Sonic Log

SONIC LOGGING
Introduction. The sonic, or acoustic log, was developed to provide a detailed record of seismic velocity, and even today the majority of sonic logs are run for this purpose, particularly in surface and intermediate logging runs. The tool received wide acceptance also as a porosity tool, in addition to the density and neutron logging devices, and for the purpose of stratigraphic correlation and lithology assessment. Further seismic application has recently been acquired with the inception of new seismic techniques, which aid in the search for hydrocarbons. Principle. The sonic tool measures the time it takes for a sound pulse to travel from a transmitter to a receiver. The sound pulses are oscillatory waveforms with contributions from different wave types, of which the compressional, or longitudal wave (P wave), and the transverse, or shear wave (S wave), are the most important. Only the compressional wave is propagated in liquid. The energy transmitted by the slower shear wave is much higher than that of the faster compressional wave. The receiver is triggered by the fastest wave, which is the compressional wave, and therefore, the first "arrival". Figure 1 shows a schematic drawing of the travel time and the amplitude of the compressional and shear wave.

Fig. 1: Separation of compressional and shear wave travel times and amplitudes. (courtesy of Schlumberger)

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Sonic Log The sound emissions from the sonic, or acoustic tool, have a frequency between 20 - 40 kHz, or 20,000 - 40,000 cycles per second. The transmitter emits in general 20 pulses per second (10 - 60, depending on the tool). The sound wave spreads in all directions from the transmitter, thereby producing spherical wave fronts. The parameter measured is the reciprocal velocity, called the travel time T, expressed in microseconds per foot. The velocity of the sound pulses V is expressed in feet per second, thus: T = 106/V The velocity of the compressional wave depends on the elastic properties of the rock matrix and the fluids in the pore space. The measured travel time is, therefore, a function of rock matrix, formation fluids and porosity. The compressional wave travels through the mud at a relatively low velocity, VL1, is refracted at the formation face and passes through the formation at a velocity VL2, which is higher than the velocity in the mud. According to the refraction law, the following formula applies: sin i/VL1 = sin R/VL2 An example is shown in Figure 2. At the critical angle of refraction, R = 90o, thus: sin i = VL1/VL2 Thus, if the velocity of sound in the formation changes, the critical angle changes. The compressional waves, refracted at the critical angle, propagate along the borehole wall at a speed VL2. Each point reached by the wave acts as a new source transmitting waves, creating effectively waves of cones in the mud travelling at a speed VL1. Figure 3 shows the reflection and refraction at the critical angle. Fig. 3: Reflection and refraction at the critical angle. Fig. 2: Reflection and refraction of a compressional wave.

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Sonic Log Equipment. Early tools, as shown in Figure 4, consisted of one transmitter and one receiver, mounted on a rubber body (low velocity, high attenuation). The travel time measured with these tools, however, is too long, due to the passage of sound through the mud (A + C). Moreover the physical length of formation through which the sound wave travelled (B), is not constant, as changes in the velocity alter the critical refraction angle. To overcome this problem, the next generation of tools, as shown in Figure 5, consisted of one transmitter and two receivers. The distance between the transmitter and receiver was greater than 5 feet, with the receivers either 1 or 3 feet apart. This system measures in effect the time between the wave arrival at the two receivers. This time, known as the sonic interval transit time T, is directly proportional to the speed of sound in the formation (interval D) measured between the two receivers R1 and R2. A shortcoming of this system is observed, when the tool is tilted in the hole (C E), as shown in Figure 6, or when the hole size changes due to wash-outs.

Fig. 4 Fig. 5 Fig. 6 (courtesy of Atlas Wireline Services, Houston, Texas)

Fig. 7: Borehole Compensated Sonic Log. (courtesy of Schlumberger)

The latest version is the Borehole Compensated Sonic Log (BHC), which has two transmitters and four receivers. In this tool the transmitters are pulsed alternately and delta T values are obtained from alternate pairs of receivers, as indicated in Figure 7. The two delta T values are averaged by a computer in the surface panel. The distance between the transmitter and the first receiver is 3 feet, with 2 feet between both receivers.

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Sonic Log

If the tool is tilted in the hole, or if there are cavities in the borehole wall, or a change in the hole diameter, the effect on the travel time is eliminated by averaging the two transit time measurements, one for each of the transmitter-receiver pairs. The effect of borehole compensation on a tilted tool can be observed in Figure 7. The influence of a change in the borehole diameter on the measurements is shown in Figure 8. Fig. 8: Influence of a change in hole diameter and compensation on the interval transit time. Calibration. The calibration of the sonic log must be carried out inside the borehole, by recording the tool response opposite pure beds of known lithology, such as an anhydrite (50.0 s/ft.), or a salt (66.7 s/ft.), or inside the casing (57.1 s/ft.). Log Presentation. When the sonic log is run on its own, it is presented in tracks 2 and 3, as shown in Figure 9. The sonic interval transit times (T) are given in microseconds/foot, with a linear scale from 40-140 s/ft., reading from right to left. When the sonic log is run in combination with other wireline logging tools, the log is restricted to track 3, often with the same sensitivity scale of 40-140 s/ft. maintained.

Fig. 9: Borehole Compensated Sonic log.

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Sonic Log An integrated travel time (TTI) is recorded simultaneously. It shows the average velocity for the formation logged in milliseconds (10-3 seconds), and is indicated by a series of pips on the right hand side of the depth column. The small pips indicate an increase of the integrated travel time of 1 millisecond, whereas the larger pips are for 10 milliseconds travel time. The average travel time between two depths can, therefore, be found by simply counting the pips, which is very useful in comparing sonic logs with seismic sections. The correctness of the TTI can be checked in a homogeneous formation, by counting the number of pips and comparing them with the product of the sonic (T) and the length of the interval (h): [delta T (microseconds/ft.) x h (ft.)] / 1000 = t (milliseconds) Logging Characteristics. Depth of investigation. The first arrival of the sonic waves detected, is the compressional wave refracted at the critical angle. Therefore, the depth of investigation should be a few centimeters. The presentation of the sound wave, however, seems to depend on the wavelength of the sensed waves (3 x ). The theoretical depth of investigation is between 12 cm and 1 meter, and should be a function of the formation velocity. Vertical resolution The vertical resolution of the tool is about equal to the distance between the receiver pairs, which is generally 2 feet. Limitations. Some limitations on the accuracy of sonic log data have been known to exist since the introduction of the sonic tool. Others have recently been recognized from discrepancies between BHC data and modern seismic results. The limitations are either of a technical or of a physical nature. Technical limitations. These are associated with the trigger mechanism, the shape of the waveform and the tool calibration. Noise, which can be generated mechanically (rugose hole), or caused by stray electrical interference, is picked up by the receiver electronics. If the noise peaks exceed the trigger level (A), triggering will be premature and the time measurement will be incorrectly small. To limit this possibility, all receiver circuits are switched off for 120 microseconds after firing the transmitter. The time interval during which this false triggering can occur is longer for the far receiver, and consequently most of the "noise spikes" cause the formation travel time (T2 - T1) to be too short, as shown in Figure 10.

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Sonic Log

Fig. 10: Triggering by noise spikes. (from D.H. Thomas, 1978) Figure 11 shows an example of noise kicks to smaller values of delta T as seen on the sonic log.

Fig. 11: Example of noise kicks on the sonic log. (from O. Serra, 1984) Delta T Stretch. The second and third cycles of the waveform are usually of progressively larger amplitude. Due to the longer sound path, the signal arriving at the far receiver is usually weaker. As the trigger level is constant for both receivers, triggering at the far receiver can occur later on the waveform, causing delta T to be slightly too high. This is called "delta T stretch", but is not noticeable on the log. In modern sonic tools this "delta T stretch" is automatically corrected, and the true delta T is recorded on the log. The actual value of delta T with the BHC Sonic log, with a 2 ft. spacing between the receivers is x [(T4 - T2) + (T1 - T3)] microseconds/ft. (Figure 7). Thus, if both far receivers are at the limit of delta T stretch, the total error possible will therefore be x [ cycle + cycle], which is of a cycle. For a 30 kHz pulse frequency, this amounts to a maximum error of 4 microseconds/ft. An illustration of delta T stretch is given in Figure 12.

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Sonic Log

Fig. 12: Schematic example of stretching. (from O. Serra, 1984)

Fig. 13: Schematic example of cycle skipping. (from O. Serra, 1984)

Cycle Skipping is worse than delta T stretch, and is the occurrence of triggering at the second, or even at the third cycle. Cycle skipping causes a marked sudden shift to a higher delta T value, followed by a similar shift back to the correct value. The mechanism of cycle skipping is shown in Figure 13. The magnitude of the shift can be calculated from the frequency of the tool.

Physical limitations. These are associated with the dimensions of the tool, the size of the borehole, and with the characteristics of the formation close to the borehole. The sound wave travels in all directions, but to determine the velocity of the sound in the formation, V1, the sound wave travelling along the borehole wall should arrive at the receiver before the sound wave transmitted through the mud with a velocity V0. The formation velocity is measured if the distance from the transmitter to the nearest receiver is greater than the critical distance Xc, which is given by the formula: V1 + V0 Xc = (D - d) V1 - V0 where: D d V0 V1 = diameter of the borehole in inches = diameter of the tool in inches = velocity of sound in the mud in ft./sec. = velocity of sound in the formation in ft./sec.

Thus the critical distance, Xc, increases for increasing hole diameter, or a decrease in the formation velocity. A graph of transmitter-receiver distance, X, versus the transmitter-receiver time, delta T, is given in Figure 14, and shows that the fastest sound path to the nearest receiver is through the mud at a spacing less than Xc.

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Sonic Log

Fig. 14 : Critical transmitter to receiver distance. (from D.H. Thomas, 1978) For example, consider the BHC-Sonic log in a 12-" hole, a tool diameter of 3-" and a transmitter-receiver spacing of 3 ft. (Xc = 36"). If the velocity of the sound in the mud, V0, is 5300 ft./sec., it can be calculated that V1 must be greater than 5965 ft./sec., or that T must be less than 168 microseconds/ft., to obtain the correct sound velocity in the formation. Eccentering the tool should normally overcome this limitation, but will give a weaker signal, and may lead to noise triggering and cycle skipping. However, in large holes, eccentralisation should be tried in order to get any signal at all with the BHC-Sonic log. In practice there is often an altered zone between the borehole and the virgin formation. The most common examples of formation alteration are caused by the absorption of fluid by soft shales, resulting in a velocity reduction. Changes in stress distribution, cracking and shattering, or extreme hole rugosity, can also cause reduction of formation velocity close to the borehole, in reservoir rock as well as in hard shales. The effect of the slower altered zone is analogous to that of the mud. The critical distance, Xc, increases with increasing hole size, D, increasing depth of the altered zone and decreasing formation velocity. Practical experience has shown that the critical distance is seldom more than 10 feet, so that a sonde with a transmitter-receiver spacing of about this length will produce accurate readings in formations with altered zones close to the borehole. The BHC-Sonic, however, would read too high a transit time under these conditions. A plot of the transmitter-receiver time versus distance, in the presence of an altered zone close to the borehole wall, is given in Figure 15. It is also possible that the velocity in the altered zone is greater than the velocity in the virgin zone. This is the case when the pore spaces of the formation are filled with solid mud particles up to a significant distance from the hole, or with deep mud filtrate invasion in a gas-bearing formation. In these cases, the true formation velocity cannot be obtained. A graphical representation for this case is shown in Figure 16.

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Sonic Log

Fig. 15: Transmitter-Receiver spacing with a low velocity altered zone. (from D.H. Thomas, 1984)

Fig. 16: Transmitter-Receiver spacing with a fast velocity altered zone. (from D.H. Thomas, 1984)

The Long Spacing Sonic log should provide better seismic and petrophysical data where low velocity altered zones exist. This is illustrated in Figure 17, for a BHC-Sonic with a 3 ft. spacing and a Long Spacing Sonic with an 8 ft. spacing.

The altered zone has a sound velocity of 110 s/ft., as compared to the velocity in the undisturbed zone of 90 s/ft. The velocity of the sound in the mud is 200 s/ft. The refraction angle has not been considered in these calculations. The BHC-Sonic travel time is: T1 = (200 x ) + (110 x 3) = 430 s T2 = (200 x ) + (110 x 1) + (90 x 3) = 480 s The Long Spacing Sonic travel time is: T1 = (200 x ) + (110 x 8) = 980 s T2 = (200 x ) + (110 x 1) + (90 x 8) = 930 s Evidently the unaltered formation signal is only obtained with the Long Spacing Sonic. Fig. 17: Low velocity Altered Zone.

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Sonic Log

The maximum detectable delta T is shown in Fig. 18 for a BHC-Sonic and for a Long Spacing Sonic. The superior performance of the Long Spacing Sonic is apparent. The Long Spacing Sonic has, however, the disadvantage that the sound pulse has to travel further and, therefore, the signal becomes progressively weaker. Incorrect triggering caused by a poor signal to noise ratio and cycle skipping can thus be expected.

Fig. 18: Maximum detectable delta T. (courtesy of Schlumberger)

The Long Spacing Sonic tool can be operated in the 10 - 12 ft. and the 8 -10 ft. mode, as shown in Figure 19. Two positions in the borehole are indicated. Their displacement depicted by the dashed line equals the interval over which the signals obtained in the lower position are memorised to combine them with the readings obtained in the higher position. This allows calculation of delta T over the same 2 feet interval, thus giving a resolution which is identical to the BHC-Sonic tool. An example, showing the effect of an altered zone on the reading of the BHC-Sonic is shown in Figure 20.

Fig. 19: Long Spacing Sonic Tool. (courtesy Schlumberger)

Fig. 20: BHC-Sonic and LSS log over an altered shale.

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Sonic Log The interval over which the delta T is calculated with the Long Spacing Sonic is called "isomation delta T". The calculation of delta T for the 8 10 ft. mode is: delta T = x (T1R1 - T1R2) + x (T2R2 - T1R2) The calculation of delta T for the 10 - 12 ft. mode is: delta T = x (T2R1 - T2R2) + x (T2R1 - T1R1) Applications. 1. Porosity Determination. The sonic log can be used to calculate the porosity in a reservoir, although it is usually inferior to the porosity values calculated from the density and neutron logs. It is used though, both as a safeguard in porosity determination, especially as the measurement is not very sensitive to hole size, and to compute secondary porosity in carbonate reservoirs. For any given lithology, the speed of sound in the formation is a function of porosity. The path of a compressional wave through a water-bearing formation is sketched in Figure 21. Wyllie proposed an empirical relationship, called the "time average equation". It links the interval transit time to porosity by taking the total interval transit time to be equal to the sum of the interval transit times in the matrix and in the pores.

Fig. 21: Compressional wave travel path. (Wyllie et al., 1956)

The following relationship between velocity and porosity applies: t t = L = (Lfl/L) Vfl = (Lma/L) Vma t t = . tfl + (1 - ) . tma or, = - tma

This relationship can be re-written as follows: tfl - tma

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Sonic Log Interval transit times and the speed of the compressional waves in various rocks, together with those of various fluids encountered in the formations, is given in Table 1. Table 1 t (s/ft.) Sandstone Limestone Dolomite Anhydrite Salt (Halite) Casing Shale Bituminous Coal Lignite Water 200,000 ppm, 15 psi 150,000 ppm, 15 psi 100,000 ppm, 15 psi Oil Methane, 15 psi 55.6 - 51.3 47.6 - 43.5 43.5 - 38.5 50.0 66.7 57.1 170 - 60 140 - 100 180 - 140 180.5 186.0 192.3 238 626 Vma (ft./s) 18,000 - 19,500 21,000 - 23,000 23,000 - 26,000 20,000 15,000 17,500 5,880 - 16,660 7,140 - 10,000 5,560 - 7,140 5,540 5,380 5,200 4,200 1,600 Vma (m/s) 5,490 - 5,950 6,400 - 7,010 7,010 - 7,920 6,096 4,572 5,334 1,790 - 5,805 2,180 - 3,050 1,690 - 2,180 1,690 1,640 1,580 1,280 490

In uncompacted formations, however, the time average equation gives porosities that are too high. Such conditions may be indicated when adjacent shale beds exhibit T values greater than 100 s/ft. An empirical correction factor, Bcp, is then applied to the equation. Its value is approximately equal to the T in adjacent shales divided by 100. t The formula then becomes: S(corr) = - tma 1 x Bcp

tfl - tma

The compaction factor can also be obtained with data from other logs, such as: A density-sonic cross-plot in clean water-bearing formations close to the zone of interest. From the cross-plot a clean formation line is established that can be scaled in porosity units using the density log.

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Sonic Log The neutron log. The neutron porosity is obtained in clean water-bearing formations. This value should be close to the actual porosity. The compaction factor will then be: Bcp = S/N The Ro method. In clean water-bearing sands the porosity can be estimated from the resistivity log if Rw is known: FR = Ro/Rw = -m and thus: Bcp = S/R

Raymer proposed another transit time to porosity relationship, which seems more in agreement with observations made: 1 = tlog tma (1 - )2 + tfl

This formula results in a far superior transit time-porosity correlation over the entire porosity range, and suggests a more consistent matrix velocity for a given lithology. This relationship is graphically presented in Figure 22. It allows determination of porosity in unconsolidated formations.

Fig. 22: Raymer - Hunt equation.

Both formulae apply in carbonates containing primary (inter-granular) porosity. Secondary porosity (vugs/fractures) remains undetected by the sonic device. Density and neutron tools record total porosity, thus the secondary porosity is obtained by deducting the sonic porosity from the total porosity. When adequate core porosity data are available over the logged interval, the sonic log should be calibrated against core porosity. The procedure is shown in Figure 23. The regression line can be extrapolated to the matrix transit time tma. Verification of the value of tma can be obtained from a cross-plot of Ro versus t.

. Fig. 23: Sonic log - core porosity calibration.

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Sonic Log Effect of Gas on Sonic derived Porosity. Due to its low density, gas decreases the density of the formation, which in its turn causes an increase in the sonic transit time. An increase in the sonic transit time, however, means that the computed porosity will be too high. Whether the sonic log will sense the presence of gas depends to a large extent on how much gas is left after invasion by mud filtrate. In medium to high-porosity gas-bearing formations, a residual gas saturation of at least 15 % would be expected in the flushed zone, so that gas will be sensed by the tool. The increase in transit time is almost negligible in the deeper, well compacted, low porosity formations, where the pore fluid contributes little to the signal.

Effect of Shale on the Sonic derived Porosity. The effect of shale on the sonic log response is variable and depends on the density of the shale present in a porous and permeable formation. Young shales, at shallow depth, are generally under-compacted and tend to increase the sonic transit time, leading to a slightly higher log-derived porosity. Ancient shales, on the other hand, tend to be well compacted and as dense, or even denser than some sandstones. The presence of such a shale in a porous and permeable formation may lead to an increase in the density of that formation, thereby reducing the transit time, and consequently giving a lower computed porosity. The effect of shale on the sonic log is not as dramatic as the effect of gas.

Secondary Porosity. In general, the sonic log tends to ignore vugs and fracture porosity, common in carbonate reservoirs. The density log and the neutron log, by contrast, respond to total porosity. A secondary porosity index (SPI or 2) may therefore be derived by taking the difference between density porosity, D, or neutron porosity, N, and the sonic porosity, S: 2 = (D, N) - S

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Sonic Log 2 Correlation. The sonic log is a sensitive recorder of a formations lithology, which is especially evident in fine grained sediments or in beds without porosity. The sonic log can pick out small variations, probably in texture, carbonate or quartz content, to show a very distinct stratigraphical interval, despite depth differences. 3. Lithology Identification. The sonic velocity in common sedimentary rocks is not very diagnostic, as there is too much variation within each type of rock. However, high velocities are more likely to be associated with carbonates, middle velocities with sandstones and low velocities with shales. Velocities of certain rock types which are often encountered in nature in a very pure state, such as halite, gypsum, anhydrite and coal, may be diagnostic, as can be seen in Table 1. A better lithology determination is obtained when the sonic log readings are compared to those of the density and neutron logs (sonic-density, sonic-neutron and neutrondensity cross-plots, M and N plot or MID plot). For thick homogeneous water-bearing formations, with a reasonable spread in porosity, the lithology may be determined with the use of the "Hingle" cross-plot. 4. Texture. The travel of sound through the formation depends on the porosity, the type of matrix, grain size distribution and shape, and on cementation. The type, size and distribution of the pores all have an effect on the speed of sound. The speed also depends on the inter-granular contact. In formations with low porosity (0 5 %) the pores are isolated and randomly distributed. In this case the interval transit time does not vary much from the matrix transit time, as the matrix constitutes the continuous phase for the sound wave to travel through. On the other hand, if the porosity is very high (over 50 %), the continuous phase for the sound wave is the fluid in the pore space. In this case the fluid transit time will be measured. 5. Fracture Identification. Sound will travel along the fastest path between transmitter and receiver and thus avoid fractures. Comparison of the sonic derived porosity data with data obtained from the density and/or neutron log, may indicate the presence of fractures. However, this should be confirmed by other means, as secondary porosity from vugs will show the same effect.

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Sonic Log 6. Compaction. As a sediment becomes compacted, the velocity to sound increases. Plotting the interval transit time on a logarithmic scale against depth on a linear scale gives a straight line relationship. Compaction trends are constructed using only one lithology and comparing the same stratigraphic interval at various depths. From these trends it is possible to estimate the amount of erosion at unconformities, or the amount of uplift. Compaction is generally accompanied by irreversible diagenetic effects, which do not alter after uplift. The compaction of a sediment represents its deepest burial. When a general compaction curve for an interval is available, the amount of the over-compaction can be explained by the uplift of the formation, as is illustrated in Figure 24. Therefore, any drastic changes in the compaction curves at faults, or at unconformities, may indicate the amount of section that is missing. 7. Over-pressure Detection. The sonic log can be used to detect over-pressured zones in a well. An increase in pore pressures is shown on the sonic log by a drop in sonic velocity, or an increase in the sonic travel time. A plot of the shale interval transit time against depth will show a change in the "average" compaction line to higher interval transit time values, which is probably due to higher shale porosities in the over-pressured zone. An example of an over-pressured zone on a transit time versus depth plot is shown in Figure 25. The top of the over-pressured zone is shown at the depth where the shale transit time deviates from the normal trend.

Fig. 24: Uplift and erosion own by the Sonic log.

Fig. 25: Over-pressure shown by the Sonic log

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Sonic Log 8. Source Rock Identification. The presence of organic matter in shales lowers the sonic velocities, apparently in direct relationship to abundance. If, therefore, sonic velocities are cross-plotted against another diagnostic log, such as the resistivity log, organic rich zones may be identified. 9. Seismic Applications of the Sonic Log. Sonic and Seismic Velocities. The sonic log can distinguish beds as thin as 50 cm, while the seismic wave can resolve beds of 10 m at shallow depth, but is limited to beds of about 50 m in deeper sections. The resolution of the sonic log is, therefore, about 100 times better than the resolution of the seismic trace. To compare sonic log and seismic data, the sonic log data must be averaged over large intervals, to the same scale as the seismic data.

Interval Velocities. The result of sonic logs for use with seismic interpretation may be given in the form of an average interval velocity curve, and as a time-depth curve. The average sonic interval velocity is obtained by counting the integrated travel time marks over the interval under study, and dividing this value by the length of that interval. The time-depth curve is obtained by accumulating the interval velocities and then plotting the accumulated milliseconds against depth. An example of a sonic interval velocity graph, and the related timedepth curve are presented in Figure 26. The sonic interval transit time for each interval, in this example, is given in brackets in the depth column.

Fig. 26: Interval Velocity graph and time-depth curve.

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Sonic Log Synthetic Seismograms. A synthetic seismogram is the presentation of the sonic log in the form of a seismic trace. It involves the replaying of the high frequency sonic log data at the low frequency of the seismic data. The seismic section is a record of the acoustic reflections from subsurface boundaries, which depend on the contrast of the acoustic impedances of adjacent formations. The acoustic impedance is the product of the velocity and the density, V x D, and the reflection coefficient, R, is: acoustic impedance lower zone - acoustic impedance upper zone R = acoustic impedance lower zone + acoustic impedance upper zone or: R = D2V2 - D1V1 D2V2 + D1V1 When both the sonic log and the density log are run in the well, the acoustic impedances of the layers can be calculated. The acoustic impedance log shows the logged section as it would be sensed by the seismic pulse. With the aid of a computer, a synthetic seismic signal is formulated and passed through the acoustic impedance log. The seismic signal is distorted in the same way as if it were going through the layers in the subsurface. Recording these distortions, the computer then constructs a synthetic seismogram. A schematic presentation of the construction of a synthetic seismogram is shown in Figure 27. Fig. 27: Schematic diagram of the construction of a synthetic seismogram. (D,H, Thomas, 1978)

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Sonic Log

SONIC LOG
Purpose. To measure the velocity of a sound pulse through a formation. Principle. A transmitter emits a sound wave which spreads in all directions. The fastest wave, the compressional wave, is detected by two receivers. The difference in arrival time of the compressional wave at the two receivers is recorded and is called the interval transit time, delta T. Uses. Porosity determination. Well to well correlation. Lithology identification. Texture determination. Fracture identification. Compaction studies. Over-pressure detection. Source-rock identification. Seismic applications. Advantageous Characteristics. Can be used in all types of mud. There is hardly any borehole effect. There are no restrictions on the logging speed. Combination with other tools is possible. Limitations. In air-filled holes, or if the mud is gas-cut, the attenuation of the sonic signal is too high to allow detection of the first arrival. In gas-bearing formations, or even in oil zones, the interval transit time may be too high. If the interval transit time in the virgin zone is lower than in the flushed zone, or an altered zone around the borehole, no formation transit time can be obtained.

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