and motion of conductor are always mutually perpendicular to each other and are determined by Flemings Right Hand Rule.

The main law applied in this project is Faradays first law.

Conceptual Design
The basic unit of this model would be a cell containing two magnets, a coil, and necessary circuitry to harness energy. As magnetic lines of force move from the North Pole to the South Pole, the two magnets would be aligned such that they would be facing each other. These magnets are set up under a plexi-glass (for visibility) surface that is capable of oscillating up and down (because of a spring set up) when a force is exerted on it. On the underside of this surface, the coil of wire is attached. When the surface is set into motion, the coil hanging below it will move with it, cutting the lines of force of the magnetic field in the process. This change in flux will induce a current in the coil, which will flow through the various components of the circuitry and be stored in a This prototype was scaled up to make capacitor.
the grid of 12 cells for more power

I decided to integrate twelve such cells into a grid, in order to increase my power output. This grid, if placed properly, would fall in the path of the walkers feet, and would generate power enough to light one LED.

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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

EMF Generation
type of magnets type of coils

Electrical Arrangment

Mechanical Arrangement
dimensions of the box two springs vs. four type of springs

parallel vs. series circuit rectifier circuit capacitors keepins cells in phase use of opamp

EMF Generation

The aim of this project is to generate maximum power from the constructed device. The power generated depends on the voltage and current P = VI With the constant resistance of the copper wire used, voltage determines the current V = IR Thus a greater voltage would mean a greater current, and a greater power. Voltage depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux V = -/t Magnetic flux depends on the strength of the magnetic field, and the area of the magnetic field that the conductor is cutting through = BAcos Where is the angle made by the area vector of the conductor and the lines of force of the magnetic field Magnetic flux can be changed by either varying the strength of the magnetic field, the area of the magnetic field cut by the conductor, or by changing the angle made by the area vector of the conductor and the magnetic lines of force. It is therefore clear that in order to maximize the voltage generated by the device, the following is necessary: 1. Maximize the strength of the magnetic field 2. Maximize the change in area 3. Ensure the conductor moves perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field (making its area vector parallel to it, and thus =0, and cos=1) 4. Minimize t, i.e., increase the rate of oscillation of the coils 5. Use a wire of low resistance i.e., minimize R 1. The Magnets From the above equations, it is clear that in order to get maximum emf, magnets of maximum magnetic field strength must be used. The shape of the magnets is also important. But as this is a student project, I was only able to purchase commercially available magnets of pre-determined strength and shape, which proved to be major a limitation. I analyzed 4 different magnet shapes and configurations in order to find the one which offered maximum change in flux to a moving coil. They are:
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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

1. Convex shape Advantage: magnetic field lines highly concentrated at all regions (B is maximum) and perpendicular to the coil moving in the vertical plane (cos=1) Disadvantage: not easily available 2. Bar/Cylindrical shape Advantage: magnetic field lines are concentrated (B is large) and perpendicular to the coil moving in the vertical plane (cos=1), easily available Disadvantage: Strength of magnetic field is reduced due to field lines diverging at the edges of the bar

Convex

Bar/Cylindrical

3. Bent horseshoe shape Advantage: magnetic field lines concentrated (B is quite large) and perpendicular to the coil moving in the vertical plane (cos=1) Disadvantage: strength of magnetic field is reduced due to field lines curving out at the edges of the bar, not easily available 4. Straight horseshoe shape Advantage: easily available Disadvantage: strength of magnetic field is reduced due to sparse field lines (B is small)

Bent Horseshoe

Straight Horseshoe

Donut

5. Donut shape Advantage: easily available Disadvantage: strength of magnetic field is reduced as field lines are not at its axis; they are not concentrated (B is small). Coils cannot be shaped such that maximum area of magnetic field is cut Thus, high power Neodyium (NdFeB) Nickel plated cylindrical magnets of 2500G strength (strongest commercially available magnets) were chosen. They were 25mm in diameter and 25mm high.
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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

2. The Coils From the equations given earlier, it is clear that in order to get maximum emf, the change in area, i.e., the area of the magnetic field cut by the coil, must be maximum (Acos must be maximum.) This was done after considering the arrangement of the lines of force of the magnetic field. The lines of forces of the magnetic field were straight lines, moving from the North Pole to the South Pole of the magnets. Thus the coil had to move exactly perpendicular to them in order to get maximum change in flux (cos=1.) The coil configuration was a rather unconventional one. Because its displacement down the magnetic field would depend on the force of the footstep exerted on the platform under which it was attached, its displacement would vary with the varying force (force may vary with the weights of different people, or when a person does not exert his full force in his step.) Thus the change in amplitude wont be constant. This was accommodated by having a coil with lots of different turns at different diameters, making it less sensitive to amplitude change. Small amplitudes would change the flux in the smaller diameter coils and large amplitudes would change flux for all turns of the coil. Two properties of the coil were taken into account. They areThe coil

1. Resistance The material chosen for the coils was copper enameled wire. Resistivity of copper wire () = 1.72 10-8 m The length of the wire used in one coil (L) = 1.5 m Cross sectional area (A) = r2 = (0.025)2 Resistance, R = L/A Substituting values in above equation R = 1.36 x 10-5 A lower resistance would result in a greater current (V=IR) for a given voltage/emf. 2. Inductance Inductance (L) of a single coil (for the purpose of calculations, the coil is assumed to be a solenoid) is an important factor which determines the emf that will be generated. It is calculated as follows: n = number of turns per unit length l = length A = Cross section of coil = proportionality constant For the coil: Average r= 7/1000 m A = r2 = (7/1000)2 l = 7mm n = 100/7mm Putting the numbers in above equation yields: L = 0.2764mH
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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

3 inductances in series = L1 + L2 + L3 = 0.8292mH When the set up is multiplied by 12 (i.e., 12 coils) the phenomenon of mutual inductance will arise. Coefficient of mutual induction is a measure of the induction between two circuits; it is the ratio of the electromotive force in a circuit to the corresponding change of current in a neighboring circuit. Accounting for the mutual inductance, L = 0.5528 mH A greater inductance means a greater emf can be generated in the coil by a change in magnetic flux. From the above formula, it is seen that the inductance is greater for a greater number of turns of the coil. However, a coil with greater number of turns will occupy more space, and cause the distance between the magnets to increase, thus leading to a weakening in the magnetic field. A balance therefore had to be struck between the magnitude of inductance and the magnetic field strength.

Mechanical Arrangement
With regards to the mechanical arrangement of the device, there were two possible approaches: an up to down approach, which involved defining the dimensions of the box before the internal components, and the down to up approach, which involved deciding upon the internal structure (magnets, coils etc) before the external dimensions. I opted to follow the down to up approach, as there were no limitations on the size the device could be, but there were limitations on the internal structure. 1. Dimensions of the Box While the length of the cell was of no consequence, the breadth (distance between the magnets) and the height were important factors. The greater the distance between the magnets, the lesser the concentration of the magnetic field lines. When the breadth is increased, the lines of force begin to diverge as they move from the North Pole to the South Pole. The height of the cell mattered as it determined the displacement of the coil. In order to produce maximum emf, the coil had to move through the magnetic field completely and out of it in each oscillation; it had to lie out of the field at its rest and extreme position. Thus in one oscillation, the coil moved through the magnetic field twice, producing twice the emf, but in opposite directions. 2. Two Springs vs. Four Springs The lid of the cell was responsible for the oscillatory motion of the coils into and out of the magnetic field. This lid could either be hinged on one side and have one spring on each of its unhinged corner, or it could have four springs, one in each corner. While the hinged set up constrained the horizontal motion of the lid, ensuring that all the force of the footstep went into displacing the coils, it involved a more complicated set up of the coils. In order for the coils to move in phase, they had to be made of differing lengths and attached to the lid. The four-spring
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The grid

The socket for the spring

Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

arrangement ensured maximum displacement of all coils together in phase. The possible problem of horizontal motion was overcome by placing the springs in sockets which insured a non perpendicular force did not make the lid move horizontally. 3. Type of Spring The spring constant was determined by calculationsF= -kx Assuming the maximum weight to be 70 kgs (686 N) and the maximum displacement from the mean position to be 5 mm (0.005 m) 700=-k x 0.005 k=- 137,200 N/m The very high spring constant indicated that a very stiff spring was required to ensure rapid oscillation, a greater change in flux, and therefore a greater induced emf.

Electrical Arrangement

1. Parallel circuit vs. Series Circuit Each cell was a voltage source. When voltage sources are connected in series the voltage gets added. Therefore, to get a higher voltage the cells should be connected in series, but the drawback is that the current generated is low. Essentially the current in series configuration will be limited by the capacity of a single cell to supply current. Similarly for the parallel configuration the current will get added up and the voltage will be limited by the capacity of a single cell. In series, the current will be limited by the internal resistances of a cell which, in the case of this device, is low. Therefore a series combination was better. Experiment: to observe the change in voltage as the number of coils in series are increased Observations
No. 1 2 3 4 Number of cells in series 3 6 9 12 Voltage (mV) 132 254 373 471

2. Rectifier Circuit This device produces an AC current, as the emf induced in the coil keeps changing polarity from positive to negative in each cycle (i.e., one oscillation of the spring). The voltage and current generated is of a random nature, as it is dependent on the frequency of footsteps of a person and his weight, both of which can vary. In order for the generated current to be used by a bulb, LED or any device, it must first be converted into DC. A rectifier circuit consists of diodes which only allow current of one direction to flow through them. Thus, the rectifier circuit converts the random AC to DC which can be used by devices. 3. Capacitors A capacitor is an electronic device which stores charge. It generally consists of two parallel plate conductors which are close together and have equal but opposite charges. The amount of charge it stores (i.e., its capacitance) is determined by the formula Q=CV where C is a constant depending upon the size and shape of the conductor, and the surrounding medium.

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In this device, the capacitor acts as a reservoir of charge. The DC current enters it after rectification, but the current still has peaks. The current drawn from capacitor is a smooth DC supply, which is what the LED needs to work. 4. Keeping the Cells in Phase This device is an alternating current circuit, which contains an inductor and a resistor. In an alternating current circuit, though the frequency of alternating current and alternating emf is the same, it is not necessary that the alternating current and alternating emf be in the same phase. Usually, when the current is maximum, the emf is minimum or vice versa. This is known as a phase difference. The phase difference between the two depends on the type of circuit. This is an Inductor-Resistor circuit. In such a circuit, the current lags behind the voltage; this is represented by an angle on the phasor diagram. Power for such a circuit is determined by the formula P= VIcos Where is the angle between the emf and the current in the phasor diagram cos is called the power factor. Power can be maximum only when cos =1, i.e. =0. This means there must be no phase difference between the emf and the current in order to get maximum power.

5. Using an Opamp When this device was put to use, it was realized that the voltage produced by the cells in series was not enough to trigger the rectifier circuit, without which the LED would not light up. If I were to modify the configuration to increase the voltage, there would be a consequent loss of current, which would again prevent the LED from lighting up. Thus the use of an opamp was sought. An opamp, an operational amplifier, is a device which produces an output voltage of hundreds of thousands times larger than that of the input voltage source. The negative aspect of using an opamp is that it required its own power to function, which the device could not supply, and thus had to be drawn from an external power source. The opamp used in my device increased the voltage by ten times. Output voltage=10 x 480 mV =4800 mV= 4.8 V

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Integration of Multiple Cells and Problems Faced

The single cell unit was multiplied into 12 such cells, the coils of which were connected in series to get maximum power output. As the cells were all connected in series, there was only one rectifier and capacitor used, placed at the end of the circuit. The magnets were separated by a 20mm gap, which was essentially the width of the coil. The entire grid was 43cm in length, 19cm in width and 6.5cm in height and was made of plywood. The oscillating platform on the underside of which the coils were attached was made of plexi-glass so that the circuitry could be seen. In order to keep the magnets apart, the magnets had to be placed in aluminum racks because aluminum is sturdy, and is not a ferromagnetic substance which could interfere with the magnetic field. The problems faced when integrating multiple cells were the followingThe magnetic field created by each pair of magnets interfered with each other, thus weakening the individual fields. Due to the enormous strength of the magnets, the wood used to hold the magnets in place often came apart during the construction. The resistance of the wire of the coil was added up, reducing the output current

I use the prototype to estimate the voltage The wave form from the device, shown on an oscilloscope

Inserting the magnets into the grid is a challenging task due to their enormous force of attraction

The aluminum racks hold the magnets apart, which would otherwise attract each other
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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

The magnets pull towards each other with so large a force that the grid comes apart

Mr. Gopal hammers in the nails of the rack which will hold the magnets apart

I measure the distances at which the coils need to be attached

We test the voltage obtained when half the coils are connected in series and half in parallel

Mr. Gopal, Mr. Sunil and I assemble the device

We measure the voltage as Mr. Gopal provides the force of a footstep on the device
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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

Results
The peak voltage produced by the device was 480 mV and the peak current was 0.005 mA. Thus, the active power output (i.e., when voltage and current were in phase) of the device was P= VIcos Where is the angle between the emf and the current in the phasor diagram When V and I are in phase, cos= 1 P=VI= 2.4 mW This was not enough power to light up the LED, but with the help of the opamp, I was able to illuminate it. The peak voltage and the peak current were usually never in phase, which resulted in the power generated by the device to be approximately 0.8-0.9 mW on an average.

Harvesting human energy

one step at a time!

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Physics Project Report Steptricity: Harnessing Energy, Step By Step

Experiment: to determine a relationship between two variables- mass and voltage Analytical expressionsMass of the person (m) will determine the frequency (f) with which the spring will oscillate f= 2 (k/m) As m increases, f will decrease f=1/t As f decreases, t will increase Frequency will determine the voltage V = -/t t will increases, V will decrease Thus an increase in mass should result in a decrease in voltage. Observations
No. 1 2 3 4 Mass (kg) 45 60 75 90 Voltage (mV) 455 399 358 326

Limitations 1. Use of an Operational Amplifier

Perhaps the biggest limitation of this device was the use of an opamp. This opamp requires 1.8 mW of power to function, and this device produced 0.8-0.9 mW on an average. Thus, neither did it meet the power requirements of the LED, nor could it supply the necessary power to the opamp. However, as the experiments above prove, the power produced by such a device increases as the number of cells (coils and magnetic) increase. With 12 cells, approximately 0.8 mW of power was produced. Therefore 3 times this number of cells (36 cells) will not only produce enough power to meet the requirements of the opamp, but would produce excess power which could be stored. As a student, I did not have the ability to produce a device this scale. Thus, even though my device failed to achieve its aim, it demonstrated that this same concept, scaled up, could be a source of clean, human generated power. 2. Cost per Watt For any power generating circuit, an important parameter for measuring its feasibility is its cost per watt. The lower the cost per watt, the more likely the energy generating device will be implemented on a large scale. Cost for the Steptricity deviceMagnets- Rs. 2400 Coils- Rs. 900 Materials for grid- Rs. 1000 Miscellaneous (wires etc.) - Rs. 300 Total= Rs. 4600 for 12 cells 12 cells produce 2.4 mW of power Therefore 5000 cells would produce 1 W of power Total cost for 5000 cells= approx Rs. 1,920,000
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This is the cost of generating one watt based on my simplistic device fabricated using off the shelf material. If produced commercially, I would estimate a reduction of approximately 80% in cost. The total commercial cost will then be Rs. 384,000=$8,533 (approx.) Comparing this cost with that of a Photovoltaic cell: Cost per watt (using data off the Solarbuzz website) = Rs. 475 = $10.50 (approx.) The cost of generating one watt of power using a Steptricity device is approximately 812 times that of a photovoltaic cell. This high cost per watt greatly reduces the feasibility of such a device, as cost is a major determining factor of commercial deployment.

Future Scope of Development

Several improvements can be made in order to improve its power output. These include: Use of more powerful magnets. Ensure the voltage and the current are perfectly in phase (cos=1) by using a using a phase rectifier circuit. I used copper to construct my coil because of its availability, but perhaps a material capable of better inductance could be used which would result in a greater induced emf Use concave shaped magnets to increase the strength of the magnetic field.

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Conclusion
It is evident that the Steptricity device failed to reach its objective of harnessing enough energy from footfalls to light up an LED. The use of an opamp defeated the purpose of this project, as the opamp itself needed external power from a battery to operate. Unexpected problems were encountered in the circuitry; the rectifier, which was used to solve the problem of the alternating current, caused several problems itself, which called for the use of an opamp. Besides this, the high cost per watt of this device confirmed that such a device is not (yet) commercially feasible. Like most first endeavors in science, the Steptricity project was not a success. However, I acquired several scientific skills in the journey of its construction and implementation, ones which no physics text book could have taught me. Through this project, I got a chance to apply the concepts of electromagnetism, mechanics and circuitry which I had learnt in class. Working with gifted students from IIT taught me how to analyze problems at multiple levels. My various discussions with them pushed me to delve deeper into problems of circuitry and induction, even though some of the concepts were difficult for me to grasp. At the workshop, I learned the mechanical skill of soldering and carpentry, and of winding coils. Most of all, I learnt and valued the persistence that any individual in the pursuit of science must possess. There were times when I realized that my hard work of a year would not end with the fruitful results I had hoped for. But the journey itself was so interesting that it kept me going. The more time I spent working on this project, the more my interest grew in physics, and in the field of Clean Technology. The Steptricity project still demonstrated that it was possible to achieve a power output from human energy, by applying the concepts of electromagnetic induction. Granted this output may not be sufficient to be put to much use, but Steptricity is a small step towards a world with clean electricity.

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Bibliography
1. 2. 3. 4. Fundamentals of Physics by Halliday, Resnick and Walker ISC Physics, 12, by Kumar and Mittal Physics, 6th Edition by Cutnell and Johnson Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting Circuit with Feedforward and Feedback, DC-DC PWM Boost Converter for Vibration Power Generator System by Xinping Cao from Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Wen-Ren Chiang and Ya-Chin King2 and Yi-Kuen Lee from Department of Electrical Engineering, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan 5. www.howstuffworks.com 6. www.dangerouslaboratories.org 7. www.wikipedia.org

Acknowledgements
1. Satyaprakash Pareek and Prateek Karkare, the two IIT students who helped me conceptualize the project. 2. Dipanker Roy and Kavi Arya, the two supportive IIT professors who allowed me to work with their students. 3. Dr. Thampi, Mr. Sunil Gidwani and Gopal from Thadomal Shahani Engineering College, for allowing me to use their workshop and lab facilities, and for helping me in the construction of the grid. 4. Mr. Oliver Schneider from facility+innovate in London, for inspiring me to take on this project. 5. My Physics teacher, Mr. Sehgal, for providing invaluable advice throughout. 6. My parents, for all the resources and support they have provided me with.

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