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AXEMAN 4'CGttPANY JVISCN-BL a NEW YO.RK-*CWCAG.O \\ \\

MANUAL TRAINING

FIRST LESSONS

W O O D -W O R K
I5Y

NG

ALFRED
NEW YORK, INSTRUCTOR

G.

COMPTON
CHARGE OF THE WORKSHOPS

PROFESSOR OF APPLIED MATHEMATICS IN THE COLLEGE OF THE CITY

OF

IN

OF THE COLLEGE, AND AUTHOR OF A MANUAL OF

LOGARITHMIC COMPUTATION

IVISON,

BLAKEMAN, AND COMPANY

publishers

NEW YOBK AND CHICAGO

'

JAN

1905

COPYRIGHT,
1888,

BY IVISON, BLAKEMAN &

CO.

PRESS OF

HENRY

H.

CLARK 4 CO., BOST

TT
\

$ 5

CORRECTIONS.
By mistake
of the

draughtsman several errors appear

:

in

the figures which should be corrected, as below

Page

6,

Fig.

7.

The end

of the

block should show concentric rings, It is shown correctly in not a spiral.

this figure.

Page
screw
of the
It
is

75,

Fig. 30.

The

set

should be in the head

gauge, not in the rod.
in

shown correctly annexed cuts.

the

Page

13, Fig. 49.

The

last part of this figure

:

should

be changed to appear as below

PREFACE.
THE
sented
series
is

of

lessons

in

wood-working here pre-

intended, principally, for use in schools in which hand-work is pursued as a part of general The order of sequence is designed to lead training.

the pupil from one tool to another of larger capabilities, and from one operation to another requiring a

higher degree of skill. In writing the descriptions of operations the aim has been to make them so full as to enable an intelligent pupil to perform the operations tolerably well, even without the help of an instructor, and at the

same time
to the

to direct

the attention of the instructor

and The

principal points that he ought to insist on, the principal errors that are found to occur.

work being designed for young pupils, say between the ages of eleven and fourteen, it is not intended to go over much ground, nor to impart great skill, but only to open the way, reserving for another volume a more extended course. For the same reason, a thorough analysis of the mode of action of each tool is not attempted this belongs rather to the teaching in a technical school, and
:

iii

Preface.

should have higher

its

place in a

more advanced work

for

Nevertheless, it is intended, not merely to teach the pupil how to handle the tool, but also to form in him the habit of considering
classes.

the tool operates, and what modifications it requires to adapt it to different uses, affording thus training not only for the hand and the eye, but for the

how

an end to attention and judgment as well, which hand-work, properly conducted, is at least as well adapted as many of the other studies that have
heretofore monopolized the attention of our schools. With the exercises in the use of tools have been

terials used,

interwoven observations on the properties of the maand elementary principles of mechanical drawing, with the idea that the three studies, thus

blended together, would lend help and stimulus to each other, and thus be pursued with more zest than
if

taught separately.

The

division into lessons

is

necessarily, to

some

ex-

be found too long or too short, according to the time which the school may be able to allow. An intelligent instructor will
tent, arbitrary.

The

lessons

may

easily

combine them or subdivide them as occasion

require.

may
I

am

indebted to Messrs. Fairbanks

.a

&

Co. for the

testing-machine, Fig. 8, and to my colleague, Professor William Stratford, for the micro-photograph of a section of the wood of Pinus

design for

small

Sylvestris, Fig. 6.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE

PREFACE MATERIALS AND TOOLS NEEDED

LESSON
I.

....
and
ha'tchet
;

iii

vii

Cutting tools
cutting

knife

cross-

II.

Knife

and hatchet continued whittling, and hewing

...
; .
.

splitting

8
14
21

III.

IV.
V.

Strength of wood The Cross-cut-saw

Shrinking, cracking and warping of timber

28 32

VI.

Working-sketches

VII.
VIII.

Working-drawings

38 44

IX.
X.

Making a nailed box laying out the work Hammer and nails; putting a box to;

gether

49
.

XL
XII.
XIII.

XIV.

The same, continued; taking apart The Jack-plane The Smoothing-plane Back-saw and bench-dog The Chisel paring and chamfering acters of different woods
. . . . .

54 58

.68
.

.78
char-

.85

VI

Contents.

XV.
XVI. XVII.
XVIII.

The
The

Chisel, continued; through brace and bit

Chisel, continued;

mortise;

99
.

end

dove-tail

Ill
;

Dove-tailed

box

laying

out
.

the
.

work
box

cutting the dove-tails

.119
to-

Gluing^ hand-screws; putting the

XIX.

128 gether Finishing a dove-tailed box; planing end-

wood

136
140
;

XX.
XXI. XXII.
XXIII.

Fitting hinges

isometric drawing Paneled door, continued mortise Fitting a panel ; the plow
;
. . . . .

Making a paneled door

146 160
167

XXIV.

Chamfering a frame
.

finishing with
. . .

sand-

paper and ALPHABETICAL INDEX

shellac

.172
183

Tools and Materials required for the Course of

Lessons
I.

in

Wood-Working.

TOOLS,

ONE FOR EACH PUPIL.

Pocket-knife,

two blades.
2.

Lead

pencil, No.

Marking-gauge. Cross-cut-saw, 22 inches long, " 22 Rip-saw,

4|
12
15

teeth to the inch. " "

"

Tenon-saw,
Dove-tail-saw,

14 8

"
"

"
"

"

Try square,
Mallet,

steel blade,
1 lb.,
1 lb.,

6 inches long.

Hammer, weight
"

handled. handled.

Two-foot folding
sides.

rule,

metric and English on opposite

Jack-plane, double-ironed. Smoothing-plane, double-ironed.

Firmer
"

chisel,

one inch, pear-tree handle.

half-inch
" "

"

" quarter-inch
II.

TOOLS,

ONE FOR EACH BENCH (TWO

closets.

PUPILS).

Double bench, with

Bevel, blade 12 inches long.

Manual
Oil-stone, in box.

Training.

Oil-can, filled.

Bench-dog, 6 inches by
Brace.
Center-bit,

12.

inch.

Screw-driver, % inch.

Brad-awls, i" and

III.

^\
TOOLS FOR EACH CLASS.
to 15 inches in diameter, 20 inches
"

One chopping-block, 12
high.

One dozen

straight-edges,

2"

24", pine.

Three glue-pots, 1 quart. Three glue-brushes.

Two
u

dozen hand-screws, 14 inches.

u a
a

Twenty pounds glue. Can of sperm-oil, 1 gallon.

"

white shellac varnish,

fore-plane.
bits.

1 gallon.

One

Three plows, with

One

draw-knife.
IV.

MATERIALS FOR EACH PUPIL.

of white
pine,

LESSON

I.

Stick

Stick of pine or
thick.

hemlock

fire- wood,

|" square, 10" long. 2 feet long, 2 inches

LESSON

II.

Two

pieces of pine, each \"

2"

6",

one

straight-grained the other crooked. Piece of pine or hemlock fire-wood, six or eight inches

Tools

and

Materials.

long, about three inches square, with

square ends,

without knots.
III. Two strips of pine, X i" 3", one cut length-ways of the grain, the other cross-ways. LESSON IV. Piece of mill-dressed pine, 1" X 4" 12",

LESSON

"

to try tools on. 4' 6', millPiece of straight-grained clear pine, f" X 6" dressed, cut from the end of the board, showing the

rough end and the cracks or checks. Half dozen % inch dowels, about 4 inches LESSON V.
long, with a piece of maple, cherry, or

other hard-

wood, 1" X 3"

size

8",

bored with holes of the same

as the dowel.

LESSON IX.

Two
Piece

dozen four-penny
of
clear

nails.

LESSON XI.
LESSON XIII.

pine,

about

f"x6"
26", for

12",

for practice

with plane.
Clear pine board,

f"x8"

top

and bottom of box. LESSON XIV. Pine plank,

of 1|",

1"

thick, not very straight-

grained, to be cut to lengths of 9",

"

and split to width and similar plank of white-wood, furnishing

-

one stick of one kind, 1" X 1 9" to each pupil. LESSON XV. Two pieces of clear pine, 4 cra x5 cm 15 cm LESSON XVI. Two pieces of clear white-wood, 1" x
9" L
ft" O
.

LESSON
LESSON

XX.

1 pair brass hinges,

1",

"

X 1", with

screws.

1 brass

hook,

with staple or screw-eye.

pine or white-wood
plank,

XXI. 12"- 3' 6"

Ditto

Clear

1"

for frame.

i" x

1H"

16i" for

panel.

Manual
LESSON
V.

Training.
0.

XXIV.

Half sheet sand-paper, number

MATERIALS OF ILLUSTRATION FOR EACH CLASS.

Specimen of fiber of hemp and flax for Lesson III., p. 14. Piece of round pine or spruce, about six inches long, with
bark on,
for

Lesson

III., p. 16.

Small testing-machine (desirable but not indispensable) for Lesson III., p. 18.
Piece or pieces of

round timber, about 10 or 12 inches in

feet long, stripped of bark,

diameter and 2
character

showing

and direction of cracks

p. 31.

(or

checks) for

Lesson V.,

Similar pieces cut into boards, which are

for same.

numbered and

tied together, slabs included, in their proper places,

Block of walnut 5"

X 3"

9",

with hole in one end as

in description, p. 34, 35. Nailed box, 9" X 8" 12", as figured on

p. 38.

L.ESSON
Cutting Tools.

I.

Knife and Hatchet.

EVERY pressed
You have
square and

cutting tool is a wedge, which is or driven between the particles of

the wood, pushing them apart as it advances. a stick of white pine half an inch

about

ten

inches

down on your bench, holding

it

long. Lay it in your left

hand, and try to cut it across with your knife, about an inch from the end. Pressing down

on the knife pretty hard, you force the blade in a short distance, pushing the wood right and left, and making a small notch. You soon find, however, that you cannot force the knife
forward

any

farther

the

sides

EXERCISE

i.

of the notch resist the advance

cross-cutting

stop it when you have pushed it in perhaps an an inch. If you could remove the

of the knife, and

with

knife,

wood

eighth of that

presses against the sides of the knife-blade might be able to drive it farther forward

you and

Wood - Working.

You have now

as the knife

learned that such cutting tools

for

and the hatchet are not adapted

cutting square across the grain of wood, though shall learn they cut very well obliquely.

We

by and by what instrument

to use

when

it

is

necessary to cut square across the grain.

LESSON
Knife

II.

and Hatchet
hatchet,

Continued.

are used for other purposes besides crossthey are used for cutting or chopping:
splitting

THE

knife, the

and similar

tools

and

for

You have two

hewing or paring. pieces of pine J of an

inch

and about 6 inches long, marked A and B. Try to split from one edge a piece half an inch wide. The pieces have
thick, 2 inches wide,

been selected by inspecting the grain of the wood, so that in one case this task shall be
easy,

and in the other

3.

case

EXERCISE

the piece

marked A.

impossible. Set

Take
it

up

Splitting with
knife.

endwise on your bench. Place your knife on the end, about an

the
edge,

inch

from
the

and

with

right

hand.

You

press down hard find that the

knife runs out, cutting off too narrow a piece, or runs in, cutting too wide a piece. Take

the piece marked

8

and try the same experi-

Wood - Working.
ment, and you find no difficulty in splitting
off the piece

required.

Now, looking
find

at

the

that your knife you in both cases followed the grain of the wood,
sides of the pieces,

you see on the face if care. Your experience, examine with you that when then, shows you you wish to split in a direction wood given you must pay attention to the grain, and when the grain is
indicated by lines that

not

favorable, if

you

given line
learn, in

you method than that of

tool

will

wish to cut along a have to use some other

splitting.

We
with

shall
is,

a few lessons,

what
is

this

method

and what

must be used.

As
split

thin and soft

wood

split

the

knife, so

heavier and

harder

wood may be
ax.

with the hatchet or the

Try the

hatchet on a piece of fire-wood, about six or eight inches long, taking first a piece of soft

wood,

such

as

pine

or

hemlock,

without
4.

knots, and with square ends, so that it will stand upright on the

EXERCISE

splitting with

block
first,

without
to

being

held.

get control

of the
strike

hatchet. At movement of the

hatchet,

you may

a light blow, caus-

10

Manual

Training.

ing the hatchet to stick in the wood, and then, lifting hatchet and stick together, strike a harder blow, driving the hatchet through.

Afterwards, but not of your ability to

till

you

are

quite

sure

strike

just

where

you

wish
hold

even when hitting the piece steady with

to,

hard, you may the left hand,

snatching the hand away just as you strike with the right. This must be practiced with

extreme
time,

care, and only by one pupil at a and under the eye of the instructor.

stroke,

all, when you are quite sure of your you may venture to strike with the right hand while holding the piece with the left, but use a pretty large piece, and do not

Last of

try to split off much at once. From short pieces and soft wood, such

as

you have
pieces

just used, it requires only practice to enable you to work up gradually to longer

and

harder wood, requiring

tools.

stronger

blows and heavier

Besides cutting across the grain and splitting along the grain, we may cut along the grain instead of splitting, for the purpose of

trimming the piece down

to

a given

mark.

Wood - Working.

11

This operation performed on a small piece with a knife or a chisel, is called paring; on a larger scale, with the hatchet or ax it is hewing.
Since,

in

this

case,

the

cutting

is

mostly in the direction of the grain, or nearly so, we have to be careful not to let the tool
split

the wood, so as to run inside of the pro-

posed mark. Take the piece A again, which has now a crooked edge, and draw a straight line on the
side of
it

with your lead-pencil,

for-

EXERCISE

5.

about half an inch from the

paring or whittlin s

mer

edge.

To prevent the wood

with knife

from splitting within this mark, the first precaution to be taken is to cut in such a direction that the
knife, following

run outward rather than inward.

the grain, will Thus, if the

grain runs as in Fig. 4, in which A B is the line to which the piece is to be pared down,

Manual
the part from
to right, to left.

Training.

A to 0, must be pared from left to B from right and the part from
second precaution that
is

may

be obis

served, particularly

when much wood

to see

to be

removed, and when the grain

or
is

very irregular,
it

when
to
"

it is difficult

which way

runs,

score

"

the
5,

cuts, as

in Fig.

edge with several oblique after which the pieces be-

Fiy.

5.

tween these cuts can be cut

the opposite direction, or from
scores
off.

off,

working in
to A.

New

are

As
line

then made and new pieces split soon as you begin to approach

the
cut

so
in.

B, special care must be taken to that the knife shall run out rather
of hewing, with
this.

than

The operation
ax,
is

hatchet or
stick

just the same as

The

must

be turned with alternately one and the other

Wood - Worldng.
end
up, according
is

13

to

the

grain,

much wood

to

be

taken

off, it

scored and split as in the last

and when must be exercise. The

operation may be tried on one EXERCISES. of the sticks of fire- wood used Hewing with hatchet, in Exercise 2. Holding the stick

one of
then

upright on the block with the left hand, turn the faces towards the right. Score
obliquely into the
split

more prominent

parts,

and

them

off.

When
plane,

the face has been

made

pretty nearly light strokes of the

smooth

it

off with

one end and

the grain.
see

now

hatchet, turning up now the other, so as to cut with

Examine your work critically to whether the face you have been working on is straight and smooth.

LESSON
Strength of

III.

Wood.
previous exercises,

WE
wood

have
that
it

seen, in our
is

much

easier to cut

and
will

split

wood lengthwise than

crosswise.

We

now

look into this matter more closely. If we examine with a microscope the structure of the trunk of a
consists
tree,

we

find that the

of

fibers

or

threads

running

lengthwise of the trunk and adhering to each In many plants other more or less strongly.
these fibers are longer and more easily separated than in trees, and they are used for

twisting into ropes and into threads to be used in weaving. By examining specimens of hemp

and

of flax,

the length
that

you will learn something of In and strength of such fibers.

fibers

some kinds of wood these

loosely

adhere
of

so

they can be separated by heat,

bruising.

moisture, and
14

The
are

fibers

bass-

wood and some others

thus separated, to

Wood - Working.
be used in

15

making paper. Fig. 6 shows the the fibers of Scotch of Fir, a species appearance the under of Pine, microscope. Now, while
these threads have singly considerable strength,

Fig. 6.

and still more, of course, when a number of them are taken together, their adhesion to
each other
is

not so great.

On

the next page

16

Manual

Training.

shown a round pine stick, six inches thick, with the bark on, just as it grows in the tree, and we will cut off some pieces to illustrate
is

what has been

across

said.

The

stick

is

cut square

and you can see the rings "which mark how much the trunk grows each
at the ends,

year.

First I cut

off a

cylindrical

piece six

inches long, Fig. 7. off with an ax or a

Next, from this, I split draw-knife some pieces wider and wider pieces,

a quarter of an inch thick, beginning at the

outside,

and

splitting

Fly. 7.
till

get one

four or five

inches wide, by

In the along the lines a b, a c. piece a b d c thus cut off you can see the edges of the layers of fibers of which the ends
splitting

Wood - Working.

17

were seen in the cylindrical block, and, comparing carefully the end of the thin board
with the
stitute the
face,

you

see

that these

edges con-

see

"grain" of the wood, and can also they are closer together near the edge of the board and farther apart near the mid-

why

dle, or

why

the board

is

fine-grained near the

edge and coarse-grained at the middle. I will now cut off from a b d c a strip a b

g,

In this half an inch wide, with a fine saw. runs strip, which I will mark A, the grain
crosswise.

Next, with a knife

or

hatchet, I

will split off another strip, f d h i, also half an inch wide, in which the grain runs lengthwise,

and which
first

I will

mark

B.

Now

taking the

piece by the ends and pulling it, I can break it in two^ but no pull that I can give is strong enough to break the other. (I am
careful

not to bend

either

cause

want

to consider

now only
;

of the sticks, bethe ques-

by a direct pull breaking by bending is something more complicated, and cannot be considered till later.) I hand you
tion of breaking
all

now

number

of

such

strips,

of

both
that

kinds,

and you readily

satisfy yourselves

18

Manual
is

Training.
fibers

easier to separate the other than to break them. each

it

much

from
is

After

we have thus found out

that

wood

stronger lengthwise than crosswise, we may go a step further, and inquire how much stronger.

We may
a

put one of the pieces of each kind in

a small "testing-machine," and apply an increasing force to it till it breaks. With such

machine

we

find

that

the

piece

is

broken by a pull of 65 pounds, while it takes 700 pounds to break B, and, as the two pieces
are of the

same
is

size,

we conclude

that this

kind of wood

about eleven times as strong

The operation lengthwise as it is crosswise. of " testing," and the machine used for the
architect

purpose, are of the greatest importance. The and the engineer make use of power-

ful machines, in which large bars and columns can be strained till they break, and the breaking force measured. At the proper time you

will find

no

difficulty in

understanding these
if

larger machines

and operations,
8,

you have
is

understood the smaller ones.

In the machine

shown

in

Fig.

held by the clamps

the piece to be broken A and B. The wheel

Wood - Working.
being

10

turned the screw D is drawn down, which raises the other end, E, of the lever, E F, and stretches the piece till it breaks. The index, G, on the spring-balance shows how great is the force applied at F\ and the

than

is greater length of than that of H. As the piece stretches before breaking, the pull is applied at first by means of the screw /, and afterwards by C.

force applied at this as the

is

as

many

times greater

20

Manual

Training.

Our experiments with

cutting-tools.

these pieces

of Avood

agree with our observations on the action of

The knife and

across

the

hatchet,

fibers, penecutting square trate but a short distance, unless a very great force is applied, but when cutting between the

when

the

fibers

they are

much more
such
tools,

easily pressed for-

ward.
obliged

With
to

therefore,

we were
and

cut

lengthwise

or

obliquely,

nearly impossible to cut a thick piece across. If we wish to do this we must square
it

found

use another tool.

for this

The
the

tool specially designed

work

is

cross-cut-saw,

which we

will study in our next lesson.

IV.

The Cross-cut-saw.

T7XAMINE
JH/ that
teeth,
it

your saw

carefully.

You

find

consists of a

number

each of which acts as Count the number of teeth to the inch.

different

of triangular a sort of knife.

You
in-

will find this

in

saws

that are

tended for different purposes. The one that " is for a cross-cut" saw have you moderately soft wood. If you now examine one of these
teeth,

you

will

find
is

that

it

is

pointed,
to

and
use-

the front edge

ful

sharp.

It

would be a
if

exercise,

and would help you

of action of the

under-

stand the

saw, you would cut out with your knife from a piece
of

mode

thin

wood

(say

of

an

inch

thick) a

model of half a dozen teeth of each of your various saws as you become acquainted with them. When you push the saw across the of these teeth makes a cut across each gi*ain,
the
fibers, just

such as you can

make by
21

hold-

Manual

Training.

ing your knife upright and drawing it across the grain. Next, examining the successive
teeth,

you

find the alternate ones sharpened in

different ways.

While one has

the next has
sets

towards the
the right.

left,

its

Thus the two

at

sharp edge edge towards of teeth make

its

two
cuts

different cuts across, the

grain,

and these

are

thickness

much

apart equal to the of the saw, or a little more, inas" as the teeth are spread apart, or set."

distance

All this you will easily make out if you study attentively the saw itself, and not merely this
description.

Now,

try to

make with your

knife just such

teeth

a cut across the grain as one of these makes. You have a piece of waste

wood

for this and simHold experiments. your knife upright on the piece and draw it along, across the grain.

which you

will

keep by you

ilar

You

find, as

you have found

before, that

you

cannot cut very deep, because the wood at the side of the knife is not removed, and thus the cut is not wide enough to let the knife enter; but with the saw it is different. When one
knife or

tooth

has

made

its

cut, the

next

Wood - Working.
knife not only

23

makes another cut very near

first,

and
the

parallel to the
little

but

it

also

tears

off

piece of

wood between the

cuts.

The
little little

third tooth, therefore, is able to cut a deeper, and the fourth tooth tears off a

more, and so on. cut with parallel

sides,

Thus the saw makes a clean and wastes only a small

use of the cross-

amount of wood.

We

can

cut saw.

now go on to the On your bench is

thick.

a piece

of pine

board about 4

feet 6 inches long, 6 inches wide,

and f of an inch
way:

dicate dimensions like

this

(Hereafter we will inin the following

will be read, "Six

6"xf"-4'

6",

which

inches by three-quarters of an inch, by four

feet six inches)."

The board
is,

is

what

is

called

the roughness that is always found on boards that have been sawn from the log has been planed off by a planing"mill-dressed," that

machine, leaving a tolerably smooth surface. The piece on your bench has been cut from
the end of the board, and you will very likely observe that in the first place it is not square on the end, and in the next place that it is

cracked or "checked" at the end.

The

first

24

Manual

Training.

is owing to the fact that the log was cut with the ax, as already explained. In many cases the logs are cross-cut with a saw, and then the

ends of the boards are square. The cracks or "checks" we will explain in our next lesson. Now lay the board on the bench, with the

checked end to the

to first

right,

mark
first

it

square,

and we will proceed and then cut it square.

For the

purpose we will use the try-square.

Place the edge of the wooden part of the square against the edge of the board, letting the steel blade lie flat on the board and square
across
it.

as a ruler,

draw a pencil-mark;
this line

Then, using the edge of the blade this will run

square across the board.

ful in

You must

be care-

drawing

not to vary the in-

your pencil, or you will make a which is not parallel to the edge of the square, and therefore not perpendicular to the
clination of
line

Draw such a line just edge of the board. far enough from the imperfect .end to leave out all the worst checks. We will then cut
off

with

the

saw the

imperfect

piece

thus

marked.
There are several ways in which the board

Wood - Working,

25

may
For

be held Avhile
this

we
you

are

making
hold
vise

this
it

cut.

exercise

bench-vise.

Observe
it

may how the

in

the
7.

EXERCISE

the width of cross-cutting Open with saw the board in it, board, lay your with the imperfect end to the left and the

works.

to

marked

face up,

and screw the

vise

up

so as to

hold the board firmly, the marked piece projecting beyond the end of the bench.

Take the saw in your right hand. (If you you will do well, nevertheless, to learn to work with the right hand, or,
are left-handed
better
still,

to

work equally well with both

sometimes a great advantage to
;

hands.

It is

and there are some can be done which with the right.) things only Set the saw to the left of the mark, just so
be able to use either hand
far that

when you

cut

you

will

cut exactly

up
of

to the

fingers

mark, but not beyond it. Rest the of the left hand on the wood outside

mark, holding the thumb up for a Draw the saw backward, letting it rest very lightly on the wood, till you have made sure that the cut will be
the

guide to steady the saw.

in the

right place;

then push

it

forward,

still

26

Manual

Training.

bearing lightly on the wood. Having started the cut thus with a few gentle strokes, continue
it

with long strokes, the

full

length of

the saw.

Avoid
at

short, jerky strokes.

Draw
hand

the saw back

each stroke

till

the

nearly touches the shoulder, and push it forward till the handle nearly reaches the board.

long, steady stroke

is

cuts

smoother

as well

as faster,

more agreeable movement, and

affords

a pleasant exercise.
will

hard on the saw; bend the saw, and it will you do, you make a crooked cut. While working, watch
careful not to bear too
if

Be

the saw, to see that you keep to the surface of the board.
is

it

When

perpendicular the cut

nearly finished bear still more lightly, and work with gentler strokes, at the same time holding up with the left hand the piece that you are cutting off, to prevent splintering when the saw comes through.

Having cut off one piece under the supervision of your instructor, you may mark and cut off two or three more, each exactly an
inch
wide, till you smooth and square
find
cut.

If

you can make a you need more

Wood - Working.
practice
for

27

you must use a piece of waste wood the purpose, not reducing the length of

less than 45". The squareness of the cut should be tested by applying the try-square, with the wooden part first against

your board to

the edge of the board, and then against the

face.

The former

test will

show whether you

latter

have cut square across the board, and the whether you have cut square through.

V.
Shrinking,

Checking, and Timber.

Warping

of

have already observed that our board was cracked at the end. We can understand this if we consider what happens to timber after it is cut down. While the tree is growing its pores are full of sap, which is

WE

mostly water.
begins
to

After the tree

is

cut, the sap

You

will

evaporate, and the wood shrinks. have no difficulty in finding, all

around you, proofs of

boards,

which

this shrinking. Flooringbottoms of drawers, of doors, panels fit well when first put in place, all leave

several "dowels,"

openings after a while by shrinking. Here are which were all cut from the
stick, and yesterday they all fitted well the corresponding holes but half of them have been soaked in water over night, and
;

same
in

now

they will not go into the holes at shrinking

28

all.

The

of

timber,

you

will

find,

Wood - Working.
takes place
length. that it

29

only in

the width, not

floor,

in

the

and you will find is only the joints between the edges of the boards that have opened. When two boards have been put together end to end,
the joint This fact
is is

Examine the

as

close

as

in

the

very
in

striking,

and

beginning. should be
causes

remembered.
endless

The shrinking of wood

carpentry,

trouble

cabinet-work,

and building, and it cannot be entirely prevented; but, by taking advantage of the fact
mentioned, it can often be prevented from doing mischief. We shall study some of these methods in Lesson 21.
just

parts

the drying of timber goes on at all with equal rapidity, the piece shrinks but equally in all parts, and keeps its shape
;

When

drying goes on more rapidly on the outside than on the inside,

in

large

pieces

the

and

this causes important changes in the shape and condition of the wood. We shall look at these changes in detail by and by,

but for the present it will note the following facts.

First, as the outside

be sufficient

to

shrinks faster than the

30

Manual Training.

which begin on the extend inward. These outside and gradually

inside, cracks are formed,

cracks are largest and /most ends of the log, where the
rapid,

numerous
drying
is

at

the

most

and

they

are

the

cracks

which

we

have already noticed in our boards. Secondly, when timber has been cut up, if by any means one side of a piece is prevented from drying
side

as

fast

as

another, the

which dries most rapidly, and therefore shrinks most rapidly, becomes hollow, or the Or, if one side of a piece of piece "warps." wood which has been dried or " seasoned" is exposed to moisture, that side swells and becomes convex, and again the piece warps.
Verify these statements by experiment, laying several pieces of board six or eight inches

and of about the same length on the ground for some hours, or even on your bench if they have not been very well seasoned, setting up others on their edge so that
wide
both sides

may

be equally exposed

to the air,

and noting carefully the results after several hours. In the same manner, if wood has been
already

warped,
it

it

may

be

straightened

by

exposing

in the proper way.

Wood - Working.

31

(Samples of round timber stripped of the bark should be exhibited, showing the checks on the surface, and particularly at the ends,

sample of a short log, cut up showing the cracks in the ends, and the edges of the boards, and in the faces
as well

as one

into

boards,

of the outside boards or "slabs."

The

pupils
in
log.

should be made to observe for themselves the

position

and

direction

of

these
parts

cracks
of the

boards cut from different

They should be made to observe how checking and warping continue after wood has been made up, if it is exposed, and how they
are prevented by painting or varnishing).

LESSON VI.

Working
is

Sketches.

proposed to make a box from the piece board used in your seventh exercise. The box is to be made, not of any size and shape that you may happen to give it, but

IT of

exactly according to given dimensions.

is

This

object is extremely important, for, for a given purpose, it is often worthless if not of just the right size and shape.

when an

wanted

The shape and dimensions of this box, as of any other piece of work, can be shown in a working drawing or a working sketch. The
former name is given to a drawing carefully made " to scale," and the latter to a drawing made with less care, and which may be drawn
In freehand, and only approximately to scale. the latter case the dimensions are marked

on the corresponding parts of the drawing, and can be read off; in the former they are
ascertained

by measuring carefully the dimen-

Wood -Working.

33

sions of the drawing, and making the proper allowance for the " scale," as will be under-

stood presently. Here is a block of wood, of which we will make a sketch first and a drawing afterwards.

Measuring the block with the

is

rule,

we

find

it

9 inches long, 5 inches wide, and 3^ inches thick, or as we have agreed to represent it,

5" * 3j"_9".
of

If

the

block,

we look we see a

directly at the front

side is nearly three short side, and writing on these sides their dimensions, as in Fig. 9.

which we indicate rectangle whose long

its

9" x 3J", by drawing, freehand, a

rectangle

times as great as

This figure we call the Elevation, or the

Front Elevation.

If

we

look

straight

Fta g

down on the block, we see

a rectangle 9" x 5". This we represent in a similar way, Fig. 10, and call the representation the Plan.

From

these two, even if

we had never seen

34

Manual

Training.
to
size

the block,

rect picture in the

we should be able mind of its

form a

cor-

9"

and shape, and a workman would be

able
to

make

one just like it. Sometimes,

however, there
are
details

in

the

fiure

of
t

the

o bj e c

which these two drawings fail to show. Thus, if there were a round hole in the right-hand In such end, neither of these would show it.
case

a third figure

is

Elevation.

This

is

added, called the End the view that we get if

we look

directly at the

end

of the object: in the case of this block it would be

another rectangle, 3J" x 5", If we wish to Fig. 11.

show the
ascertain

hole,

we must
its

exactly
If the

size

and

position,

and show them properly

hole
is

in

the

drawing.

in diameter,

and

Wood - Working.

35

placed 3" from one of the narrow faces and 1" from one of the wide faces, we indicate
this as in

Fig.

12,

making the drawing

rtt

per-

haps a
before,

little

so

larger than as to be able

to write all the necessary

dimensions.
ever, does not

This,

howshow how
Suppose

deep the hole

is.

we

find

it

to be 2" deep.

Looking at the front of the block again, you will understand that, if we could look into the block, the hole would appear as at a 6, Fig. 13. As the lines at a b are, however, hidden by the material of

the

block,

we

will indicate

them by dotted lines. In

the

same

in the

plan.

manner the hole may be shown The three figures being now
as

brought

together

in

Fig.

14,

they give

complete information as to the

size

and shape

36

Manual Training.
block.

of the

This group of drawings thus the dimensions of all the parts, with marked, we will call a " Figured Sketch" or "Working
Sketch."
It

lines be ruled,

necessary that the provided they are drawn toleris

not

vation,

ably straight, and it is not necessary that they be exactly in true proportion to each other,

though it is best to have them nearly so. Every dimension must be given in at least one of the drawings. If, for instance, the fig-

Wood - Working.
ure 3" in the plan were

37

left out, the workman make the block from this sketch would not know where to bore the hole, unless this figure were given in the End

who should

try to

A dimension, however, which is one given drawing need not be repeated in another. Thus the figure 9" in the
Elevation.
in

Elevation need not be repeated in the Plan, though the repetition does no harm, unless
the figures are too crowded. Having made figured sketches of the block, you may noAV, for exercise, make similar
sketches of a large nail or spike, a bolt with a nut, a six-sided lead-pencil, a try-square, or

In our next other simple object. will undertake a working drawing.

lesson

we

LESSON VII.

Working Drawings.
instead

of drawing the lines of our last

freehand, and writing the dimensions of the object on the drawing, we rule the
lines

IF,lesson

with

care,

and

make them

all

bear

exactly the same ratio to the lines they repre-

'/+?- 1

Scale ofInches.
Z

>

-Fzy.
sent,

we have

"

Drawing
as

to

Scale,"
15,

or

"Working Drawing,"

in

Fig.

which

Wood - Working.

39

shows the plan, elevation, and side-elevation

of a box.

The

scale, or ratio

of the dimensions in the

drawing

to

the object This may be

the corresponding dimensions of must be indicated on the drawing.

done in either of three ways. Suppose, for instance, the lines of the drawing to be one quarter as long as the corresponding lines of the object. First, we may write

on the drawing

"

may
Or

write

"

Scale J

Scale ^ " = 1"

".

",

Or, secondly, we or " Scale 3" = 1' ".

thirdly,

we may draw

any convenient length, divide of which each represents one

a straight line of it into parts,

inch on the

object (or one foot, or one meter), and number these parts 1, 2, 3, etc. In the case in question where the scale is J, each of the

parts
long.

must be actually one quarter of an inch If the drawing had been made to a smaller scale, as y1^ for instance, which might be written "Scale TV ", or "I" = 12"", or " 1" = 1'" the spaces would have been each one inch long, and would have represented each
one foot in the
of the
object.

In Fig. 15

all

three
are

modes of representing the

scale

shown.

40

Manual

Training.

The
the

scale

must be
to

large

enough

to

enable

workman

determine from the drawing

the dimensions of every part of the object. Thus, in the last figure, to determine the

hole in the block, the would measure with the compasses

size

of the

workman
its

diame-

ter

on the drawing. Finding this to be one quarter of an inch, he would know that the diameter of the hole was to be one inch.
Next, to determine where to place the hole, he would measure the distances on the draw-

ing from two sides of the end elevation, and finding these distances to be each one quarter

know that the hole was from each of the corresponding faces of the block, and therefore the center of the hole one inch and a half from each of
of an inch, he would
to be one inch

had been much would have been smaller, say iV^l", difficult to measure exactly the dimensions on the drawing, and therefore difficult to determine exactly the dimensions of the object. When an object is large, or contains many
these
faces.

If

the

scale
it

details,

it

may

be

impossible
to

to

make

the

scale large

enough

show

all

the details in

Wood - Working.
such a

41

way

that the

workman can

get their
It is

true dimensions from the drawing.

then

necessary to
the details.

add separate drawings of some of These are only working drawings

scale.

on a larger

Of

course the scale of these

also.

drawings must be indicated

In addition to the two elevations, plan, and drawings of details, there are sometimes needed other drawings, called will be explained hereafter,
to be needed.
"

sections,"

which

when they come

the

You

will

now

be able to understand

42

Manual
Fig.

Training.

working sketch,

16,

of the

box which
elevation

we propose

to

make.

The

front

shows that the box is 131" long and 6" high, and the end elevation, or the plan, shows that

The dotted lines in the front that the front and back pieces show elevation are fastened on over the ends of the end The same fact may be learned from pieces. an inspection of the end elevation and plan. The figure f " shows that the wood used is f " As there may be a doubt whether the thick. figures 12" and 8" in the two elevations are
it is

9J" wide.

the

inside

or the outside

measurements

of

Fiy/7.
the box, it is best to remove this ambiguity in the following way. Let the figure which
indicates

any dimension be written in the middle of a line drawn parallel to the line

Wood - Working.
to

43

which

it

belongs,

and terminated by arrow-

heads exactly opposite the ends of the line. Thus, Fig. 17, means that the inside length
of the box
is

12 inches, and Fig. 18,

means

that the

outside

working

length drawing there

this.

is

12 inches.
be

In

would

no such

ambiguity as

LESSON Till.
Making a Nailed Box. Work.
Laying out the

dimensions from Fig. 16, we see need for our box two pieces of | inch stuff 6" * 8" for the ends, and two Later pieces 6"xl3^" for the front and back.

TAKING that we shall

we
shall

need two pieces each 9J"

13J" for

the top and bottom, but for the present will leave them out of consideration,

we
to

simplify the drawings and the laying out of

our work.

Take the piece of board used in Lesson IV. work of that lesson was well done, the is now square on one end, and a little piece
If the

longer than

is

Furthermore,
If
it is

if it

necessary for the four pieces. has been properly exposed

without warping. not square on one end, make it so with the least possible waste of material, remembering that, if you get it less than
to the air, it has dried well

about 44 inches long

it

will be spoiled.

44

Wood - Working.

45

Now, with your rule, lay off 8 inches from the squared end, along the best edge of the board. Mark this edge with your lead-pencil, with a cross or other mark, to distinguish it
as the edge

the

from which you will work. Place handle of your square against this edge, and draw a pencil-mark square across the board, exactly 8 inches from the

wooden

squared end. You have now marked off one of the ends of the box, and might proceed to cut it off; but it is best to perform all operations of
"

one kind
"
all
off.

lay out
If

at once, and we will therefore the pieces before commencing

to cut

them

draw another pencil-line you from the 8 inches first, and then proceed just to cut out the pieces, they would turn out too short by the amount of the EXERCISE 8.
should
thickness of the saw
in comparison with sions this thickness
;

and though some dimenis it is

Laying out a

box

very small, in compari-

son with some others

very considerable,

and it should, therefore, never be neglected. Allowance must always be made for the "waste" of a saw in cutting to a mark. As

46

Manual Train 'my.

this waste
is,

you do not know yet how much you may, after having marked

off

your

first

piece 8 inches long, begin a cut with the saw just outside of the mark, but quite close to it,
so as to leave the piece exactly 8 inches long. As soon as you have cut a little EXERCISE 9.
cross-cutting with saw.

way into the piece, say an inch, make another mark with pencil
parallel to

the first, and so near marks just contain the cut between them, and no more, as in Fig. 19. From these

and square,
it

to

that the two

____^

_
_
19
the

you can learn, by measuring

Fi-cr

^e

Distance

bet ween them,

or by observing carefully and remembering, how much the saw wastes. You will soon

be

able

to

make

proper allowance

for

this waste

by the eye without measuring. Now lay off 8 inches from the second mark, draw a third mark and a fourth parallel
to
it

for the waste.

Then
off

mark
again

off the waste again, lay off 13J

lay off 13 J inches, inches

and

mark

the

waste

again,

and

Wood - Working.
the work
of
in
is

47

wood

Avill

which

completely laid out. Your piece now be marked as in Fig. 20, and 2 are the ends, 3 and 4

are the

front

and back, and 5

is

the waste.

After this lesson you will not

make double

marks

for

necessary
eye.

your saw-cuts, but will make the allowance for the waste by the

In making pencil-marks, as in this exercise you must be careful to apply the square always to the same edge of your board,
distinguishing this edge, as already pointed Indeed, this out, by a cross or other mark.
is

an important principle in

all

work.
opposite

The reason of
edges
are
to
;

it

is

laying out of that, unless the

perpendicular not be parallel

to

lines drawn parallel, them with the square will but lines drawn perpendicular

the

same edge,
will

provided
be

that

edge

is

straight,

always

parallel.

Try

this

48

Manual

Training.

with your waste-piece, whose opposite sides are not quite parallel, drawing your two perpendiculars pretty close together. In laying out your work you must see that

each

piece
cracks,

is,

if

possible,

free

from

knots

and
the

particularly at nails will have to be

the ends, where If there driven.

should be a knot at any one of these places, at the boundary between 3 and 4 for instance,

you

must try to throw the knot out, by shifting 4 to the right, and making the waste piece fall in the middle, where the knot is.

Now
Exercise

place
7,

the

board

in

the vise, as in

and cut

off the four pieces, being

very careful to keep the saw between the double marks, to cut square, and to go gently towards the end of the cut, so as to avoid
splintering.

When

the four pieces are cut off

they should be compared with each other two and two, measured, and tested with the
square.

IX.

Hammer and
using the

Nails.

Putting a

Box

Together.

hammer,
it

INlearn
the
wrist,

is

to

swing

the first thing to with a free movement of

rather than from the and the second is to strike squarely with the whole face of the hammer rather
edge. Begin by striking a on hard blow your piece of waste moderately wood, in one corner of the piece. Examine

arm from the elbow

than

with one

the

mark made.

You

will

probably find

it

deeper on one side than on the other, showing that you have not struck EXERCISE 10.
Strike squarely. side of the first
again, by the striking with hammer, mark, and exand so on, over the whole

amine the
face of

result,

strike

your piece of wood, or until you can hard and square.

nails

Take a dozen four-penny

ine them.

and exam49

(Note that "four-penny" probably

60

Manual

Training.

meant, originally, weighing four pounds to the hundred, and thus four-penny, six-penny, etc.
give
as

some indication of the

in

size of

the nails.)

Observe that the nails have two sides parallel,

shown

the

side-elevation,

Fig.

21,

b,

while

the

other

two

sides,

as

shown

in a, act as a wedge,

and

will split the

wood

if it is

weak.

The wedge, therefore, must be made to act in the direction in which the wood is strongest, that Lesson III., is, as we learned in
in

the

direction

of the

length

of the fibers.

the
left

Now, holding a nail between fingers and thumb of the

hand, in the proper position to enter the

wood without splitting, drive it into your piece " of waste wood f from the end, till the point
EXERCISE
ii.

just
S

Driving and

^e

shows through on the other NOW draw it Out with

claw
to

drawing a

nail,

the

of

do
of

this place a block of

the hammer. To wood under the head

it
;

of the
the

hammer
head
of

lift

up

to

the

nail

catch

the height the head

Wood - Working.
of

51

the

nail
rests

with

the

claw,

and

while

the

on the block with the handle up, swing the end of the handle over so as to raise the claw, and the nail will come
out.

hammer

If

the block
the
nail

is

not
be

used to raise
bent.

the

hammer,
nail

will

Drive the
it

in

the

same way and draw

first

several

times,

always |" from the end of the piece,

position,

Afterwards, drive it several times in the second position, at the same

distance from the end,
will nearly always split the piece. these two positions. Observe that

but always in the not to split the piece.

or

so

as

and observe that you Note well

you can

distinguish the one from the other by the shape of the head or by the way the nail
feels

between

the

fingers,

and you
of

should
care-

never hereafter

split a piece

lessly driving a nail in

wood by the wrong way.

Now, taking the long sides of your box, draw a light pencil-mark across each end, I" from the edge, and make on this EXERCISE 12. line two dots, each an inch from Nailing a box. the end of the line, and a third half-way
between them, for the places where the nails

52

Manual
driven,
as

Training.
in
22.

are to be

Fig.

Drive six

nails nearly

through

at these places.

Then,

set-

ting one of the short sides upright in the vise, lay the end of the long piece on it, exactly
as it
is

to

go
to-

when
is

the box

put

gether,

being careful, while

holding the long piece in the left hand, to let the fore-finger reach round the edge, so
as to feel

whether the edge of the upper piece

face

and the
even.

Drive the middle

of the lower piece are exactly nail through into

the
quite

end piece, but do not drive its head This will now hold the piece down.

it

firmly enough, while allowing you to adjust and drive the other two nails down to the
distance.

same
left

The heads of the

a
little,

nails

are

projecting

so

that

it

may

be

easy to draw them if necessary. The second corner may be nailed in the same way, and

the six nails driven

"

home," that

is,

till

the

heads are even with the surface of the wood, taking care not to bruise the wood with the

Wood - Working.
hammer.
lay

53

For the third and

nailed
piece

fourth corners

the bench, standing up, lay the fourth side in place, holding it as you did the first, and drive the other nails with the

the

down on

with

the

short

pieces

same precautions as before. If the pieces have been properly cut and properly nailed, the box will now be square
all its corners, the diagonals will be of equal lengths, and when it is set on the bench all the corners will rest on the bench and

at

the sides

will

be

perpendicular

to

it.

You

should

your work with rule and square.

test

as to these particulars

X.

The same Continued.

will

now no doubt

be two classes

of boxes in the class, as the result of the The first will be smaller or last exercise.
larger than they were intended to be, or they will be not quite square at the corners, or " winding," that is, when set they will be

on a
will

flat surface like that of the bench they touch at three corners only. The second will be true to dimensions and shape, and

will be

"

out of winding."
for
"
"

The

test

winding
several

is

important, and

may

be

made

in

ways.

We

cannot

always depend on the test by laying on the bench as already described, since the bench
itself may be in winding, or the object may be too large to be tested in this way, or too small to show the defect. second, and

more

common way
size,
54

of

testing an

object of
is

moderate

such as one of your boxes,

Wood - Working.
to

55

hold

it

up

other

closed,

and

before one eye, keeping the look across one of the

edges at the other edge. exactly covers the hind

the front edge edge, there is no

If

winding
stands

but

if

one end

of

exactly covered, the object is the object is very small it winding. is sometimes hard to detect the fault in this

other

up end

above the
is

front

the hind edge edge when the

When

way.
ated

In this case the error

.

may

and
or

made
sticks."
strips

"winding
edges"
straight

perceptible These are

be exaggerby means of

two

"

straight
13.

of

wood with
Supsay
across
strips,

EXERCISE

pose

and two
;

parallel edges.

Teat for willd .

in e-

such
to

2"x^"-24
opposite

be
If

laid

your box

at

ends.

the

to be noticed
itself,
it

when

winding be too small you look across the box

is

this

you may yet be able to detect it when In exaggerated by these .long sticks. the in the even way, edge of winding

a board

may

be detected.
tests

This and the other

will

suppose your
as

boxes

being applied, we divided into two

classes,

already described.

Those

of

the

56

Manual
class,

Training.

second

being
up,

perfect, or

nearly

so,

we

by furnishing them with might bottoms of the same material, fastened, like
finish

the sides, with nails. These boxes, being all of the same size, might be piled up in a set
or "nest,"

screws, glue,

and used for the stowing of nails, and other materials used in the

Instead of doing this, however, we will shop. take the boxes of both classes apart, and
use the material
in

making another

set

of

boxes of better finish than these, and requiring the use of other tools and more practiced
hands.

To knock your box apart without

it,

splitting

hold

it
14.

by one
of the

of

the

long sides and

EXERCISE

strike the other long side, inside

Taking apart nailed work.

corner,
strike

with

a hammer.

DO

not

wood, in which case you

it,

and certainly bruise it, in the corner to receive the blow.

not

directly on the will probably split but on a strip laid

If there face
is

room

to

strike

with

the

of

the

hammer, strike with the side. Striking in one corner and the other alternately, you will
probably separate the box at two corners, and

Wood - Working.
so take off

57

one of the long

short
sides

sides, after

which,

holding

the

and

repeating the

operation with the same care as before, you Drive out the will take off the other side.

by striking them on the points, and straighten them by striking them gently with the hammer on the convex side while holding not on the bench, them on a block of wood, as you would thus mar the bench. For the new box that we propose to make,
nails

we

will

reduce a

little

the

thickness of our
a finer surface
that

pieces of wood, and give the mill-dressed than

them

received

they Your planing-machine. exercises with the hatchet and the knife have

surface

from

the

shown you the

difficulty, if not the impossiof bility, finishing a piece smooth with either of these tools. You will be ready, therefore, to appreciate the value of the plane.

LiESSON XI.

The Jack-Plane.
have
seen

how

the

knife

or

the

YOU hatchet
thus
or
"

wood, and, if rather than outward,

tends to follow the grain of the the grain happens to run inward
splits

off

large

pieces,

making
iron
"
this,

fine

work

impossible.

The knife

of

the
so,

doing
as

and
is

plane is prevented from with this tool, work may

be finished

up very smooth.
set in a

The

plane-iron,

you which

see,
it

block of wood through

projects only

as the block rests

a short distance, and on the surface of the wood,

the iron cannot penetrate beyond this distance. If you set the plane down on the surface of
a board, and press down on it, the iron will cut into the wood until the block comes in

contact with the board, and then

it

can go

no

further.

forward, the

from a to
58

6,

plane edge of the iron moves say Fig. 23 but, instead of following
;

If

now

we push

the

Wood - Working.

59

the grain, and cutting deeper and deeper, it is forced to remain at the same distance

below the surface.

layer or
"

It

thus

lifts
it

shaving," bending

up the thin upwards as it

" advances, and delivering it out of the mouth of the plane. The tool thus described is the

"

plane with a single iron. When we use this tool, however, although the iron itself cannot penetrate far into the

wood,

it

is

still

possible

that,

while the end

the

of the shaving slides iron, the split, once

up the surface of
commenced, may
In this

run
case,

some distance
the

into

the wood.

strong
or,

splinter

torn
off,

up

may

plane,
surface.

breaking

may
a

stop the leave a rough

To prevent
is

this

second iron

or

introduced, thus making the plane "cap" with double iron. The cap is secured to

60

Manual

Training.

the

cutting iron by a screw as in Fig. 24, and the two are put together into the block, and held in place by a wedge, as you will readily understand on examining the plane on your bench. Figures 23 and 24 should

be carefully compared with your plane, by way of fur-

ther

illustration
of

of

the

principles

mechanical

drawing explained in Lesson VI.

With
the

this

instrument

it

is

impossible
far

for

end of the shaving to slide iron, and cause a deep split in

because the

up the

the wood, shaving is caught by the back If the cap is iron or cap and bent forward. thick enough, and set near enough to the

edge of the cutting-iron, it will bend the shaving so abruptly as to break it. As long as the shaving was a strong stick or splinter,
as at a
b,

Fig.

25, the

forward
lift

movement
this

of

the cutting-iron tended to without breaking it, and

stick

up

extend

the

split

Wood - Working.

61

down

into the
is

wood;

but

when the end

off,

of
as

the splinter at c d, the

turned up and broken

cutting-iron cuts partly through the base of the remaining short piece, turning

up a longer
off,

splinter,

and
"

so

on,

till

which is again broken the splinter curls up as

e /.

a thin

shaving," as at

When you examine

one of the thin

shav-

62

Manual Training.
taken
it is

ings that

off

cracked

short

distances.

by such a plane, you find or broken across at equal Thus it is so much weak-

ened that the cutting-iron cannot lift it up by the end and continue the split down into
the wood.

With

this partial

of the plane we can the way of using it.

several

view of the mode of action now go on to consider

The

discussion

of the

kinds of planes, and of the methods

of

for different

sharpening them and of adjusting them kinds of work, will come later.
a
exercise in planing, the tool It is "jack-plane" will be used.
first

For your
called

designed for coarse work, such as removing the rough outside of a plank, or cutting off
considerable
quantities

of material.

As

it

is

intended

to
set

cut
well

pretty

thick

cap
is

is

back

from

shavings, the edge

the
of

the cutting-iron
block, and
notice,
farther,
its

(|" to iV')> the

cutting-iron

allowed to project considerably from

so

the
will

that

edge the

is

middle
cuts

curved, of

as
it

you

projects

and therefore

corners.

deeper than the Your jack-plane has been already

Wood -Working.
sharpened and adjusted
for the
It is

63

kind of work

you are going to do. up the sides of your

box

intended to plane but it will be well,

before undertaking this, to try your hand on another piece of wood of about the same size.
exercise as simple as possible, out a pick piece which is not winding. You find at the left end of your bench a

To make the

stop that

bench-hook," to prevent the piece you are planing from sliding forward. Examine the construction of this bench-hook.
or

"

Observe
fastened

how
in
shall

it

is

raised

any

desired

lowered, Set position.

of

and

and
it

so

that
little

it

stand

up above your bench

the

less

than the thickness

piece

you are going to plane. If your bench " has a wooden " bench-pin instead of the bench-hook the mode of adjusting this is obvious. Lay your piece of wood on the the end against the bench-hook. with bench, Hold the plane by the handle with the Take hold of the front of the right hand.
that

plane with the left hand, the thumb being on the side nearest your body, and the
fingers

on

the

other

side.

This throws the

64

Manual

Training.

left elbow up, and enables you to press down on the front of the plane. It is not, however,

generally necessary to press down very hard if the plane is sharp and properly adjusted EXERCISE IB. it will take hold without this,
:

Use

of the

ust

as

tne

Jack-plane,

position,

saw does. ^ push the plane forward

from end to end of the piece, trying to take the whole length. If the first shaving is taken from the left-hand edge, let
off a shaving
"

the next be just to the right of this, and so on, till you have gone over the entire breadth
of the piece, not missing any portion of the You will of course have to change surface. the position of the piece from time to time, that the portion on which the plane is working shall be opposite the bench-hook.
so

In the management of the jack-plane the

chief points to be attended to are these: 1. During the first part of the stroke press down most with the left hand, to prevent

the

rear

end of

the

plane

from

dropping,

and

so cutting off too

much

of the rear end

of the piece. 2. In the same manner, bear down, during

Wood - Working.

65

the last part of the stroke, on the handle of the plane, to prevent the front from falling.
If these will

two points

he neglected, the
planed,

piece

present,

when

the

appearance

1
Fig. 26.

shown
3.

in Fig. 26 a straight-edge laid the surface will not touch at the ends.
:

upon

not continue to plane any particular spot merely because it happens to work easily you will thus get the surface uneven, and be
:

Do

obliged,

after all, to plane away the rest of the piece to the same level with the soft part

on which you have been working.

4.

Do

not, as a general rule,

the

grain,"

that
g,

is,

in

such
or

work against a direction as

c to

"

from a to

Fig.

25,

from

in

the

same
is

figure.

When you work

thus, each fiber

some little distance down into the wood before it is cut off, and the result is a number of small shallow pits, deeper at one
torn

end than

at

the

other,

leaving

the

surface

rough, as in Fig. 27, in

which the appearance

66

Manual
exaggerated, to

Training.

is

show the character of the

Planing with the grain, the tool, as it cuts off each fiber and bends it up, makes a
effect.

split

instead

which runs outward, across the shaving, of inward into the piece, and thus

leaves the surface smooth.

As the grain

often

runs

parts of the piece (as it does, for example, in Fig. 25) it in such cases, to turn will be necessary,
differently

in

different

the piece

from time to time,

parts.

as
is

you work
not
best

on
in

different

While

it

general to work against the grain, it is often allowable, and even preferable, to do so when a considerable thickness of wood is
to

be removed, as

the plane,

if

not

set

too

works freer and more rapidly against In this case also, the grain than with it.
coarse,

however,
desired
to turn
5.

it -will

amount
the

be necessary, when nearly the of wood has been taken off,

finish

piece,

Work,

and whenever

you

with the grain. the can, with

Wood - Working.
plane as with
strokes.

67

other tools, with

When you

piece frequently, of the grain, this

long, steady are obliged to turn the because of the crookedness

is

of course impracticable.

Bearing these points in mind, and having first practiced on the extra piece of wood, you may now plane up one surface of each
of your pieces with the jack-plane, provided if any surface is the surface is not winding
:

winding we

will

reserve

its

treatment

for
this,

another exercise.

When you

have done

you will find that the marks made by the saw ("saw-kerfs" they are called), as well as any stains or rough spots, have been removed; but the general surface, though clean, is now marked with a series of broad and shallow
furrows
or valleys
to

which are due iron, and which

if

separated by low ridges the curved form of the

will appear very conspicuous

you lay a straight-edge

crosswise

on your
sur-

piece.

In our next lesson we will endeavor

to

remove these furrows and make the

face smooth.

LESSON XII.
The Smoottdng-Plane.

TOdown
next
so

cut the ridges left by the jack-plane to the level of the valleys is the
operation.
It

may

be

performed,

imperfectly, this the cutting-iron

with

the

To do must be drawn back

jack-plane.

not project so far through as this adjustment is freand block, for the needed purpose of adapting quently the jack-plane, or any other plane, to hard or crooked-grained wood, it may be learned and
that
it

shall

the

EXERCISE

16.

Adjustment
of cutting-

If you strike the practiced here. surface the plane near of upper

hard
the
will

the front, two or three moderately blows with the hammer,

wedge
careful

will

be

loosened and
of the block.

the

iron

move up out

You must

be

will,

and

not to strike too hard, or you in the first place bruise the plane-block, in the second place loosen the wedge

Wood - Working.

69

and iron too much. By turning the plane up and looking down the "sole" from front
to

rear

projects,

you can see how much the iron and judge whether you have it right.
it

If

you get

back too

far,

you can drive

it

forward again to the right amount by gentle blows of the hammer on its upper edge.

AVhun you have

it

just right,

you must drive

the wedge tight again. For the purpose for which

you are now

going to use the plane the iron should project very little, and the cap should EXERCISE IT.

come very
the
iron
iron.
is

close

to

the edge of
will

As the edge of the

curved,
to
it

Smoothing with jackP lane

-

not
surface

be
of

possible
:

make

the

the

wood

plane you can only replace the deep valleys by shallower ones, and to make them as

shallow as possible the iron must project as

little

as

possible.

With

this

precaution, go

over again the sides that you

planed
can,

and

make them

as

have already smooth as you

remembering the warning concerning planThe operation you ing against the grain. have just performed can be better done, par-

70

Manual
on

Training.

ticularly

large surfaces, with another plane,

fore-plane.

called

the

This

is

longer

and

heavier than the jack-plane, and has an iron which, as shown in Fig. 28, 6, is broader than that of the jack-plane, Fig. 28, a, and

has an edge which

is

straight,

except just at the corner. It is easy to see that this plane,

if

properly used, is capable of making a

large surface even, or

plane." It is managed in the same way as

"

o
a,

o
t>

the

jack-plane, only requiring a little more

care to prevent either

end from dropping at beginning or end of

the
stroke.
It

will

not
use
this

be

tool

on

the

small
finish

necessary to pieces of this

pieces
is

exercise,

but we will

up these
This

with

the

fore-plane. usually is short and light, and specially adapted for

smoothing-plane. employed after the

plane

It

Wood - Working.

71

making
(or

short

and quick

strokes.

It is there-

fore exactly fitted for following the fore-plane

the

jack-plane
to

when
the

used
small

as
pits

in

this

exercise)
result

remove

which

from the former plane's having worked, in some places, against the grain. Observing the same precautions as with the EXERCISE is. and in particular Use ^7the jack-plane,
reversing the direction of your smootningplane work as often as the grain of the wood requires it, go over your pieces with the smoothing-plane till the ridges left
"

by the jack-plane are

first

all

cut down, and the

is

surface

of

each

straight

and

smooth.

piece Test

made
with

this

quite the

straight-edge.

We
If
it

surface of

supposed, a little while ago, that the one of your pieces was winding. was not so, it is very likely that one of

the surfaces

may have become

so

EXERCISE

19.

during the operation of planing Removing winding, Test these pieces and pick it. out any that are winding, or make one so

by

planing

off*

little

from

one

corner.

Suppose

A B C D,

Fig. 29, to be the piece,

and

72

Manual

Training.

suppose that, when you hold it up, with the C towards you, so that the end C just edge

hides
_^.

B, the end

stands

above D.
_/

This

indicates
that some-

thing has to be taken

C
either

off

from

or

C.

Place a bit of shaving under

the corner

A to support it. Then, applying the jack-plane near C, take first a short stroke at C, then a little longer one, and so

on, ending with a stroke nearly but not quite the whole length of G D. The portion of the board near C is now lower, and when tested
as before

the piece will be

less

winding.

If

you have taken off too much, the winding will even be reversed, and C and A will
appear

You high. the by testing piece frequently while working, otherwise you will get first one winding and then the other,
too

low

instead
result

of

too

must avoid

this

and

will
it

plane
true.

your

piece

too

thin

before

you get

Having

at length

made one

surface of each of your pieces quite free from

Wood - Working.
winding

73

perfectly straight and smooth, with your pencil as the standard surface from which all the others are to be

and

mark

this

formed.

Having
all

now

finished

the

first

faces

of

your
the

pieces, these pieces

to

surfaces

must

proper thickness, be made parallel to the

must be reduced and the second

first,

and smooth.
be

The proper thickness

the
If

is

first

to

marked round
the

edge

of

each

piece

with

gauge.
in

you have not

first

wasted
true,

material

making the
to to

surface

you ought to be able of your last exercise

an inch.
ing your rule in the by it to half an
'

finish

pieces a thickness of half

up the

Loosen the screw of your gauge, and, holdleft hand, set the gauge
inch,

and
EXERCISE 20.

tighten

the

screw
rule,

Try, with the

moderately. whether the

Gau s in s-

is set exactly right. If not, move it the necessary amount by striking one end or the other of the handle a few times on

gauge

the bench, and

fasten

when

it

is

exactly

right

the

head in position with the screw,

74

Manual
tightly
as

Training.
to

but not so

bruise the

handle

with the point of the screw. To mark a piece, hold it in the

Avith

left

hand

the edge up and resting on the bench, the finished side towards the right. Place the

head
side,

of

the

gauge

against

the

finished

and push it from you along the edge of the piece from end to end, not with a series of short jerks, but with one long, steady stroke. The point, resting lightly 011 the edge
of

the

piece,

will

make
of

straight
piece.

parallel

to

the

face

the

mark The
is

commonest

fault in the use of the

gauge

to

bear too heavily on the marking-point, causing it to sink too deeply into the Avood. It

then moves along, not smoothly, but with a

series

places

in some and sometimes following the grain of the wood, and thus making a crooked mark, instead of being directed by the face of the piece and making a straight mark. To avoid this fault proceed as follows When you set the head of the

of jumps, marking and in others not at

deeply

all,

gauge against the side of the board, if you hold it so that the marking-point shall stand

Wood - Working.

75

perpendicular to the edge of the board, as in Fig. 30, a, it can penetrate the wood to its
full

length.

If

you

incline

the

top
30,

of the
6,

marking-point corner of the

forward, as

in Fig.

the

handle will bear

upon the board and lift the point

up
so

that

it

will penetrate to a less depth or

not at

all.
it

Now,
first
f

/^W\
[

hold

at

...C?_\

so that the point shall

only just

touch,

and
.

in
.

this

position

a very light mark the whole length the piece. Then returning to the beginning, hold the gauge so that the point may penetrate a little deeper, and again mark the
of

make

whole length of the

piece,

and

so

on until a

It is sufficiently plain mark has been made. seldom necessary to make a deep mark. All that is required is a mark that can be

76

Manual

Training.

readily seen, and the lightest serve this purpose is best.

mark

that will

Mark
your

in

this

way

the

four

edges

of

all

Then, with the jack-plane, plane them down just to the marks, being very EXERCISE 21. careful not to go even a little
pieces.
Planing to
thickness,

to

far

If

y u g
piece

beyond the
is

mark

the

spoiled.

Finish up with the smoothing-plane. If the work has been well done, each of the faces should be perfectly plane, free from winding,

and quite smooth, and the pieces should be everywhere exactly half an inch thick.
After planing the sides of your pieces, plane one edge, holding the piece in the vise, to EXERCISE 22. and being very careful not
Squaring the edge of a
board.

cut off too

much

at either end,

and not
either

to let the plane tip over to the right or the left.

Test for the

first fault

with the corner of the

jack-plane used as a straight-edge, and for the second with the try-square. In applying the square always apply it to the side first
finished
straight

and marked. One edge being finished and square, set the gauge to 5|

Wood - Working.
inches,

77

and mark
the
finished

the
edge.

pieces to

this

width
is

from
set so

When
it.

the gauge
It is

wide as
to

this, it is

even more necessary

than before to bear lightly on

difficult

more

control

the

gauge
if

EXERCISE 23.
f

when

so

wide open, and

the

Gauging and
planing to width,

point enters too deep it will jump and make a crooked mark. Hav-

ing

marked

all

plane the second edges but not beyond it.

the pieces to the proper width, down to the mark,

LESSON XIII.
Back-saw and Bench-dog.

THE now of the

are

pieces

you have been working on

are

uniform thickness of half an

inch and of the breadth of 5} inches. They still marred, however, by the nail-holes
in a former exercise.

made in them now to be cut

before,

They

are

off square, a little shorter

than

and

smoother

were able to
cross-cut-saw.

at the ends than we make them with the ordinary For this work we will use the

"back-saw" or "tenon -saw." This saw is and thinner than the one you have used before, and has more teeth to the inch.
shorter
Its teeth also are

much Examine the two saws carefully, and compare The back-saw them in these particulars. is more likely other saws thinner than being
as to bend.

not bent sideways or as those of the cross-cut-saw.

"

set

"

To prevent bending
stiff

it

is it

provided
its

with a
78

back, which gives

name.

Wood - Working.

79

While this allows the saw to be made thinner, and therefore fits it for finer work, it limits,
of course, the depth of the

cut

that
still

can"

be

made with
thinner,

it.

back-saw
than
the
to

smaller,

and

finer

tenon-saw
its

that

you have, and with no set " " saw. called a dove-tail
In

teeth, is

with small back-saws, it is the case that a number of pieces generally Too much are to be cut in quick succession.

working

time would be wasted

if

these were all to be

fastened in the vise before cutting them, and besides, the firm grip of the vise is not necessary.

on the

Small pieces are most conveniently cut " bench-dog" which you find on your
is

bench, and which

shown, in elevation and

plan, in Fig. 31. Lay the dog on your bench, one of the cross-strips being downward and rest-

ing against the front of the bench. Laying the piece that is to be cross-cut on the dog and
resting against the other cross-strip, with the end that is to be cut off projecting a little

beyond the right-hand edge of the dog, you can easily hold it with the left hand, and
cut
off

the

piece

required.

In the case of

Manual
the
pieces

Training.

you have been using we will cut Half an off enough to remove the nail-holes. inch at each end of the long pieces will suffice
for
this.

This will reduce the long pieces to

3"

and, to keep nearly the same of proportion length to breadth as before, we will take off f of an inch from each end
\\\
inches,

of

the

short

pieces,

reducing

them

to

1\

inches.

Wood - T Vorking.

81

Having made the necessary pencil-marks with the square, as in Lesson VIII., remembering all the cautions there given as to working with your square always from the same edge and side, allowing for the waste of the saw,

and so narrow
few

on,

pieces trial cuts

you will proceed to cut off the from the ends, making first a on another piece, to get the

necessary steadiness of hand. In cutting with the back-saw, hold the saw with EXERCISE 24.
its

edge nearly

parallel

to
let

the

cross-cutting

surface of the
tip of the

piece,

but

the with back-saw,

at
first,

saw drop a

little

so as to

begin the cut at the farther edge of the board. Remember the injunctions to cut slowly at first, to keep the saw upright, not to force it,

and

through.

when the saw is nearly you have carried the pencilmarks all round the pieces, there will always be one of the marks on the faces and one of those on the edges in view to guide you. The pieces being now, if your work has been
to

cut

gently

If

well done, exactly alike in pairs, are ready to be formed into a box of much better finish

than the one

first

made with

nails.

We

will

82

Manual
it

Training.

put

together with

"

dove-tail
it

"

joints

but

be necessary to acquire some skill in the use of the chisel. Two other pieces may be cut out and planed
will

before this can be done

up for the top and bottom. You- may determine the proper size for these, and lay them out and get them ready yourself.
to

In cutting out these pieces you will have saw lengthwise of the grain, and will use
"
"

the

for this purpose. You will rip-saw observe that this has larger teeth than the

cross-cut -saw, that the front faces of the teeth

are square instead of having sharp edges, that the angle of the tooth is smaller.

and

On

considering a little you will see that these

VVvVvvv
Ct,

differences are

in

ac-

cordance with what we

have learned about the

VVVVVVVV
F-ig.SZ.

different

strength

of

wood

in

different di-

rections.

The
cut
sharp.

lower
of

the rip-saw, at the fibers, and

a,

Fig. 32,

edge has to

of the tooth

across

must therefore be

The

Wood - Working.
front

83

a b
is

has only to
blunt.
is it

push the pieces

c

out,

and
cuts

therefore

In the case of the

cross-cut saw, across

the front edge

d that
filed

the

grain,

and
are

is

therefore

sharp, and the

pieces

point c. cut the

falls

Furthermore, as
fibers,
it

pushed out by the the edge c d is to

best

will

work

when

it

on them not quite perpendicularly, but obliquely, which is the reason why c d is not
perpendicular to the edge of the saw, as a b
is.

Fiy.

33.

On
best

of the

the other hand, the corner a of the tooth rip-saw, being a sort of chisel, works

when driven obliquely across the fibres. E, therefore, Fig. 33, ripping the piece the saw should be held as shown, rather than
In

perpendicular to the length of the board.

84

Manual

Training.

will

In making a long cut with the rip-saw, you sometimes be hindered by the springing
of

together
its

the
to

parts
"

that
"

are

already

cut,
resist

causing them

pinch
as

the

saw and
is

motion.

The remedy
such
a

for this

to insert

chisel, screw-driver, wedge, or a piece of wood, in the cut near the saw. Towards the end of the cut care must be

taken
board.

that

this

wedge
are

does

not
be

split

the

The

six

pieces

now

to
is

put away

while the use of the chisel

being learned,

by which time they will be thoroughly seasoned. They must be set up on edge with a of at least an inch between them for space

may not warp. You may mark on each piece its exact dimensions, and note, when you take it up again, how much it has shrunk in each direction.
circulation of air, so that they

LESSON XIV. The

Chisel.

the form of the inch chisel on

OBSERVE your bench.

and
flat.

Its

back

is

perfectly straight

makes with its back an angle of twenty-five degrees, and just at the edge is a short face which makes with the back a somewhat larger angle, namely, 35.
Its

face

This form
ing
till

way
the

given to the chisel in the followit is held on the grindstone face A B, Fig. 34, is formed, making
is
:

First,

with the
7?

back
angle

the

A_^-~-

#,

25.
the

Then
part

A is rubbed A "
on the
stone,
oil-

near

J9___-^

7
'

#
will

in

manner which

be explained

D. This presently, making the narrow face face is exaggerated in the figure, to make it
85

86

Manual
it

Training.

clear;
is

should be
If

less

than half as wide as

it

you examine the chisel on is in good condition, you which bench, your easily detect on D B the scratches made by the grindstone, while A D, which Avas finished on the fine-grained oil-stone, is smooth and bright, and the edge at A is very keen. This is the condition in which the chisel and all similar
there shown.

cutting

tools

should
is

be

constantly

kept.
fine

When

the tool
it;

dull

you cannot do

work with

and,

moreover, in trying to

force it you are very apt to make it slip and cut yourself, so that a dull tool is really more dangerous than a sharp one. The chisel and the plane have the same form of cutting edge and require the same

treatment.

Other cutting tools resemble these

in

in general, but differ

respect

to

the

size

of

the

cutting
It will
is

angle,

and some

other

parif
it

ticulars.

the tool

to

be readily understood that be used on hard material,

must be
"

stronger, to
"

prevent

its

breaking or

nicking on the edge, and therefore the angle must be larger. As we become acquainted

with various tools for cutting wood and metals

Wood - Working.

87

we

ent values,

shall find that this angle has very differin some reaching even to 90

lathe-tools for cutting metals.

There are several different ways of holding

the chisel, according to the kind of work to be done and the force required. In paring off thin shavings the chisel is 1.
intermediate, as to the quality of the work it can do, between the knife and the plane. will take, for an exercise of this kind, a piece

We

of pine

or of

whitewood
in

with

rough

or

crooked edge, which we will

make

straight

and smooth
a

as

Exercise

4,

but with the

will cut

chisel instead of the knife.

We

from

li"

and

\\" plank a piece 9 inches long, will split from this, with the hatchet,
or

pieces about 2" wide.

We

will select for

the

purpose a plank which, though of good quality, is not very straight-grained, so as to give us some little difficulty in dealing with the
grain.

Holding one of these pieces in the

vise,

with one of the crooked edges upward, take the end of the handle of the chisel in the

hollow of the right hand, the thumb and

first

88

Manual

Training.

finger lying

other

forward on the handle, and the fingers curved under and grasping it. EXERCISE 25. Lay the back of the chisel (not
Paring with
chisei.

the beveled side) flat on the surface of the wood, and hold it
or three fingers of the
left

down with two

hand

lying on the blade, a little way back from the edge. Pushing the chisel forward it will

now cut off projecting masses very much as the plane does. (If the edge of the piece is very crooked, so that much wood has to be
removed, as in Fig.
4, p.

10, it

may

be scored

and

split,

exactly, as in the exercise with the

knife

or
is

the

hatchet.)

This

operation

of

very simple so long as the grain is quite straight, or even when it is moderately crooked, provided you can work with the
paring
grain
it is only necessary to push the chisel with a steady movement lengthwise along the piece, and the back of the chisel, like the sole
:

of the plane, prevents

its

entering too deep.

it

But when the grain

as the tool

is

very irregular, so that

advances you find

working now

with the grain and now against it in quick succession, it will be found best to work with

Wood - Working.

89

a sliding rather than a pushing movement, obliquely, across the grain rather than along it. Thus, if the grain runs as shown in the
elevation A, Fig. 35, then, in paring the upper

*
, I

>

Fig,
edge,

35.

shown

in plan at B, if the chisel

left,
it

moves

from right to

will

work

against the

grain in going over the spaces b c, d e, f g, etc., and with the grain over the spaces a 6, c d, e /, etc. It will be found best, then, as it is
riot

work

practicable to reverse the direction of the so often, to lay the chisel on the work,

not as shown in Fig. 36, but obliquely, as in Fig. 37, and in moving the chisel, not only

90

Manual
push
it
it,

Training.

to

in the direction of the arrow

at the

a,

but

to give

same time, a sliding motion The first movetowards the right or left. ment alone would make the chisel come out

0; the second would bring it out at P; the two movements together make it come out at Q. This sliding movement of the chisel,
at

spoken of (see and p. 4) very important, you should take to command of it. With it wood pains get can be pared smooth which would be quite
is

like that of the knife already

unmanageable without
can

it.

The reason of

this

now

a knife,
is

be easily understood. The edge of chisel, or plane, however keenly it

is

sharpened,

always more
tools

or

less

like a saw.

On some

you can

feel

jagged the

inequalities or teeth with the finger,

and even

Wood - Working,

91

when, as in a well-sharpened razor, you cannot feel them, you can see them under a

When the tool has the sliding that has been described, these teeth catch the fibers crosswise and cut them off,
microscope.

movement
while, if
itself

it is pushed straight forward, it forces between the fibers, as a wedge, and

splits

them apart along the

grain.

Paying attention to the points just mena straight tioned, you may now, drawing line on your piece of wood about a quarter of an inch back from the edge, pare the
edge
the mark, making it straight, Test your work carefully with respect to all these requirements, and do not be satisfied till you have produced a
to

down

square,

and smooth.

really

good result. When you have worked with the chisel or other cutting tool some time, it becomes dull,

and does not cut

cutting

well.

If

you examine
that instead

its

edge you

will

find

of

being quite invisible, as it was at first, it is visible as a bright shining edge, and instead of feeling very keen to the end of the finger,
it is

smooth and rounded.

Under

a glass

it

92

Manual

Training.

would appear as at a, Fig. 38, rather than as The keen edge must be restored by 6. sharpening on the oil-stone. A plane-iron and a chisel are EXERCISE 26. sharpened in the same way, and Sharpening a chisel. it is of the utmost importance that this should be done properly. Having
at

put a few drops

^s~~~

of

oil

on

the

the stone, take chisel in the right hand, place the

a^
Fisg.38.

beveled

face

on

the

stone

and

press it down with two or three fingers of the left hand held near the edge of the blade. At first place the
tool

on the stone so that the beveled

all

face

touches

right bevel shall touch, as at b. raise the hand too high

:

hand a

over, Fig. 39, little, so that

a.

Then
only

raise

the

the small

Be
it is

careful

not to

only necessary

to just miss rubbing the large bevel. If the hand is raised too high, the edge will be

worn away too much, and the angle of the

Wood - Working.
chisel will be too large.

93

Until the right

habitual,
it

way
be

of holding

has

become

may

noted

that

the

height

of

the

end of the

handle above the surface of the stone should

be about six-tenths of the length of the tool and handle. Thus, if the entire length of
is 10 inches, the middle of the end of the handle should be 6 inches above the stone. In rubbing the tool on the stone, the hand must be pushed to and fro parallel to the stone, not rising and falling a little, which would make the edge of the

the

chisel

circular

tool round.
If

the
it

chisel

has

not been

neglected

too

long

will not be necessary to rub it

much

94

Manual

Training.

It is

only necessary to remove the roundness

When this is done, the metal just described. will begin to turn up a little on the back,
making
shown,
edge
is

a roughness called a "wire-edge," as exaggerated, in Fig. 40. This wire-

removed by laying the

flat

side

on

the stone and

^
fly.
4-0.

giving the tool a few light

strokes.

It
this

must not be

at

all

tipped

up during

operation, nor the operation continued long, or the back will be rounded and the tool
spoiled.

or twice,

The operations being repeated once more and more lightly, a fine keen
tool, it will

edge will appear. In using any cutting

be found
frequently.

much

the best plan

it

to

sharpen

it

If this is done,

will

rubbing each time, work can be done with a tool thus kept in
order.

require only a slight and the best quality of

When
often

the

tool

has
bevel

been
near

sharpened
the

very
be-

the

short

edge
is

comes

wide,

and

much

work

then

Wood - Working.
required
to

95

must The

then
long

It sharpen it on the oil-stone. be ground on the grind-stone.

bevel,

which

makes

the

smaller

angle with the back (D B, Fig. 34) is to be held on the stone, until it is ground away so far that it runs quite out to the edge at A.

In doing this take care. 1. To hold the tool steady at the proper
inclination.
2.

To keep plenty
as

of water on the stone,

so

not

to
spoil

heat
it.

the

tool.

Heat

would

soften
3.

and

To turn
it

the stone

towards

the chisel,
grinding.

particularly

near the

end

of

the

Turning
"

from the chisel will turn up a

the back

wire-edge," as in Fig. 40. 4. Never to let the stone touch

of the tool.

When
latter

the bevel

B, Fig.

34,

has

been
the
oil-

carried out to the edge,

which

will

make

rough, a moderate rubbing on the stone will give it a smooth, keen edge.

Having
piece of

now
wood

pared
straight

one

and

you

may

exchange

pieces

edge of your smooth, each of with his next

96

Manual Training.
and
repeat

neighbor,

the operation
is

on

the
for

opposite edge. exchange the purpose of giving you an

This

made

examine and become the two kinds of wood

to

acquainted
that

opportunity with

have
It
is

been
is

distributed

of

the

through kind called

if

the

class.

The pine

white-pine.

soft

and straight-grained, and

glossy
surface
is

planes to a smooth, the piece is a good one.

The
to

tree

a fine

evergreen

which
to

height

of

one
feet

hundred
in

one

grows hunthe

dred

and

fifty

the

woods
Its

of

Northern
are

States

and

Canada, and sometimes

in

has a trunk

six feet

diameter.

leaves

long slender needles

(Fig. 41),

growing

in groups of each group making, if five, the several parts are pressed together, a comYou can find small speciplete cylinder.

mens

of

the

tree

in

woods

and

parks

Wood - Working.
almost
to

97

everywhere,
seen

but
in

the

large

ones

are

be

woods,
It
is

and

only even there

the
are

wild

Northern

very different in

its

the

shape

and

grouping
its

getting scarce. mode of growth, of its leaves, and

the character of

pine and the

endeavor, as

from the yellowand pitch-pine, you ought to in the workoffers opportunity

to

wood

shop
their

and
uses.

elsewhere,

make

yourself
species

ac-

quainted

with

these

different

and

The white-wood is the wood of the tulip-tree, which is also a large, handsome tree, with fine straight trunk, and
with
42.

curious,
It
is

square-cut

leaves,

as

in

Fig.

not
that

an
is,

evergreen,
it

but a deciduleaves
in the

ous tree;
fall.

loses

its

It bears, in

June, a coarse, tulip-shaped,

yellow
Its

flower,
as

from

which
see,
is is

it

is

named.
but

wood,

you
It

not

white,

greenish-yellow.
free

very

straight-grained,
easily

from
is

knots,

soft

and

worked,

and
in

much

used

in

house-carpentry, and

furniture

and pattern-making.

98

Manual

Training.

XV.
The
Ctiisel

Continued.

greater force has to be applied to the chisel, as in paring across the grain, the handle is held in the closed right hand, the end of it standing out a little on

WHEN

the upper or thumb side, and the the chisel being turned towards

flat side

of

Leaning
shoulder
the tool

over

the

work and
handle

the body. bringing the

the the
chisel,

is

against forced

the

of

downward by
the

press-

ure of the

hand and the shoulder

also,

together.

In

this

case,

oblique

or

sliding

movement makes the tool cut easier. As an exercise in this method of using
chisel,

the
last
"

one end of the piece used in the " chamfered EXERCISE 27. exercise may be
chamfering end-wood,

or

"beveled"

on

the

work
Fig.

out,

as

in

43

must be which shows

The edge. first marked

elevation,
piece.

plan, and end elevation of the

The

100

Manual

Training.

line F E is to be drawn lightly, on one end, with the gauge, in the middle of the thickness of the piece G D is to be drawn on one
;

face,

with lead-pencil and square, at the same

Fly* 43
distance

from the corner that

E F
A

is;

A B
the

may

be ruled

with the lead-pencil and

edge of the square.

The

the top of the piece, is (7 D, being on the back,

elevation,

B, being on visible in the plan;

line
is

dotted

on the
dotted

and

for

a like reason,

is

in the right-hand end elevation. Holding the piece in the left-hand, by one end, rest the

edge, at

the other end, on

a clean piece of

not on the bench. The bench may wood, have dust on it, which would dull the chisel;

and

besides,

the smooth

chiseling on surface that

the bench
it

destroys

ought always to

Wood - Working.
have.
that
is

101

The
to

piece should be held with the side

be

beveled

turned

from

you

leaning over, you will then of the part you are cutting.
it

have a good view

Setting the edge of the chisel near the corner, as at a, Fig. 44,
press

down
off a

and cut
small

#{
as at

chip.
setting
little,
6,

Then
it

back a
to

cut off another,

it

and
be
not

so on.

As the

cuts

become wider
chisel

will

harder
will

drive

the

down, and you

have to take thinner shavings.

Do

forget, particularly

when making
easier
if,

that

it

will

work

the last cuts, while pushing the

chisel in

the direction

in the direction

A.

be a very light one, and with a keen chisel, so as to

surface quite plane

C, you also slide it The last cut should and made very carefully

leave the

and smooth.
side of

After

chamfering one
the

the end
side

mark and chamfer

other

of

A, the

same end, working the end to a sharp edge. Then chamfer the other two edges of the same end, working it to a point. As the

102

Manual
of

Training.

quantity
part

wood

to
is

be

removed
the

in

this

^^tjie
easier,

exercise

less,

chisel

will

work
in

and the pressure of the shoulder

will not be needed.

You may hold

the piece

your vise, the end that is to be beveled projecting only a little above the bench, so
as to be firm,

and the
25.

chisel being

managed

as in

Exercise

Finally,

make
.

in plan, elevation, and end finished piece, to a scale of

3.

a drawing elevation of the

In the exercise just finished, the cut was made obliquely across the grain. When it is

made square
this
case,

be cut off

In across it is more difficult. and particularly when the piece to is so situated that the sliding movewell be used, a mallet is used to In this case the chisel is
left

ment cannot
drive

the chisel. the

to

held in

pendicular with the same grip as in the last exercise, but not bearing against the shoulder. The ham-

hand, nearly or quite perthe surface of the wood, and

mer must not be used

as this will deface

instead of the mallet,

the handle of the chisel, and after a while split it. When the position
it,

of the cut will allow

some of the wood

Wood - Working.

103

may
saw,

be

removed by the

brace

and

bit,

or

a portion of the cut

before
chisel.

may

be

made

witi^,

the

the a
"

beginning to use The next exercise,

ExEROI8 J 28

trate
cise,

through-mortise," will illusthe first plan, and the following exer1

an

"

end
is

dove-tail," the second.

a working sketch of one" form " of a " mortise and tenon joint. A and B are

Figure 45

\ \
:

elevation

of

the

and plan of the mortise and C and tenon. No end elevations are
are

needed.

The dimensions

given in

centimeters,

104

Manual Gaining.
is,

that

may become accustomed

as
is

hundredths of a meter, that the eye to Metric measures

well as English measures. little less than half an

centimeter
(0^.39),

inch

meter

being a

little

more

(39 inches, or 3.28

feet).

An

a yard examination of

than

the drawing will show that, when the two and are cut out, the remaining pieces

piece,

or

"

closely in pieces will be firmly joined dicular to each other.

tenon," will, if properly cut, fit the hole or mortise G, and the

together

perpenfirst

To make
be

this

joint, the

pieces

must

planed up exactly square and to the true dimensions. Sharpen the plane if necesFirst

plane one surface of each piece it thus x. Next plane one adjacent surface on each piece true, and perpendicular to the first surface, testing with
sary.

true

and mark

the square. Next, mark the pieces to the proper breadth and thickness with the gauge,

measuring

from

these finished

surfaces,

and

plane to the marks. All four surfaces of each piece should now be of the proper dimensions,

and

the

pieces

square.

Set

the

smoothing-

Wood - Working.
plane
fine

105

and

finish

the
to

surfaces,

off only

enough wood
out
the

make
joint,

taking the surfaces

the
careto

smooth.

Now mark
lines
ful
a,
b,
c,

drawing

d with

the

not

to

mark
too

them

gauge, being too deep nor

and draw the other far, lines with the square and a sharp lead-pencil. Both sides of the pieces must be marked, and also the end of the tenonextend
piece,

them

C
use

D.

To
first

cut

out
the

the

wood

from the mortise,

or
of of

four

brace, with a center-bit three millimeters smaller than the width

the

mortise

(a

millimeter

is

tenth

a centimeter, or a thousandth of a meter, and is the smallest division on your metric

rule)
.

the way in which the center-bit The revolving knife-point or " cutter" first makes a circular cut, EXERCISE 29. and then the revolving chisel, Boring with

Notice

works.

folloAving the knife, If the cutter chip.

removes
is

center-bit,

not

front

edge

it

will

not

make

sharp on the a clean cut,

106

Manual
it
is

Training.

If

too short,

the chisel will

cut before

the cutter has prepared the way for it, and will tear out the wood beyond the intended
circle.

sharpened
edge,

Hence, though the cutter must be with a file when necessary, the
very carefully, for
the circle cut will
is

sharpening must be done only on the inside

and
is

if

the outside

edge

filed

and
is

if

the cutter

made

be too small, too short the bit

spoiled.

With the
through
mortise.
It

center-bit

a hole

is

to

be bored
of

the

piece
is

near

each
that

end

the

necessary
quite

this

hole
or
it

should
will
cut.

go

through

squarely,

cut

away wood

which ought not

to be
first

few experiments

may

be

made

on the other end of the piece, or on a Mark a point near piece of waste wood.

LO

QJ

the

end, as

at

P,

the gauge and square

with Fig. 46, and then find the point exactly

Wood - Working.
opposite P. the end P

107 in

Hold

the

piece

the

vise,

Place

the

standing handle of

up
the

above

the bench.

brace against the

breast, set

the point of

perpendicular begin to bore without altering the position of the brace. No hard pressure on the
brace
as

the

bit

the bit on P, hold to the surface, and

be needed, if the wood is soft, or whitewood, and the bit in order. pine When you have bored about l cm stand
will
,

aside,

holding
Avithout

the end
altering

of

the brace in the

its

hand

position,

and
the

examine, side, whether

face

both
it

from
is

above

and

from

of

the

perpendicular to If it is not, block.

the sur-

make
as
if

it

so

and go
of

on.

before

boring
the

Examine again once As soon through.

bit

or twice

the
it

point

begins

to

show,
or

comes out at one or two

the

marked

point,

within

millimeters,

you

have
to
as the

bored
the

pretty well and may holes for the mortise.

venture

bore

As soon
side,

makes

its

appearance reverse the

other

point block and

bore from the

or clamp another piece tightly against your piece in the vise,

108

Manual

Training.
that.

and bore through against

take one or the
the
bit

Unless

you
it

other of
the
first

these

precautions

will

splinter

wood
a

when
series

conies

through.
bored,
as

The
in

two holes having

of

been
holes

the

Figure,

may

be

each other, from the mortise.

made between them, touching and removing most of the wood

is

The mortise
its

now

to

be

trimmed

to

exact

size

and

To do
clean

this,

lay

shape with the chisel. the block on a piece of

on the bench, set the chisel must be a little narrower than the mortise) upright on it about \ inch inside

wood

(which
the

of

end

mark, the
drive
it

flat

side

towards the

by a smart stroke of the mallet. Pare away the wood at the sides of the mortise with a wide chisel drive the narrow chisel in again, and so on
in
;

mark, and

till

the mortise is cut about half-way Then turn the piece over and through. cut in the same way from the other side.

A
to

little

wood has been

carefully

left,

which

is

now

be very

chisel

against

pared off, holding the the shoulder as explained in

Wood - Working.

109

the previous lesson, and taking especial pains not to cut beyond the marks. This paring also should be continued half-way through

from opposite sides in succession.

sides

The

four

of

the

mortise,

if

properly

finished,

will
faces,

now
and

be

smooth,
is

parallel, in

pairs, to

perpendicular to the each other.

The tenon
saw."

to

be cut with the a backseen, finer

This

is,

as

you have

than

the cross-cut-saw heretofore used, and if skillfully handled will leave the surfaces smooth

enough without the use of the

the

chisel.

To avoid

risk, however, of cutting the tenon too small, it will be best, until you have acquired

considerable

skill, to

saw not quite up to the

marks, leaving a very small 1 off with the chisel.

If the mortise

amount

to be pared

cut, they tenon must not go in too tight.

will

now

and tenon have been properly The fit closely together.

If
it

does,

particularly sideways,
piece.

it

will split the mortise-

If

it

does not enter

the
of

when driven with

of
this

1 Some particulars in when cutting lengthwise

management

saw
the

the

next lesson (page 115), and

may

grain are given be noticed here.

in

110

Manual

Training.

gentle blows of the mallet, it must be withdrawn. The bruises on the surfaces will show

where it fits too tight, and either it or the mortise must be pared down carefully till a good
fit

is

obtained.

LESSON XVI.
The Chisel Continued.

End Dove -Tail.

two pieces that were put together your last lesson can be pulled apart in one direction. The piece A, Fig. 47, can be drawn out from B towards the right, but the part of B which

THE
in

projects above

A in

the figure prevents the tenon from be-

ing removed by a
pull upward, or in the direction of the

arrow.
ed,

If we wish-

however, to get
as

rid

so

of the projecting piece above the tenon, to have a smooth corner, we should

lose this advantage,

narrowed, a force toward the right or an upward force, but would yield in either direction. If we
in

and unless the tenon were would not be able to resist either

112

Manual

Training.

wish, in this case, to have A held fast so that there shall be one direction in which it can

be pulled without being withdrawn, we must give the joint another shape. This shape is " called the dove-tail," from its resemblance
to the spreading tail of a
is

It dove, Fig. 48. evident that if the

A
~~^

~>

dove-tailed
fitted

piece

is

into

hole
it

of

the same shape,

can-

not be withdrawn by pulling in the direction of the arrow. With this explanation you
will

now
and

be able to understand the sketches

in

Fig. 49, in

which

and

represent the

plan

elevation

of the

mortise-piece,

and

of the tenon-piece, and and those of the two pieces put together.
those
pieces

The two
planed
true
EXERCISE 30.

are

to

be
as

first

carefully

and

smooth

in

the

last

The work is then to End dove-tail, be laid out. The thickness of A B ( \\" ) is to be marked with a sharp
exercise.

pencil

on
at

C
(7,

D,
then,
side

first

shown

on the front

on the upper side means of the square, by D, and then, from these

Wood - Working.
two two
ness
sides,
sides.

113

with
In

the
is

of

right-hand

face

square, on the other same manner, the thickto be marked, first on the of A B, then on the front

the

D
S

face

shown

at

the other two.

B\ and then from these on Next the two inclined lines

dove-tail

marking out the

are

to

be

drawn

on the upper face of C, then on the lower' face, and then their ends are to be joined across the end of the by lines drawn
piece.

Lastly,

similar

inclined

lines

are

to

be drawn on the end of

extremities
right
lines
left

are
faces

to

A, and from their be drawn down the

and

of

A B

to

the

cross-

114

Manual

Ti-aining.

mark.

Mark with

to prevent mistakes, the pieces of

a cross x, as in Fig. 54, wood that

are to be cut
cut,

away, and before beginning to put the pieces together and make sure

that your marks are right. to be drawn with a very that

if

The
up
to

lines are all

sharp

pencil,

so

you cut

exactly

the center

of each line, but not beyond, the dove-tail or tenon and the hollow or mortise shall fit
perfectly together.

The cutting of the marked portions from the tenon-piece C is very simple. It is all done, with the back-saw, and if the tool is
handled with
the chisel.
quire
to
skill,

To
skill

do

more
not

nothing will remain for this, however, would rethan you can be expected

possess

as

yet,

and
to

you

may

therefore

cut
saw,
off

quite leaving a
this

up

the marks with

the

little

with the

chisel.
off,

wood to be trimmed Be very careful, when

have
to

trimming keen as

to

your
use

chisel

as

possible,

and

the

sliding

movement

already described.

In removing the wood from the mortisepiece also, the first part of the work is

Wood - Working.
done
Avith

115

the piece upthe saw just within vise, place right the inclined marks on the end of A, but very near them, and cut down to the crosssaw.
in

the

Hold

the

mark.
as

In making these cuts on A, as well

corresponding cuts on (7, and any which go lengthwise of the grain, be not to hold the saw quite horizontally,
the
tip

the

others
careful

or with

inclining downward,

as

in

cross-cutting, but with the handle downward as in ripping, as in Fig. 50. Otherwise the

teeth

will

stick

too

and

the

saw

will

firmly in the wood, " chatter." In jump, or

making
C, this

cross-cuts,

as
is

the two short cuts in

precaution

not necessary.

116

Manual

Training.

When
cut

have been
out
to

the two saw-cuts in the mortise-piece made, the next operation is to the the
piece of wood between them cross-mark. Here, as in the

down
last

exercise,

the

work

chisel

may

be

lessened

of cutting with by the use of

the the
;

brace and bit

but
for

we
the

will,

ff

sake

of variety in use exercise, a

different
cut-

method,

~\
f
.

ting the mortise with the

chisel

alone.

51

Lay the piece on the bench,

which
(1J").

with the dove-tail end from you and the right

side (Fig. 49, B) up: this is the side on the two cuts come nearest together

edge of your one-inch chisel at the " dotted line, Fig. 51, about inside of G H,
the
flat

Set the

side of the

chisel

being towards you.

mallet, driving

Strike a smart blow with the

Wood - Working.

117

the chisel in about a quarter of an inch. Do not strike a series of feeble, uncertain blows,

but one vigorous one.

to
is

You may,
it

if

you choose,

after placing the chisel, give it

one gentle tap

make

sure of starting

right (though this

not necessary), but

right, strike
it

it is

when you are sure that boldly. Having driven the

an inch,

chisel

in

about a quarter of
to

you
it is

have now compressed the wood so that

difficult

penetrate

any

farther.

Set the

about a quarter of an inch nearer to the end, but tipped forward, as at b in the
chisel

Figure, so that

it

shall

work towards the cut

It will

you have already made.

the
Set
little

thus throw out

in the Figure.
at
it

triangular chip
chisel

shown

the
as
it

point

upright again drive at first, and

to

the
in

same

farther.

Move
again,

nearer

the end,

tipped

forward

and cut out another chip. Advance thus, till you have got half-way through the piece; then turn it over and proceed in the Be careful same way from the other side. not to let the chisel go through and strike

you cannot check it, place a As piece of clean board under your work.
the bench.
If

118

Manual Gaining.
piece
to

the

be

cut

out

is first,

wider on

the
in-

second face than on the

cline

you must
from the

your

chisel right

and

left,

so as to cut
first

under a
face

little

while working

avoid cutting into the sides of the mortise when working from the second.
to

and

When
of the

the piece

is

mortise are to

cut out, the three sides be carefully pared so

that the tenon will go in, fitting closely, but not so tightly as to split the mortise-piece.

LESSON XVII.
The
Chisel
will
left

Continued.

Dove-Tailing.

had got out the required material, cut it to the proper shape, and put it away to dry thoroughly. Examine the -pieces carefully for
shrinking, warping, and winding, and
sary reduce
if

WE We

now

return to the box which

we

unfinished in our thirteenth Lesson.

neces-

them

to

their proper shape

and

dimensions.

If they

have shrunk or twisted

much, it may be necessary to make them somewhat smaller than originally proposed, x x5^J" 12J" for tne lon g pieces, and say T x iV /x5 Ti" 7f"for the short pieces; but it is

this will not be necessary. four pieces for the sides are now to be put together with dove-tail joints as in Fig. 52, which is a working drawing showing five doveto be

hoped that

The

on each end of the long pieces A, into five corresponding mortises in the ends of the short pieces B. The pieces
tailed tenons

which

fit

119

R
:
7

D
i_.

6"=

/'

H
id

id

which stand out between the mortises in B, and which might themselves be regarded as tenons
fitting

into mortises in A, are called

"pins."

The

figures

C and

pieces

lines at

A and B A and B have the

2.

show end-views of the The interrupted respectively.

meaning already
ex-

plained on page
till

These drawings should be carefully studied

they are thoroughly understood. If they cannot be understood otherwise, you may
121

122

Manual

Training.

examine a finished box and

with
it.

compare them
is

After

this

the

work

to be

laid

out in the following First, the lines a

careful, as

way
b

are to be

drawn with

square and pencil on both sides

before

explained

of A, being in similar cases,

work from one edge and one face of the Then the lines c d are to be drawn on piece. the pieces B. Next set out on a b the eleven distances, of which those numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are equal, those numbered 6, 7, 8, 9 are also equal, and the two end spaces are half as long as 6 and 7.
to

When these spaces have been laid out exactly, the oblique lines from a b to e f can
be drawn with the
"

bevel,"

provided

is

quite straight and square. The bevel must be Take a smooth first set to the proper angle. piece of board five or six inches wide, with

one straight edge and one smooth face. The piece that you have used in previous exercises
place under your work to protect your bench will do very well. Near one end draw
to

a fine pencil-line across

it

Measure from

this

line

Avith your square. an inch along the

Wood - Working.
edge
of

123

the

the line.

board, and four inches along Place your bevel with the handle
EXERCISE

against the edge of the board, set the blade so that the edge of it
shall pass exactly

31.

Lay

out

through the two dove-taiia. thus determined, and clamp it. With points the bevel thus set, placing it against the end
of the piece A, you
lines

can mark

first

all

the

which slope

in one direction,

and then,

turning it over, all those that slope in the other direction. They will appear as in Fig. 52 A. The dove-tails will be a little wider
at

the ends and will hold a

is

little

tighter, if

the bevel

set
1,

even of 3 to
ever, will
tails

with a slope of 3J to 1, or instead of 4 to 1. This, howthe acute angles of the doveif the wood is soft

make

and pins weaker, and

they may break off at the edges. The work is sometimes laid out with smaller pins and
wider
lessens
dove-tails, as

in

Fig.

53
to be

A.

This

leaves

pins

done, but the pins rather weak. If both the and the dove-tails are widened, as in
the
7?,

amount of work

Fig. 53

the

work has the appearanc of

too

much

sparing of labor.

You may

lay out, on

124

Manual

Training.

sets

the edges and ends of your piece of board of dove-tails with different angles and

spaces, and compare them as to appearance and strength, and may select one for your work if you prefer to do so. Having marked out the dove-tails on one

of the faces of A, set the piece upright in the vise, and from the ends of the oblique lines

Wood - Working.
draw

125

fine lines with your square across the ends of the pieces. If the end is rough, you can make these lines clearer by first rubbing

some chalk
lines
tails

into

the

end-wood.
to

After these
-bevel, dove-

are

made, draw with the

other
face,

on the

correspond
first.

with

those already

drawn on the
the

Next

mark out

pin-pieces

B.

drawing, Fig. which the pins are narrowest, which is the outside when the piece is in its place in the
box.

52 B, shows that side of

The on

Lay the ends

on your bench with

the other side, or inside, up, and lay out on c d the same distances that you have already marked on a b. Be very careful to have these
exactly equal to those on a b. Apthe plying square to the end of B, draw lines the points thus found, perpendicular through to the end. Holding the piece upright in the
distances

draw, with the bevel, lines on the end of B, corresponding exactly with those on the face of A, as in Fig. 52 D. Lastly, with
vise,

the square, draw on the opposite face of the lines perpendicular to the ends as in 52 B.

When you have marked

out

all

the pieces,

126

Manual
the
end-piece

Training.

hold

the face

B upright in the vise, being turned towards you. Set A EXERCISE 32. on B, the end IV turned from B
Dov^tiied
box.

y u and assure
>

fu i

the one piece on the other, so that there shall be no mis-

yourself, by careinspection, that the lines on correspond exactly with those

take
spect

when you
the

Mark
I
;

begin to cut the pieces. Inother corners in the same way. the corners that are to go together, I,
II
;

II,

III,

that are to

III IV, IV. Mark the parts be cut out as in Fig. 54. This
;

will

prevent the mistake, very

common

with

beginners, of cutting out the wrong pieces. With the fine back-saw, called " dove-tail

saw,"

make
all

all

and then

the cuts on the pin pieces, the cuts on the dove-tail pieces,
cut
close

being careful in both cases to

up

Wood - Working.
to

127

the mark, but not beyond it. If this is skillfully done the pieces will fit together
a

without paring. Then, laying the pieces on clean board on your bench, cut out the
waste-pieces as in the last exercise.

The Not Not Not

points to be specially attended to are

to cut a

to cut

wrong piece. beyond the mark.

the chisel too far perpendicu-

to drive

larly before making an oblique cut (Fig. 51) Not to cut quite through from one side,

but to work from both alternately. Not to let the corners of the chisel cut
into the sides of the pins. Not to drive the pieces
if

violently together

they

fit

tight.

the pieces are put together, every should be perfectly close, the ends of joint each piece should come just even or "flush"

When

with

the

surface

of the

next,

and the box

all
its

should be perfectly square at

perfectly
free

corners,

from winding, and exactly of

the proposed dimensions.

[The glue required for the next lesson should be partly prepared during this lesson.]

XVIII.
Gluing.

preserve its shape without glue or any other joining material, unless subjected to considerable strain.
in
spite of strains
;

A BOX

properly dove-tailed together would

To hold it in proper shape it must be fastened with

glue
sible

and when properly glued

to get
it

it is imposwithout apart breaking, except

by soaking it To prepare

in water.
glue,

soak
to

it

over-night

in

enough morning cook

in

cold

water

cover

it gently for the inner bowl of the glue-pot, stirring it from time to time, and taking care that the

in the it, and an hour or two

water

in

the

and allow the glue

use,

outer pot does not boil away to burn. When ready for
hot,

the

from a

glue, if thoroughly stick or brush in a

off pretty
freely,

will

flow

smooth thread,
in

running
It
is
128

but not
it

very

important

that

should

be

drops. of

Wood -Working.

129

If too thin, it just the right consistency. will soak into the wood without acting as a

cement.
it

If too

thick,

and

especially if cold,

a jelly-like layer over the wood, the preventing pieces from coming in contact. It is not easy to describe the proper condition
will

make

of

the

glue, but

when you have

will

seen

it

few

times

you
it.

recognizing
is

It

have no difficulty in may be remarked that the

beginner general disposed to use it too thick rather than too thin at the same time
in
;

unmistakably too thin, if it falls from the brush in drops with the sound of dripping
it

is

water.

After getting the glue of the proper consistequally important to have it hot when used. It is worse than thoroughly useless to allow yourself to be led by impa-

ency

it

is

tience

into

using

the glue before

it

is

just

Not only must the glue be hot, but right. the pieces to which it is to be applied must
be heated
till

they are hot

to

the

touch

and the room in which the gluing is done must be warm and free from draughts. No open window must be allowed near work

130

Manual
is

Training.

that

being glued (except in the case of veneering, when heat is supplied in another way). Lastly, the work of gluing must be

done quickly, so that the wood and the glue shall have no time to chill, and as much of the glue as possible must be driven out from
between the
together.
pieces

by forcing

them

close

Bearing these particulars in mind you

may

now

proceed to glue your box together. First it put together without glue. Set two handEXERCISE 33. screws to a width equal to the
Setting hand-screws.

width of the box.

The proper
close

wa y
it

to

open

or

a hand-

requires change, is to take one of the screw-handles in each hand, hold it with the open jaws towards your face,
screw,

when

much

and then revolve one hand round the

other,
3^0111-

making the jaws turn quickly between

arms, and being careful of course that they do not hit your face as they turn. After a little
practice this becomes rather large screws.

very easy, After you

even

with
thus

have

turned the screw to about

place
it,

the right width, on the box, which points downward,

Wood - Working.
is

131

resting on the bench, move it along near one end, but not so near as to rest on the dove-tails, and turn the front screw A, Fig. 55,
to

till

the back screw B,

at

the jaws touch at the edge C D. till they take a

Then turn
finaa

hold

both edges.

Considerable care

is

required in

this operation, to

avoid putting too

much

press-

132

Manual Training.

ure on one part and too little on another. If you tighten the front screw A too much, the
pressure on

the back edge will

be

excessive

when you come to screw up the hinder one. If you do not tighten it enough, the screw will bite at the point and not at the back.
you find your first attempt unsuccessful, you must always loosen the back screw before
If

trying to readjust the front one. When the adjustment is right, the jaws should appear
exactly
parallel

when

the

screws

are

well

tightened, and should press equally on point

Either of the positions in Fig. 56 faulty, and tends to break some of the dovetails, while leaving others open at the joints.
heel.
is

and

Having
it

set

one screw

at each

end so that
the joints

shall

press properly, closing all

and leaving the box in good shape, loosen

Wood - Working.
the back
still

133

screws a

little

and the front screws

the
lay

less, only just enough to allow hand-screws to be taken off easily, and

them on the bench ready

the
corners
of

for

use.

See that

the

box

are

conspicuously

numbered so that you can quickly place them together again in their proper order. Place them in front of a fire, or in an oven,
or on top of a stove. if the stove is very
If the last, they must, hot, be raised a little

from the
case

top

on

small

pieces

prevent them from burning, and

of wood, to in either
time.

should

be turned
are well

from

time to

When

warmed, lay they on top of another on your bench, in the order in which they are numbered, and, with
the least possible loss of time apply the glue. This may be applied with a brush of suitable
size,

them one

in

the

brush
pins,

crosswise

First pass following way. over the wide sides of

the

the

not letting the glue run over the ends

or backs;

enough glue
faces

will

run in on the

inclined

of

the

be

rubbed

in

there

pins, or a little with the end of

may
the

brush.

Next pass the brush crosswise over the

134

Manual

Training.

inside faces of the dove-tails, allowing a little

to

run

inside,
o4.

but none on the ends or the

faces.

t-XERCISE

out side

When

the two

pieces are driven together, every surface of contact will have glue

on

it,

clean.

and all the outside surfaces will be Put them together quickly, driving

them

close with the mallet or

hammer

(strik-

ing on a

them),
of

strip of wood so as not to bruise apply the hand-screws, and tighten

them up

as

glue This must

will

they were before. A good deal be forced out of the joints.

be

wood,
it is

as

it

dry.

allowed to dry on the hard to get it off when very off of it with a chisel, most Scrape
not
is

without scratching the wood, and wash off the rest with a piece of clean rag or a bunch of shavings wet with hot water.

As
tions,

success in

this, as in

all

depends greatly on quickness,

gluing operait will be

rehearse all the movements with a dry brush without glue, and not apply the glue till you are sure you can the movements and perform all rapidly
well, the first time, to

without confusion.

Wood -Working.
If the joints are

135

good and the screws propthe box will preserve its shape. erly applied, As there is always, however, some risk of distorting
it,

it
it

is

best to

examine

it

carefully

as soon as

is

screwed up.

The hand-screws

you from applying a square, outand you will only be able to apply a small one inside, or to test the squareness by the eye, or by measuring the two diagonals, which ought to be equal. The winding may be tested by setting the box on your bench. Any error in squareness or winding must be corrected by loosening the screws, and applywill prevent
side,

ing a suitable pressure at once, before the After this the screws are to be glue sets.
carefully tightened disturbed for three
again, and must not be or four hours, when the

glue will be quite dry.

XIX.
Finishing a Dove-Tailed Box.
box being glued together is now to the bottom glued on, the top fastened on with hinges, and the surfaces all finished up true and smooth. To put on the bottom you must plane up the bottom edges square, smooth, and free from winding. Use the square and the and be very careful not to smoothing-plane, the There is much splinter edges. danger of this at the corners. The front and doing back overlap the ends, so that, while in

THE have

'

running the plane along the edge

or back
will

of-

the front

be planing lengthwise of you the grain, at the beginning and end of the
stroke you will run
crosswise

over the end-

be very likely to splinter pieces, them at the edge. In the same way, in planing along the end-pieces you will be
will

and

likely

to
136

splinter

the

front

and back.

The

Wood - Working.

137

way

to

avoid

this

is,

in

the

first

place,

to

the next, to the course of the at the corners, change plane so as to work obliquely instead of going
set fine,

have the plane

and

in

square across the grain of either piece. When you have planed the lower edges true you may glue the bottom on, taking the

same precautions

as in

the last exercise as to

the condition of the glue, the heating of the surfaces, the proper manner of applying the

hand-screw, and the cleaning off of the glue that flows out. In cases like this, where it
is it

not easy to get at the glue to clean it off, may be prevented from sticking by rubbing
surface

the

with

soap

or

wax,

being very

careful to get none on the surfaces to be glued together. Moreover, as

which are

not easily get at the

finish
it

inside
is

of the

you canbox to
all

surfaces

up after must be
is

it

put together,

the

made smooth and

is

clean

before

it

dry you may finish the have upper already finished the you lower ones, and make the box of the same
edges as
all

When

glued. the glue

height
already.

round,

if

it

is

not

exactly

so

138

Manual

Training.

Next, finish up the sides, using as before a sharp smoothing-plane. Hold the box in the vise, with one end up, and plane off
first

the ends of the bottom.

"

you are planing

the

ends

In doing this end- wood," or cutting across of the fibers, and must be very

careful

of the stroke.
EXERCISE 35.

not to splinter the wood at the end To avoid this you must let
the
stroke
across

pianmg
end-wood.

way

y QU ^ave corner of the bottom nearly enough, turn the box round in the vise and plane the other corner, never letting your plane run
to the edge. Plane down the other As end of the bottom in the same way. this work is rather hard, you had better, if there is much more than about an eighth of an inch to take off, cut off most of it

extend only halfthe end, and when t j iug cut d owll one

clear out

with the back-saw.

ends of the bottom,

After

planing

off

the

plane off the sides of the

for

same.
first is,

The reason
that
if

not planing the sides

care, splinter

you them

should, in spite of your a little while planing the

ends, the defects thus caused could be planed

Wood - Working.
out.

139

If there

is

much wood
first,

to be taken off

here, use the jack-plane

and

finish

with

the smoothing-plane.

Here

also

you must be

careful to avoid splintering, not the bottom, but the pins of the end-pieces. Lastly, plane up the four sides with the smoothing-plane,

working from the corners inwards, and never Test for squareletting the plane run out. ness, straightness, and winding as you work, and set the plane very sharp and fine for
the finishing strokes. If there is any glue on the inside, be best removed with a chisel when
it it

can has

got quite hard, provided you have soaped or waxed the surface so that it cannot stick.

LESSON XX.
Fitting Hinges.

ready to put hinges on your 57 shows a plan and an end Fig. elevation of a hinge. When applied to the

YOU box.
A

are

now

box the
is

to

the the

upper half of the hinge sunk into the top, and lower half into the edge of
be
to

back, and both are fastened on with screws.

be
the

Lay

two box

hinges

on

the

where you

edge of the intend to fasten

them, as in Fig. 58, not at the ends, nor yet too near the middle.

Mark
the

the length of the hinges on with the square edge, and

across.

draw

fine

pencil-lines

Next mark on

the edge the width the hinges are to occupy. This is not the full width of the hinges, but

only the distance from the center of the pin

to the

edge of the hinge, because,

140

when

the

Wood - Working.

141

hinge is fastened on, it and the box should appear as in Fig. 59, the center of the pin falling exactly at the
corners

of

the

pieces.

With
set

two the
this

gauge

to

width,
width
of

mark the
the
hinge,
light

making only a
scratch,

and

extend-

ing it only the length of the hinge. Hold

the top against the back, as in Fig. 58, without the hinges, and transfer the four cross-marks to the top,

and then, with

square,

the

mark

the

length of the hinges, and with the gauge

mark
just
as

their

width,

on the edge.

mark the Next, depth to which the hinges are to be sunk. In order that they may let the top close properly, they must be let in exactly half

142

Manual
thickness
place
into

Training.

their
If

each part

of

the box.

against B, Fig. 57, and set it so that the point reaches exactly to the middle of the pin, this will show how deep the hinge is to

you

your

gauge, therefore,

the face

be let

in.

With the gauge thus

set

mark

the back, and the edge of the top.

All being properly marked out, lay the top

on your bench, and cut out the pieces

EXERCISE 36.
pitting
hinges.

to

make room

for the hinges.

This

operation is exactly the same as that of cutting a mortise, except

cut is a very shallow one, and have to be careful not to go too

that

the
will

you
deep.

Place the chisel near one end of the cut

nearly to the depth marked. similar cuts about i" apart along the length of the hinge. This breaks up the wood so that, holding the box in the
it

and drive

in,

Make

a series of

you can easily, by cutting across the away the wood down to the mark. Then, laying the piece on the bench again,
vise,

grain, pare

finish
left

cutting away the little that has been on the three sides of the spaces, till the

Wood - Working.
hinges exactly the same way.
fit.

143

Fit

them

into the top in

Now put the hinges in place, without screws, lay the top on, and see whether they are let in deep enough. If not, carefully cut away enough wood to let them into their proper
places.

If

you should happen

to

cut

away

too

not to do) you must glue a piece of card-board or shaving under the hinge to bring it up. Also, open

much (which you ought

the top, put the hinges in place, as in Fig. 58, and see whether the back edge of the top just touches the edge of the back all along.
If
all

these

adjustments are correctly made,

you may make a small hole with an awl

exactly in the middle of each of the holes the hinges, and put in the screws with your small screw-driver, being careful, before
in

that

using any screw on the top, to assure yourself it is not so long as to go through. With all the care you can take in putting
1.

faults are likely to occur. If the hinges are not let in deep enough the top will not shut close at the back.
2.

on hinges, several

If they are let in too deep, the top will

144

Manual

Training.
or, if it is forced shut,

not close at the front,

a strain will be thrown on the hinges, and the screws will be pulled out.
3.

If the space cut out

is

too narrow, the

far, giving an ugly and appearance, leaving an unnecessary gap between the top and the back when the box

hinges will stand out

too

opened. If too wide a space is cut out, letting the hinges in beyond the center of the pin,
4.

is

the corner of the top will press against the corner of the back as soon as the top begins to rise, and opening the top will force off

width allowed for one hinge is than that allowed for the other, the greater will not shut down square over the box, top but will stand out, at the front, more on one
side than

the hinges. 5. If the

on the
of
is it

other.

The

cause

any of
easy
to

these

understood, Taking out

apply

the

screws,

you

being the remedy. must set the

faults

hinges deeper, or put something under them, or set one or both farther in or farther out. Either of the above changes will oblige you

Wood - Working.
to

145

make new

holes

for

they

may push
Before

the

hinges

the screws, so that in the proper the

old

direction.

doing

this,

holes

must be plugged up with small sticks whittled to the proper size and fastened in with
glue.

After the top is hinged at one edge, the other three edges are to be finished, the ends first and then the front, with the same precautions
that

were

used

in

finishing

the

bottom.
brass hook-and-eye may be put keep the box shut. This operation will need no explanation.

small

on, to

LESSON XXI.

Making a paneled Door.

Drawing.

Isometric

box and put them away; and when them out again you found that had shrunk in width though not in they the amount of and measured length, you the shrinkage. You found also that some of the pieces had checked, and some had

INyour

Lesson XIII you planed up the sides of

you took

warped.
serious

When
trouble.

large pieces of

wood

are used,
rise to

shrinkage, warping, and checking give

Thus, in

a door

30 inches

wide shrinkage

may amount

to half

an inch

or more, and warping to an inch, and long and wide cracks are almost sure to appear. Moreover, the shrinking does not take place

and then come to an end, but having once shrunk may swell and shrink again, again, and so on repeatedly. Doors that are exposed to the dry air of
once for
all,

the

wood

146

Wood - Working.
houses

147

which are heated in winter become

very loose, but sometimes swell up in

so

summer
will

much

as to stick.

The shrinkage

be

less if

the

wood has been thoroughly

seasoned,

but the swelling in

be prevented.

damp weather can hardly

never

Doors

are

therefore

made

in

one

piece, but are always

constructed of parts,
so
as arranged reduce as much

to
as

possible the bad effects of these

There are changes. two principal methods
of

construction
this
is

by which
is

ac-

complished. the battened door

the

The first

and

second the
door.
is

paneled battened door

of
strips,

The

made
60,

Fig.

running
together

lengthwise

of

the door
or

and

held

by

cross-strips

battens, fastened

148

Manual Gaining.

on with screws or nails. As the wood shrinks only in width and not in length, the shrinking
of the
strips
**

will

only

cause

the edges to
little,

separate a

and

^_
f-

__^
r-^r-rrzrr-i

will produce scarcely any change in the

~^

width
this

of

the

door.

fig. 61.
small in amount.

The warping,
case,

also, in

will

be

While

a piece the whole

width of the door might warp, as at a, Fig. 61, a battened door would appear as at b.

The separating of the

in the door,
is

strips,

leaving cracks
"

prevented by using

matched
joints,

"

boards,

or
in

"

tongue
the plan

and
Fig.

"

groove
60,

as

shown
62.

or on

a larger

scale in Fig.

In

this

case
tongues

the
slip

^
_

^
F^g 62

partly
of

out
shrinks, grooves when the wood not leave the joints open. This
is

the

but

do

construction

simple

and

much

used

where

fine

and is workmanship and

effective,

Wood - Working.
handsome
as

149

in

the

not appearance are doors of barns and

important, outhouses.

For dwelling-houses and in cabinet-work the paneled door is used. This is a frame-work

mortised
gether
at

to-

the

corners, and

grooved

all

round on the
inner edge to receive a thin
piececalledthe

pan el,,s shown

in Fig. 63.

The
o
f

shrinking

the panel only

causes
slip

it

to

the groove. As the

in
cross-pieces at

the top and

bottom undergo no change
tion
in

in

length,

width

that

the

the only alteradoor will suffer is

the slight one due to the shrinking in the

150

Manual

Training.

width of the two upright proceed to make such a

figured
tion,

pieces.

We
from

will

door

the

sketch, in

B
a b.

which A shows the elevathe plan, and C a section on the

step
is

line

The
called
stiles,

first

to

get out

the material.

This consists of the

the
rails,

top and

bottom
sides,

pieces,

the

upright
of

called

and the thin

the

central

Take

dimensions

piece or panel. these from the

of

drawing, and

mark them out on boards

the proper thickness, being careful to allow for the saw-kerf and for the material which
will

be wasted in planing up the pieces to

the true shape and dimensions. Furthermore, as the mortises will be very near the ends
of

the

stiles,

the the

latter

may
so
as
rails,

be

cut

li"

longer
project

than
I" at

door,

that
in

end, and the tenon-pieces, or

each

they may the Figure,

be

may
\"

made
so

longer that the tenons

stiles
till

1"

than

the

width of the
project
after
off.

door,

may
can
be
long.

all

is

finished,

beyond the which the

projecting parts
therefore,
will

be
cut

cut

The
long

rails,

out

16"

and

the stiles

2H"

Wood - Working.

151

In laying out the frame, try, as in Lesson VIII. to avoid knots and cracks, and at the

same time to waste as The four pieces may

little

wood
laid

as possible.

be

out
the

in

one
be
at

way
of
cut.

or another, according the wood from which

If

to

character
to

they

are

the

board
in
Fig.

were
64,

much checked

the end, as

you should cut off

just

enough might then

long

to

remove the short

cracks,

and

lay out the work so that the cracks which remain should lie in

the waste-wood left at the ends of the short

pieces.
65,

If there were a

bad knot at
to fall

a,

Fig.

this

might be made

in the waste-

152

Manual Training.
rails
stiles; and so and character position

wood between the

on,

and the

according

to

the

of the defects.

The
to

frame-pieces being cut out, they are be finished to exact dimensions and true
as

surfaces

in to

are

then

The joints previous lessons. be marked out with gauge,

and pencil, making all gauge and marks from the front surface and square inner edge of the pieces, which must be marked to distinguish them. The laying out of the joint in this exercise is complicated by two circumstances. The first of these is that the tenon must
square,

be
of

made
the

of

less

width than the

the

full

width

rail,

in

order that

mortise

may

not run out quite to the end of the stile. The second is, that a groove is to be cut in the inner edge of the four pieces, and
this

made
of

groove, unless a special arrangement is to prevent it, will leave a hole bestile

tween the end of the

the
mortise, as
at
a,

and the shoulder

in

shown
66.

the sketch

of

one joint

Fig.

To prevent
is

this,

a projecting

stud,

or

tooth,

left

on

the

Wood - Working.
tenon-piece, as
at

153

shown
67.

in

plan and elevation

a and

b,

Fig.

it

This construction, and the method of laying be better out, may

understood by the help

of another kind of draw-

1
we have
on
planes

ing called Isometric Projection, the elements of

which can be

easily

understood.
plans
that

The
hitherto

elevations

and
are

used

projections

parallel to the
front,

bottom,
sides

and
is

of

the object; that

to say, they

are views taken

from

point

at a great distance in front

of the
.

object,
it,

67.

above

or to

The eye being

the object,
if

at

one side of it. a very great distance from

to

plane be placed parallel

154

Manual

Training.

the face of the object, the lines drawn from all points of the object to the eye are perpendicular to the plane. If lines are thus

drawn from all points on the edges and other lines of the object, they cut the plane in a number of lines which make up what
is

called

the

elevations

The projection of the object. and plan already drawn are such are called projections, and
right
projections.
If

we take

our point of view not exactly in front of the object, but a

little
is

to one side, or

if,

which
turn
front

the

same thing, we
so

the object

that

its

is not parallel to the plane of projection, the appearance of the object is changed, and

the

projection

is

called

an

^^^^
invisible
before,

oblique projection. of the object appears narrower, and the side, which was

The

front

comes

into

view.

Suppose,

for instance, the object

the

plan

is

A, Fig.

were a cube, of which 68. Then, on the plane

Wood - Working.
projection, the front of it appears as square, in the elevation B, and the side a

of

a
is

not seen at
69, the

all in this elevation.

But,

if
(7,

the
Fig.

cube be turned round to the position

front
face

will

appear narrowed, or "foreshortened" to the

width

be,

and the

right-

hand

face will

come

into

view and will have the

apparent breadth c d. The elevation, therefore, will now present the appearance shown in D,
where bcfg represents one of the
Fig.
69,

visible faces of the cube,

c

d
i

hf

another, and
b e i

and

g the two
faces.

invisible

or rear

If Ave take the point of

the right, or turn the object farther round, the front becomes apparently narrower, the right face wider, and the two appear presently of equal width.

view

still

farther

to

156

Manual

Training.

This happens when the square (7, Fig. 69, has been turned so that its diagonal is perpendicular to the plane of
projection, as at
70.

E, Fig.

The elevation then

appears as at F, in which a b and c d represent the faces of

the cube, and appear of equal width. If,

now, we take our point of view not only to

the right of the object, but also higher, the
vertical
lines

will

be

foreshortened also, the

upper surface will come into view, and the cube

will appear as in Fig.
71.

If

the

point

of

view
will
as

be

taken

still

be

made

Q higher, the edge to appear of the same length

Fig.
72.

P R and P S, which are parallel

equally

All

dimensions
then
is

to

either

edge are
the

foreshortened,

and

drawing

Wood - Working.
called

157

jection.

an isometric drawing or isometric proThe dotted lines in Fig. 72 show the edges of the cube that are concealed.

The drawing of a cube

on
this

system

is

thus

seen to be extremely simple that of a body

:

with unequal dimensions is not difficult,

provided
other.
its

faces are

perpendicular to each

Thus,
to

if it is

required

represent

a body

of

this

shape

whose length, breadth, and thickness are respectively 3", 2", and 1", we have only to draw three lines P Q, P R, and P S, Fig. 73,

making equal

angles

with each other, and to lay off on the one

on the second two equal units, and on the third one of the same units, and complete

158

Manual

Training.

the drawing as in the figure. The drawing of the three lines, or "axes" P Q, P R,

and

PS

is

easily accomplished, as in Fig. 74.

with any radius. From the on the circumference lay off highest point the radius six times, and through the alternate

Draw

a circle

points draw the three axes. To secure accuracy the radius should be taken at least as long as the longest line in the drawing.
It

will

be

well,

now, to

make

few

iso-

metric drawings of simple objects, such as the box of Lesson XX., the through mortise of

Lesson

XV, and

the end dove-tail of Lesson

XVI., to accustom the eye to the "reading" of

Wood - Working.

159

such drawings. It will be readily seen by those who understand ordinary perspective

drawings, that
isometric
ings
differ

draw-

from
in
true

these

only
the

giving dimensions of the

remote
as

as

well
of
parts,

of

those

the

near

while perspective

drawings

make

the parts that are farther away

appear smaller, and therefore a be applied to them.
scale cannot

LESSON XXII.
Paneled.
75
is

Door Continued.

an isometric drawing of a part

stiles

FIG. of

one of the

the mortise and the groove, and Fig. 76

of the door, showing is a

similar drawing of the end of the rail or tenonpiece, turned round so that the shoulder A B
is

towards you, and the tenon

are visible.
160

C and

the stud

From

these drawings

you

will

Wood - Working.
be able
to

161

understand the way of marking

out this joint. As the tenons are to project half an inch beyond the stiles, and as these are 2i" wide,

rail

all around each and a second mark 10" from this, which will be 3" from the other end. These are the marks at A B, Fig. 76, which show the shoulder of the tenon.

mark
3"

is

to be

made

first,

from

the

end,

162

Manual

Training.

They should be interrupted on the outer edge

at the middle, as at D, so
EXERCISE 37.

as

to

prevent the
across
to

mistake
stud

of

cutting

the
saw.

when you begin

Door.
is

to be

Next the thickness of the tenon marked with the gauge on the edges

and ends of the rails as at E, always working from the front face. Then the breadth of
gauge, lines

marked by drawing, with the and 2" from the inner edge, being careful not to extend them beyond the cross lines at D and F. Lastly, the length of the stud D is to be marked with the The square, and its breadth with the gauge. marking will then appear as in Fig. 77. The marking out of the mortise is simpler, and is shown in Light marks P Q may Fig. 78. be made 3i" from the ends of the stiles, which will be 15" apart, and will indicate
the tenon
is

to be
is"

the positions of the inner edges of the rails, Marks R or the inside length of the frame. S 2i" from these will indicate the outside length of the frame.

These should both be

is

drawn

light, as

no cutting

to be

done on

either of them.

They may indeed be omitted,

Wood - Working.
though they serve
vent mistakes in
laying
rest.

163

as a

useful check

to

pre-

out

the

Marks on the inner and

outer
edges,

\"

and 2" from P Q show the will

length
of

the

mortise;

gauge
with
the

and marks
gauge
B,

set exactly as in

drawing A
Fig. 77, and

measwill

ured
front

from the
face,

show the width

of

the

mortise.

The marking will

appear as in
lines are

Fig.

78,

in

which

the

dotted
for

on the rear
is

faces.

The groove

the

shown in these figures. panel It appears in Fig. 75; and the method of marking it out and cutting it will be shown
not
in the next Lesson.

164

Manual

Training.
finished,
:

The marking being now

ting out proceeds as follows

the cut-

With
Fig.

the back77,

saw cut
the lines

first

the

lines

B,

then

and

F, observing that

must not be cut so deep as F, in order the stud L B Next to leave uninjured.

G H, I J, / K, and / K, not to cut too deep. The side being careful tenon then fall off, leaving the pieces will
make
the cross-cuts

complete, except the stud L B. The stud is still of the same thickness as tjie tenon, and

must be pared down to the proper thickness with the chisel, by taking off I" from its back face, as shown in Fig. 77 and in Fig. 67 a. The tenon, also, will need some paring, if you have not cut exactly to the marks but you must not in any case with the saw
;

cut beyond the middle of the mark. The mortise may be cut with the centerbit

and

chisel

in

the same

way

as in Lesson

XV., page 89, or with the chisel alone. The breadth of the mortise being small and its
depth considerable, the bit will be apt to mar the sides of the cut, unless it is held exactly perpendicular to the face of the piece and

Wood - Working.

165

kept very steady. For this reason, and for the sake of practicing the other method, we will cut out this mortise with the chisel
alone.

Lay

the

piece

on

edge up.

To steady

it,

your bench, with the you may first lay a

Fig. 79,

hand-screw on the bench, then

in
it

set

the piece
Fig. 79.

and

tighten the screw, as in

With

alternate

perpendicular

and

oblique

166

Manual Training.
described on page 116, cut the morhalf-way through the piece. Then turn
piece

cuts, as
tise

the

over
other

and
side.

cut

in

the same
the

way

from

the

When

two cuts

meet, the four surfaces are to be pared to the marks, using a wide chisel for the sides, and being careful not to cut away anywhere

more than
If the

half

the

width of

each

mark.

paring of both pieces has been properly done, the tenon will fit closely in the If it fits so tightly that there is mortise.

danger of splitting the mortise-piece,

it

must

be carefully pared away a little more. The tenon cannot be driven quite " home," being stopped by the stud. Room will be made
for this by cutting the next operation.

the

groove, which

is

LESSON XXIII.
The Plow.
Fitting a Panel.
for

THE kind
tion

tool

used

this

purpose
Its

is

of plane called a plow.

mode
of

of action will be understood after an examinaof

the
itself.

accompanying

Figure

and

the tool

The
groove be set

iron

d,

Fig. 80, cuts the groove.

The
the

"fence" b

determines

the

distance
piece.

of
It

from the face of the at any distance from

c.

can

the
stop

iron
a,

means of the screws

can
be
raised

The

by which

or

lowered

regulates the depth of the exercise it must be set at \"

by the screw e, cut. For this and the fence

,

must be
to

that the groove shall be J" from the face of the frame. Before venturing
set

so

use the plow on your frame, you should try it on a waste-piece, and assure yourself that you can cut a smooth, clean groove at the

proper

distance

from

the

face

of
167

the

168

Manual

Training.

frame and to the required depth. has an assortment of irons, or

The plow
"bits,"

of

different

sizes

for cutting

widths.
EXERCISE

For
ss.

this exercise the

grooves of different " iron will be

that

used.
is

Remember
If
this

the plow
is

Grooving.

to be

placed against the front

surface

of

each piece.

precaution

neglected, the grooves in the several pieces will

probably not match at the corners, and the The grooves must panel cannot be got in.
not be planed

beyond the

depth

indicated,

Wood - Working.
for
if

169

cut

too

deep

they

will

weaken the

The grooves being cut, the pieces too much. studs which have been left to fill them
will go into their places, and should fit quite close. If too
all

the joints

much wood
been
be carefully cut off

has been
there

left

anywhere
if

it

may
has

pared away;
is

too

much
panel,

no remedy.
the
first

To prepare

the proper thickness, and finish

plane it to it with the

smoothing-plane.
straight

Then

plane
to

two
each

edges

other, perpendicular to in the avoid end, careful, planing being in Lesson as directed XIX., page splintering,
138.

and

Then

cut

the

piece

to

the

proper

length and breadth, remembering that these are not the length and breadth of the inside of the panel, but I" more, on account of the depth of the groove. The panel is next to be fitted to the

groove by chamfering. Mark the width of the chamfer (1") all round the face with a
lead-pencil, or very
lightly

with

the

gauge,

and the depth ({") on the edge in the same way. Lay the piece on the bench, its edge

170

Manual

Training.

being just even with the edge of the bench, fasten it down with a hand-screw, and plane
the chamfer carefully to the
EXERCISE 39.
Fitting a panel,

mark

all

again

being

careful

to

round, avoid

If this is properly splintering. a have thickness of f " at the will done, panel a distance of half an inch from the edge, and

will

just

fit

in

the groove as shown in Fig. 81.

In
this

Figure,
has

the
which

shading,
been

introduced
before in
fine

once

Fig. 63, c, indicates a cross-section, lines being generally used for coarser free-hand lines and somewhat metal,

ruled

for
fits

wood.

Do

not drive the panel in

till
it

if

it

tight, but ease it carefully The freely without looseness.

enters
is

flat

side

to

be turned towards the front of the frame.

The frame of the door

thicker than
it

has

been

made

ought

to be, in order to lessen

risk of splitting the stiles while making the mortises. It may now be taken apart and

the

Wood - Working.
finished to

171

a proper thickness. This is not the course that a skilled workman would take,

nor that which

you

will

follow

hereafter in

such

Setting your gauge at i", make a mark on both edges of each piece at that distance from the front. Then, setting it at
cases.
l T5g",

make

a second

mark

at

this

distance
to

from the

front.

Plane the

faces

exactly

these marks.

The thickness of the frame will then be reduced to lyV'* and the groove will be |", from the front, and T5g" from the back,
the latter the
distance

being

left

larger

because

chamfer brings the back surface of the panel nearer to the surface of the frame than
the front, as

shown

in Fig. 81.

LESSON XXIV.
Chamfering.
Sand-Paper.
Shellac.

THE afterwards
ing-plane,

door

may now
finished

be glued together and up with the smooth-

or

the

front

inner
first.

edges
Fig. 82

of

the

frame

may
is

be chamfered
is

shows
line

how

the chamfer

to be laid out.

The

A B

pencil on the front of each piece, at a distance of r8g" from

drawn with a sharp

on this the inner edge, and the line C inner edge at the same distance from the front.

The
and

pencil is used in preference to the gauge, because, unless the latter is used very lightly
skillfully, its

mark

is

apt to

show on the

finished work.

The chamfer may be terminated at each end by a simple inclined cut, as at A and C, For Fig. 82, or by an ogee, as at B and D. the former, mark the point a f" from the inner corner of the. frame, A and C one inch from 0, and corresponding points at the
172

Wood - Working.
other end of the piece.

173

For the

latter,

mark
0.

as

before,

and

and

D H"

from

Settle f /2

eled

To cut the chamfer. First with the bevend. Hold the piece in your vice set
;

the

chisel near

a,

the

flat

side

EXERCISE 40.
a

towards 0, and
cut

make an
nearly

inclined chamfering

extending
ruled
line,

down

to

frame,

the

and

throwing
it

up a

chip.

Turning the chisel round, set

about \" be-

174

Manual

Training.

yond
a,

a notch.

C, and cut out the chip, leaving Cut again, with the chisel close to making as clean a cut as you can, and

or

being very careful not to let the chisel go even a little beyond the ruled line A B,
because, if
it

does

so,

mark

will

be

left

on the chamfered surface which you cannot remove. Having made such a notch at
each end of the chamfer, you may score the edge not quite down to the two marks, and
pare
to
it

down, making a plane surface inclined

to the face.

You
be

will find that

it

is

not easy

make
to

this

surface

points

attended
:

to

The perfectly in order to secure

true.

good results are

1.

To keep the

particular, not to let round on the back.

chisel very sharp, and in it get in the least degree

2. To give it constantly the sliding movement which prevents it from following the

grain of the wood.

get nearly down to the required the chamfer, to keep the back of depth the chisel lying quite flat on the surface, so
3.

As you
of

that

it

shall

act

as

plane,

removing

all

irregularities.

Wood -Working.
4.

175

To take
end
to

care,

while

inclined

of

the

plane surface, to
surface, but

make make

cutting either the or the long no mark on the other

chamfer,

in a perfectly sharp

the two surfaces meet and smooth line, perpen-

is impossible from the nature of the chamfer, to finish it up with the plane, and that it requires, therefore, ex-

dicular to the edge. You see that it

cellent
fer
is

work with the

several
feet

chisel.

If the

cham-

can

be

used

long, the smoothing-plane in the middle of it, but even

then the ends have to be finished with the

chisel.

Fine

in finishing

sand-paper is sometimes used up such a surface, a EXERCISE 4i.

piece of it being held on a block Sana-papering, of wood and rubbed to and fro, taking great care not to allow any rocking motion of the

would give a rounded surface instead of a plane one, nor to leave the paper loose on the block, in which case it will
block, as this

wrap round the corner of the work and produce the same result. Even with the utmost
care that can be taken, the sand-paper is almost certain to take off the sharp corners

176

Manual
characterize

Training.

that

good work, and should not

be used, unless, as in this case, a very fine shaving can afterwards be taken off with
to

the smoothing-plane from the adjacent restore the sharpness of the edge.

face,

The ogee end of the chamfer

is

more

difficult

than the plane end. The curved surface to be formed is concave at a, Fig. 83, and convex
at
b.

The The

part

a should be cut
first.

chisel

is

set

with
in

the

handle towards
the
left

the

Figure,
bevel side towards

and the

of

a,

and
with

the wood, a little to the left Then it is small cut made.

turned
the

the

handle
towards

towards
the

the

right,

bevel

still

wood, and

the

These operations gradually widening the cut, till the hollow As the cut is most has the proper size. inclined at the beginning of the hollow and
chip cut out.
are repeated,
level
at the bottom, the

handle of the chisel

bot-

must be depressed

as

you approach the

Wood -Working.
torn,

Ill

and care must bo taken

from

to

prevent the

tool

making
hollow.

side
is

of the

mark on the opposite The convex surface b

of

cut with the back

the the

chisel

towards

the

wood,
is

as

in

cutting

and
entire

comparatively easy curved surface, like

to

plane surface, form. The

the

plane

sur-

face of the chamfer,

ought
If

to be

formed with

the

chisel

alone.

smooth with the

of very
fine

chisel,

you fail to get it you may use a piece

0)

sand-paper (No.

in
x

the

fol-

lowing way: Prepare Cut one of the flat faces

or
it

a stick, J"

J"

5".

with
a

your

knife
that

your
will

chisel,

to
fit

such
the

curvature

nearly

the

bottom,

but

not

hollow, touching at Glue the sides. at

it

a piece of sand-paper on this, and use Even a file to smooth the hollow.
this

as

with

there

surface,

of your rounding the is danger and particularly of spoiling the sharp

at
c,

point

of junction

between

the

ogee

and the straight edge of your piece. You will do best, therefore, to endeavor to avoid
the use of sand-paper in such cases as this, regarding it as the resource of an unskillful

178

Manual
This,

Training.
is

workman.
derstood as
it

however,

not

to

be unuse
of

condemning

the

proper

on broad surfaces to give a smooth when there are no corners that are
be injured by
it.

finish,

likely

to

The chamfered edges being now you may pass the smoothing-plane,
fine,

finished,
set

very once over the inner edge of the pieces of the frame, and over the surfaces of the panel,

The gluing them together. surfaces can be finished afterwards.

before

other

The panel
groove, but

is

not

to

be

left

free, so

that

glued into its it can shrink be

best
to

without
rub

splitting.

It

will

even
the

some

soap

or

wax on

corners, to

prevent its being accidentally stuck by the glue which will squeeze out of the joints. If you have no hand-screws large enough
to

span the width of the

frame,

you
7?,

may
:

proceed, in this

and similar

cases, as

follows

Provide two strips of board,

84,

and three or four inches wide, and

frame.
parallel
to

Fig.

as

your down on your bench

with

the inside of

as long Fasten them

each

other
lie

hand-screws, so that

the door

will

Wood - Working.

179

between them, with about an inch to spare. Lay two pairs of wedges in the open space,

and d. By driving the inner wedges outward you can force the stiles EXERCISE 42.
as at c

up close against the shoulders of G iuing^ P a the tenons. In putting the frame panel frame,
together, insert first

two tenons into one

stile

and drive them home then put in the panel, and lastly put on the other stile and drive it up tight. Put no glue on the inner edge of the tenon, as whatever is put on here will be
;

180

Manual

Training.

driven out into the grooves and will tend to fasten the panel. Test the frame for squareness, and correct any error, before allowing the glue to set, by gentle strokes of the hammer on the proper corners, protecting the edge with a block of wood when you strike it.

When

all is dry,

cut off the projecting ends

with the back-saw, being careful not to cut

too close, or
will deface the outer edge Finish up with the smoothingplane, observing the precautions indicated in Lesson XIX., page 138, to avoid splintering.

you

of the frame.

The

surfaces

of the

door

may

be finished

with shellac varnish, which consists of white shellac dissolved in alcohol. This will protect
it

in

part

EXERCISE 43.
Finishing with
shellac.

from the effects of moisture, and will allow it to be cleaned from time to time Sand-paper all broad surfaces and wipe them
-

a clean rag. Then, in from dust, apply with a flat brush, one coat of varnish, and let it Do not pass the brush over the varnish dry. J oftener than is necessary to spread it smooth.
clear

of

dust

with
free

warm room,

Passing the

brush

over

it

when

it

is

begin-

Wood - Working.
ing
to "set," or dry, breaks

181

up
if

the
left

smooth
to
itself.

surface

that

it

would form

not put on too much at a time; it will flow down the sides and form "runs," which

Do

it is

hard to remove.

When
be

the

first

coat

is

thoroughly dry, of an hour, it

fine sand-paper,

which should be

in a quarter

may

rubbed

down with

on a block, taking great care to do no injury to the corners, and a second

coat applied.
If finish

you
the

have

determined

in

advance

to

work with shellac, it will be best to finish the panel and the inner edges of In this case, howthe frame before gluing. ever, you must be careful to clean off with warm water any glue that may get on the
finished
it
it.

surfaces,
it

before

is

hard

will

it hardens, as, after take off the varnish with

All the other surfaces should be finished

gluing.

after

ALPHABETICAL INDEX.

Accidents with

tools,

prevention of
'

....
.

PAGE

Ax

See
.

Hatchet
.

Awl

143

Back-saw, use of in cross-cutting and ripping Battened door . . . ." ."

.115
.

147

Bench-dog Bench-hook
Bevel
.

79
.

...'.'.
. .

.*

.'

.'
.

.
.

63
.

123
105

Boring Box, nailing together

.

."
.

.'
.

.
.
.

.52
119 105 143
2
.

Box, dove-tailed Brace

Brad-awl
.

'.....
"
.

Broken

lines in drawings,
.

Cap of plane
Center-bit

... ...*,. .105

.
."

meaning of
'

60

.'

.^

Chamfering Checks See Cracking Chisel, form of

;
.

.'

101, 169, 172

.85
94
88
183

"

"

grinding paring with

184

Manual Training.

Chisel,

manner
sliding

of holding

...
of

PAGE
87, 88, 92, 95

"
"

movement

90
92
29, 31

sharpening Cracking of timber

Cross-cutting with hatchet " " knife

"saw
Door, battened
"

23
147

paneled
"

149
.

prevention of effect of shrinkage

146
Ill

end Dove-tailed box

Dove-tail,

119
.
.

Dove-tailing, points to be attended to in

127

Dowels
Drawings, scale of; working
details
. .

28 38

isometric projection

meaning of broken
working sketches
"

sections

.".".'.'.
.

.... .... ...

. .

34, 41

153
2

lines

36

shading to indicate sections

...
.
"

41, 150

170 138

End-wood, planing
Fibers of

wood
.

. '

.
"

15
.

Gauge, use of
"

74
128

Glue, cleaning off

"
to prevent

'.

134, 135

preparation of

from sticking
for

'137
128 133

Gluing
Gluing,

warming the work

Index.

185

Grain of wood, working against the

....
.
.

66
95

Grinding chisels and planes Hummer, striking with

Hand-screws, adjustment and use of Hatchet or ax, cross-cutting with
" " "
"
.

49
130, 132

hewing with
splitting with
.
.

... ..."
.
. .

13

8
13

Hewing with hatchet

Hinges, fitting of
"
.

140
"

points to be attended to in

>

143
145

Hook and

screw-eye for box

Isometric drawing
Knife, cross-cutting with
'

153
1

splitting with

7
. . .

"

whittling or paring with

.

11

. Laying out dove-tails " " end dove-tails

123

.112
105

"

"
"

mortise and tenon

" "

paneled door

162

"

work

avoiding knots and cracks

=.

.48,151
,
.
.

Mallet

...
. .
.

.102
24
.

Marking with square

"
"

gauge

..

74
vii

Materials required Metric measures

v
. .

104

Mortise-cutting with center-bit

"

.'

106
116, 164

"

without center-bit

"

and tenon

Nailed box

103,160 52

186

Manual

Training.

Nails, "

drawing form of

56

50
49
. .

Nails, four-penny, etc "

Ogee

right and wrong driving of end of chamfer

.51
176
86,

Oil-stone

92

Paneled door

Paneled door, chamfering the frame of

"

panel of cutting mortises and tenons for

11

... ...
.

146

172
169

.164
178
177

finishing

up

"

gluing

"

grooving for laying out

168 162

Paring with chisel across the grain " with the grain
" "

....
.

101

87
11

knife

Pine-wood
Plane, fore
"

96

70
58
of holding of action of

jack
"

manner

63

"
"

mode

principal points in using

smoothing Planing an edge

Planing end-wood
"

"

....

59, 61

64 69

76
138, 139

to thickness

76
59
60

Plane-irons
Plane-iron, adjustment of

Index.

187

Plow
Sand-paper Saw, back
"
. .

167
.

...
'

.
. .

...
. .

175, 177
78, 115
.

Saw, cross-cut
dove-tail

...
. . .
. .

21

...
.

79,126
.

Saw-kerf, allowance for

45 83

Saw, rip " tenon

78
.

. . Scale of drawings Scoring with knife or hatchet

.38
.

11

Screw-driver

143

Sharpening tools
Shellac varnish

92
180
effect of,

Shrinkage and warping,

Shrinkage of
Sliding
"

on doors

146
28

wood movements
"

of cutting tools

...
45,

4
8
7

Splitting with hatchet

knife

......
.

Square Standard edge or surface

Straight-edge

24

72
18

.55
.

Testing-machine

Timber

See

Wood
list

Tools required,

of

Warping White-wood
Whittling
;

of

wood
.

.... ..... ...

.

-.

vii

30

-69
55
71

See Paring

Winding
Winding, removal of

188

Manual

Training.

Winding-sticks Wood, fibers of

" "

55
15

shrinking, cracking strength of

and warping of

29,

30
18

Wood, structure of Working drawings

"

15, 16

38 36

sketches