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8: FM Modulators
Direct FM is obtained when frequency of the carrier oscillator is modulated by the information signal. Direct FM modulator 1. Varactor diode modulator 2. FM reactance modulators
the tank circuit (L and Cm) is the frequency determining section for a standard LC oscillator. Cm is a capacitor microphone that converts the acoustical energy into a mechanical energy, which is used to vary the distance between the plates of Cm and consequently change its capacitance. as Cm is varied, the resonant frequency is varied. I.e. the oscillator output frequency varies directly with the external sound forces (i.e. direct FM).
DEKC 3343 Communication Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering Chapter 3 : Frequency Modulation 2
R1 and R2 develop a DC voltage that reverse bias the varactor diode VD1 and determine the resonant frequency of the oscillator. external modulating signal voltage added or subtracted from the DC bias, which changes the capacitance of the diode and consequently changes the frequency of the oscillation.
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positive alternations of the modulating signal increase the reverse bias of VD1, which decrease its capacitance and increase the frequency of the oscillation. negative alternations of the modulating signal decrease the reverse bias of VD1, which increase its capacitance and decrease the frequency of the oscillation. simple to use, stable and reliable but limited peak frequency deviation thus limited use to the low index applications.
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where fc = carrier frequency L = inductance of the primary winding of T1 C = varactor diode capacitance
DEKC 3343 Communication Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering
1 fc = 2 LC
(1)
fc =
where f = new frequency C = change in varactor diode capacitance due to modulating signal the change in frequency is
1 2 L(C + C )
(2)
f = fc f
(3)
varactor diode VD1 placed in series with the inductive network (L1 and R1). this combined series-parallel network appears as series resonant circuit to the output frequency from the crystal oscillator. the modulating signal is applied to VD1, which changes its capacitance and subsequently the phase angle of the impedance seen by the carrier also varies, which results in a corresponding phase shift in the carrier. advantage of using indirect FM modulator is it is more stable than the direct modulator. However, it has more distortion in the modulated waveform compared to direct FM.
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the frequency deviation, rate of change, modulation index, phase deviation and bandwidth are unaffected by the heterodyne process.
f c ( out ) = f c ( in ) + f RF
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with multiplication method, the frequency of the modulated carrier is multiplied by a factor of N in the frequency multiplier. frequency deviation, phase deviation and modulation index are also multiplied. However, the rate of the deviation is unaffected (i.e. the separation between adjacent side frequencies remains unchanged). as frequency deviation and modulation index are multiplied, the number of side frequency also increases. Thus, the bandwidth also increases. For modulation index higher than 10, Carsons Rule can be applied
B out = N ( 2 f ) = NB in
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3.10 FM Transmitter
DIRECT FM TRANSMITTER Direct FM transmitters produce an output waveform in which the frequency deviation is directly proportional to the modulating signal. 1. Crosby Direct FM transmitter 2. Phase-Locked-Loop Direct FM transmitter INDIRECT FM TRANSMITTERS 1. Armstrong Indirect FM transmitter
DEKC 3343 Communication Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering
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also known as Crosby direct FM transmitter (includes an automatic frequency control AFC loop) the carrier frequency is basically the center frequency of the master oscillator fc = 5.1 MHz, which is multiplied by 18 to produce a final transmission carrier frequency ft = 91.8 MHz.
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the frequency and frequency deviations at the output of the modulator are also multiplied by 18. To achieve maximum deviation allowed for FM stations at antenna (75 kHz), the deviation at the output of the modulator is
f =
4166.7 fm
m=
15
for medium and high index FM systems, the oscillator cannot be a crystal type because the frequency at which the crystal oscillates cannot be significantly deviated. as a result, the stability of the oscillator in the direct FM is low. to overcome this problem, AFC loop is used.
with AFC, the carrier signal is mixed in a nonlinear device with the signal from a crystal reference oscillator (the output is down-converted in frequency). the output is then fed back to the input of a frequency discriminator. It is a frequency-selective device whose output voltage is proportional to the difference between the input frequency and its resonant frequency.
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Thus,
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3.12 : FM Receiver
Block diagram for a double conversion superheterodyne FM receiver :
the pre-selector, RF amplifier, first and second mixers, and IF amplifier sections of an FM receiver perform same functions as the AM receiver. Automatic Gain Control (AGC) is used to prevent mixer saturation when strong RF signals are received. the peak detector used in AM receiver is replaced by a limiter, frequency discriminator and de-emphasis network.
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3.12 : FM Receiver
Limiter is used to remove amplitude variations caused by noise (which is one of AMs drawback). frequency discriminator (demodulator) extracts the information from the modulated wave. de-emphasis network contributes to the improvement in signal-to-noise ratio. the first IF is a relatively high frequency (often 10.7 MHz) for good image frequency rejection. the second IF is a relatively low frequency (often 455 kHz) that allows the IF amplifiers to have high gain.
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3.13 : FM Demodulator
FM demodulator is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to produce an output voltage that is proportional to the instantaneous frequency at its input. the overall transfer function for the FM demodulator is nonlinear but when operating over its linear range, V (28) Kd = f the output from the FM demodulator is (29)
vout(t ) = Kdf
where vout(t) = demodulated output signal (volts) Kd = demodulator transfer function (volts per hertz) f = difference between input frequency and the centre frequency of demodulator (hertz)
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3.13 : FM Demodulator
the most common circuits used for FM signal demodulation are slope detector, balanced slope detector and PLL demodulator. the slope detector and balanced slope detector are categorized as tuned-circuit frequency discriminator. Ex : For an FM demodulator circuit with a transfer function of Kd = 0.2V/kHz and an FM input signal with 20 kHz of peak frequency deviation, determine the peak output voltage.
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In FM frequency allocation by ITU, guard bands are provided between the adjacent channels to avoid or reduce channel interference. The use of pre-emphasis and de-emphasis in FM will reduce the effect of noise. With emphasis, the highest modulating frequencies are artificially boosted before transmission and correspondingly attenuated after reception. In FM, the transmitted amplitude is constant. This characteristics has the advantages of significantly improving immunity to noise and interference.
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