Mannerism in Italian Music and Culture, 1530-1630 by Maria Rika Maniates THE UNIVERSITY OF NORTH CAROLINA PRESS CHAPEL

HILL PART TWO Mannerist Theor !Music ritings on music thrive in an atmos here simi!ar to that surroun"ing other inte!!ectua! in#uiries$an atmos here ma"e u o% court!& an" aca"emic institutions' humanist scho!arshi ' criticism' e( erimenta! science' an" u)!ic controvers&* +ecause musicians inherit a vita! tra"ition o% theor& %rom anti#uit& an" the ,i""!e Ages' the& are much more se!%-concious than their co!!eagues an" ro"uce a vo!uminous !iterature .e(cee"ing )& %ar in #uantit&$ an" "iversit& o% a roach$an&thing com ara)!e in the %ie!" o% the visua! arts' an" a!so in that o% !iterar& criticism*. / An" )ecause music has a!0a&s en1o&e" a rivi!ege" osition in the !i)era! arts as art o% the #ua"rivium' theorists "o not have to convince an&one o% the "ignit& o% their "isci !ine* As 0e have seen' the humanist re"iscover& o% c!assica! te(ts on music theor& gives a secon" !ease on !i%e to this mathematica! tra"ition in art* 2uring the si(teenth centur&' ho0ever' music shi%ts %rom the scienti%ic #ua"rivium to the e( ressive trivium* The thrust o% mannerist theor& is to0ar" a nove! i"ea o% music as an art in"e en"ent o% numerica! s&stems* In e%%ect' the o!"er cosmo!og& that en"o0e" music 0ith its eterna! signi%icance ce"es to a !inear notion o% rogress* An" this notion o ens u !imit!ess vistas %or a!! 3in"s o% e( eriments* ,annerist theor& osits music as an aesthetic e( erience an" stresses the human %actor o% creativit& an" en1o&ment* I% mathematica! schemes are use"' the& %in" their 1usti%ication in re!ation to com ositiona! or er%ormance metho"s* An" %or this reason' the me"ieva! s&stem o% &thagorean ro ortions comes un"er attac3* As an a)stract )ranch o% s ecu!ation' it is as via)!e as an& other4 )ut as a concrete art o% musica! ractice' it no !onger %urnishes an a"e#uate %oun"ation* In vie0 o% the e( ertise re#uire" to "iscuss music' it is not sur rising to %in" that most 0riters are musicians* The& ro"uce !earne" 0or3s %or ro%essiona!s as 0e!! as sim !er han")oo3s %or )eginners* Li3e other humanists' musica! theorists thirst %or osthumous %ame an" use the me"ium o% rinting %or ur oses o% se!% aggran"i5ement* 6hether a"vance" or ru"imentar&' their 0or3s are 0ritten 0ith a vie0 to instructing a !arge au"ience* Even 0hen e(egesis occurs on a high !eve!' most treatises inc!u"e critica! assages on st&!e* These assages are a""resse" not on!& to other musicians )ut a!so to cu!tivate" amateurs 0ho 0ish to ac#uire an a reciation o% music* At this oint 0e

shou!" note that the ro!e o% the music !over changes "uring the si(teenth centur&' an" that this change )rings a)out some ne0 "eve!o ments in 0riting a)out music* 6hereas in the ear!ier art o% the centur& secu!ar music is sti!! sim !e enough %or amateurs to sing' the cumu!ative striving %or nove! e%%ects in the !ate mannerist hase resu!ts in the com !ication o% com ositiona! an" er%ormance ro)!ems* The music !over is no0 cast in the ro!e o% the e!ite !istener 0hom a ne0 c!ass o% virtuoso singers see3s to )e"a55!e 0ith effetti meravigliosi. As a resu!t' treatises on er%ormance ractice a ear to instruct the stars an" more o u!ar )oo3s on the art o% music a ear to e"i%& the consumer* Some o% the !atter are 0ritten )& ro%essiona!s' an" some o% course )& amateurs* 7 A!though these essa&s have a "eci"e"!& o u!ar tone' the& a%%or" intriguing g!im ses into er%ormance ractices o% the time as 0e!! as into a ne0 m&sti#ue o% a"u!ation occasione" )& musica! ta!ent* Humanism !a&s a ervasive ro!e in the "eve!o ment o% musica! thought in the si(teenth centur&* Again the in%!uence o% the neo !atonic aca"em& at the turn o% the %i%teenth centur& must )e note"* +oth Pico an" Ficino 0ere intereste" in c!assica! an" he!!enistic theories o% music an" incor orate" them into their hi!oso hica! s&stems* The& initiate" a s eci%ica!!& aca"emic tra"ition $to inc!u"e music in "iscussions o% the ethica! e%%ects o% the arts' paragone' an" !iterature* E(ce t %or some er%ormers 0ho %ocus so!e!& on their s ecia! %ie!"' a!! 0riters 0ho treat s ecu!ative or ractica! as ects o% music are humanistica!!& oriente"* The& #uote 8ree3 sources' either %rom %irsthan" or secon"han" rea"ings' in su ort o% their i"eas* An" man& o% them artici ate in the e"iting o% revious!& un3no0n c!assica! 0or3s* It is im ortant to rea!i5e that humanism %osters scho!ar!& research into origina! sources as 0e!! as mo"ern e( eriments in acoustics an" tuning* ,athematica! s&stems are sustaine" )& em irica! tests' thus ma3ing theor& an" mechanics the )asis %or a ne0 science o% music 0hose #uasimagica! va!i"it& is use!ess!& con"emne" )& conservative thin3ers* The mannerist magus is e#ua!!& an i"ea! %or rogressive musicians* The se!%-consciousness o% mannerist musicians arises %rom their conce ts o% the ast an" %uture* The case o% music oses s ecia! ro)!ems that ma3e ana!&sis o% this mi!ieu "i%%erent %rom an ana!&sis o% the sister arts* The !atter have access to a re ositor& o% c!assica! mo"e!s* In a""ition' !iterar& criticism )ene%its %rom e(tant theor&* Artists' on the other han"' can %in" no treatises %rom c!assica! anti#uit& "evote" to the visua! arts' e(ce t %or Vitruvius' an" there%ore iece together a com osite icture o% ancient i"eas %rom a smattering o% commentaries* The situation %or 3no0!e"ge o% musica! anti#uit& is 1ust the reverse* Virtua!!& nothing is 3no0n a)out 8ree3 music itse!%* 6hether conservative or ra"ica!' theorists "erive their notions as to its nature %rom a )o"& o% 0ritings that are re"ominant!& s ecu!ative* An" )ecause their inter retations can neither )e rove" nor "is rove" )& !ive musica! e(am !e' the& o%ten use i"entica! sources %or 0i"e!& "ivergent i"eas* As %or the more imme"iate ast' the "eve!o ment o% rinting ma3es han"0ritten notation o)so!ete an" thus ren"ers music )e%ore /9:/ increasing!& inaccessi)!e* Theorists 0ho "e!ve into the arcane u55!es o% manuscri t i"ios&ncracies in the !ate si(teenth centur&

are motivate" )& an anti#uarian interest* At the same time' music that survives in rinte" %orm en1o&s !onger !i%e$0itness the en"uring re utation o% ;os#uin "es Pre5 as the rince o% the er%ect art* 8enera!!& s ea3ing' theorists have a ten"enc& to re%er to com osers o% their o0n time' !us those o% the imme"iate!& rece"ing generation* +ut their humanist e"ucation incu!cates a sense o% the im ortance o% histor&' an" the& there%ore a& homage to the ast even i% their gras o% %acts an" chrono!og& is some0hat meager* The )est o% them seem to )e a0are o% the issue o% mo"ern rogress' an" their vie0s on this issue i!!uminate the change %rom renaissance' to mannerist' an" to )aro#ue st&!es* The historica! notions o% Henricus 8!areanus revea! the ro) !ems o% st&!e histor& at the 1uncture )et0een the Renaissance an" ,annerism* < His st&!istic !a&ers corres on" to %our ages o% music= in%anc&' starting a)out />9: ?in s ite o% its !imitations' this grave an" ma1estic music is re%era)!e to mo"ern e(cesses@4 a"o!escence' starting a)out />A: ?its mo"eration is !easing@4 maturit&' starting aroun" />B9 ?the ars perfecta to 0hich nothing can )e a""e"@4 o!" age' starting a)out /97: ?the "ec!ine o% the er%ect art@* > As a conservative urist' 8!areanus !aments the %act that music o% his "a& is 0i!" an" unrestraine"* Young com osers a)an"on the rece ts o% the er%ect art' an art that o)serves the mo"es' an" instea" 0rite "istorte" songs that !ease on!& )ecause o% their nove!t&* 6ith this statement' 8!areanus she"s !ight on the "irection o% ne0 music' a "irection to0ar" %ree harmonic voca)u!ar&* From his criti#ue there emerges a negative eva!uation o% 0hat 0e ca!! mannerist st&!e in music$nove! e( !oration o% ne0 sonorities )ase" on the "istortion o% c!assica! i"ea!s em)o"ie" in the er%ect art o% the Renaissance* His attitu"e is c!ari%ie" in the %amous encomium o% ;os#uin* 9 8!areanus hai!s this com oser as a great genius 0hose music )a!ances a)stract rinci !es o% construction 0ith e( ression o% moo"s suita)!e to the te(t* +ut at the same time' 8!areanus notes 0ith "is !easure that in some motets his i"o! use" unusua! harmonies to "e ict high!& "ramatic 0or"s* This immo"erate !ove o% nove!t& an" origina!it& can on!& signi%& the onset o% "ec!ine* It is signi%icant %or our to ic that 8!areanus associates nove!t& in music 0ith te(ts that ca!! %or vivi" re resentation* In %act' a o!ogists o% mo"ern music 1usti%& their mannerist e( eriments on the groun"s o% )oth !itera! an" emotiona! e( ression o% the 0or"s* An" 8!areanus is #uite correct in attri)uting the )eginnings o% this mo"ern aesthetic to ;os#uin' a com oser 0ho 0rote man& )eauti%u! 0or3s that %it 0e!! 0ith the notion o% an ars perfecta, as 0e!! as a sma!!er num)er o% "aring essa&s in the ne0 manner* At an& rate' 8!areanusCs treatise "oes much to !ace ;os#uin in the osition o% the consummate master o% er%ection 0hom a!! su)se#uent com osers can either emu!ate or tr& to sur ass* Cosimo +arto!i !i3ens him' more a t!& than he rea!i5e"' to ,iche!ange!o* D Hermann Finc3 "ivi"es Franco-F!emish com osers into t0o grou s= veteres an" recentiores. ;os#uin' the main e( onent o% the o!"er schoo!' !ai" the %oun"ation o% the scienti%ic art o% counte

oint* Finc3 sing!es out Nico!as 8om)ert as the outstan"ing musician o% the &ounger generation )ecause his com !e( an" su)t!e counter oint re resents a su erior er%ection over the ast* E Finc3 thus is the %irst in a !ine o% conservative theorists to remar3 on the gra"ua! an" natura! trans%ormation o% a musica! norm* 8iovanni ,aria Lan%ranco )etra&s a nationa!ist )ias in his t0o%o!" "ivision* He s ea3s o% the ancients an" !ists a num)er o% Franco-F!emish com osers' inc!u"ing ;os#uin* The secon" grou ' 0hich )& in%erence com rises the mo"erns' is ma"e u main!& o% Ita!ians' 0ith the e(ce tion o% A"rian 6i!!aert* A Lan%rancoCs erce tive comments in"icate his a0areness that a schoo! o% Ita!ian com osition is "eve!o ing* Ita!ian com osers contri)ute not on!& to re%ining tra"itiona! st&!e )ut a!so to the ne0 genre o% the ma"riga!* The !atter' a!!ie" 0ith etrarchist an" concettist verse' is "estine" to )ecome the vehic!e %or au"acious musica! techni#ues* No0' the techni#ues use" in )oth sacre" an" secu!ar music ta3e as their oint o% "e arture the ars perfecta o% the Renaissance* +ut re%inements or "istortions o% this i"ea! move in man& "i%%erent "irections' an" each theorist concentrates on those as ects that seem to him to )e the most signi%icant* The genera! "irection o% ra"ica! st&!e' ho0ever' remains c!ear to a!! u -to-"ate 0riters regar"!ess o% 0hether the& a rove o% ne0 music* The ver& hrase' .ne0 music'. an" the o u!arit& o% this s!ogan' emerge %rom the man& treatises an" e"itions o% music that a ear a%ter /9<:* As ear!& as I9<E' ;ohannes Stomius com !ains that ne0 music is too com !icate" 4 it has neither mathematica! reason nor s0eet soun"* B One %ascinating vie0 o% musica! rogress is su !ie" )& the %antastic an" men"acious A"rianus Petit Coc!ico' a theorist 0ho "is !a&s the mannerist !ove o% ca!cu!ate" se!%a"vertising* Coc!ico c!aims to have )een a u i! o% the great ;os#uin an" "evotes a "etai!e" assage to "escri)ing his masterCs teaching metho"* He maintains that this metho" has "isa eare"' an" that his ur ose is to revive a !ost st&!e that he ca!!s musica reservata* /: Coc!ico "ivi"es musicians into %our grou s= theorici ?the inventors o% music 0ho achieve" a certain minima! harmon& o% the voices@4 mathematici ?the "eve!o ers o% com !icate" counter oint that !ac3s suavit& )ecause o% its notationa! an" technica! "i%%icu!ties@4 praestantissimi ?the 3ings o% music$among 0hom ;os#uin is the master $0hose s0eet an" a%%ective music is much a"mire" as the most e!egant st&!e &et achieve"@4 poetici ?the masters o% 0ritten an" e(tem orar& counter oint as 0e!! as o% the ro er art o% singing 0hose s0eetness "e!ights ever&one@* // Coc!icoCs grou ing )egins in chrono!ogica! %ashion' a!though his 3no0!e"ge o% ear!& histor& is rather %u55&* He neverthe!ess e(hi)its the same vie0 oint as 8!areanus in re!egating %i%teenth centur& com osers to the )irth an" &outh o% musica! rogress* His thir" grou inc!u"es )oth !iving an" "ea" com osers4 their su erior st&!e re resents the a e( o% a "eve!o ment to0ar" e!egant er%ection* Un!i3e 8!areanus' Coc!ico "oes not a"mit the ossi)i!it& o% "ec!ine a%ter the achievements o% the praestantissimi. Instea"' he insists that a %ourth grou ' resuma)!& inc!u"ing himse!%' has %urther re%ine" this a"mira)!e st&!e 0ith the art o% singing* In other 0or"s' Coc!ico "i%%erentiates )et0een conservative an" rogressive tren"s' )oth o% 0hich are a!ive in his o0n time* His criteria %or raising the mo"erns' 0hom he graces 0ith the tit!e o% . oets'. are suavit&'

ornamentation' an" arti%ice in singing* Hi""en in his rather a)struse categories is the i"ea! o% rhetorica! e!o#uence* Nico!a Vicentino "e!i)erate!& invites o!emics over his avant gar"e musica! ractices* He com oses in a nove! manner' instructs singers as to the 0a& to er%orm his "aring music' constructs an instrument ca a)!e o% ro"ucing microtones' "e)ates u)!ic!& on the su)1ect o% the genera' an" %ina!!& 0rites a treatise vin"icating his ra"ica! i"eas* /7 +& reviving ancient ractice )ase" on the three genera ?"iatonic' chromatic' an" enharmonic@' Vicentino ro oses to revo!utioni5e contem orar& music an" to re1uvenate the miracu!ous e%%ects o% ancient music* For this reason' he rovi"es a naive )ut ertinent surve& o% inventions that he correct!& sees as in%!uencing the "eve!o ment o% com ositiona! roce"ures* /< In short' Vicentino em !o&s a histor& o% ast nove!ties in or"er to 1usti%& his o0n start!ing contri)utions to rogress* It is irre!evant to the resent "iscussion to note that Vicentino "erive" his erroneous i"eas a)out the genera %rom secon"ar& sources4 more to the oint is his conviction that a revita!i5ation o% musica! ractice is ossi)!e* VicentinoCs theories have t0o aims= %irst' a theoretica! e( !anation o% the chromatic music a!rea"& )eing com ose" at the time4 secon"' a %urther e( ansion o% musica! voca)u!ar& through the use o% microtona! interva!s* 6hereas %or voca! music the secon" aim constitutes a "ea" en"' the %irst mirrors an esta)!ishe" %act* Vicentino is #uite a0are that his ra"ica! vie0s mi!itate %or the %ree use o% ecu!iar interva!s that cannot )e e( !aine" )& tra"itiona! ru!es* He even a"vocates mi(ing genera in one com osition on the groun"s that the more sur rising the music' the more attracte" an" move" 0i!! )e the !istener* /> Even the tritone is a!!o0e" )ecause it ro"uces un effetto maraviglioso* /9 Vicentino c!ear!& em hasi5es the va!ue o% start!ing e%%ects4 his aesthetic em)races rhetorica! e!o#uence* Nove! st&!e is man"ator& .)ecause music is com ose" to a te(t' an" is ma"e so!e!& to e( ress the conceits' assions' an" a%%ections o% the 0or"s 0ith harmon&*. /D Vicentino insinuates that the e( ressive "e !o&ment o% technica! e!ements' es ecia!!& unusua! interva!s' ro"uces una bella maniera di comporre. He a"mits' even re!ishes' the %act that this ne0 music cannot )e a reciate" )& ever&one* The mirabil dolcezza o% chromatic an" enharmonic st&!es is reserve" %or the e!ite* /E Thus' in his 0or3 0e have the %irst %ormu!ation o% a mannerist aesthetic )ase" on three conce ts= musica nova, bella maniera, musica "riserbata." 8hise!in 2anc3erts' one o% the 1u"ges 0ho )rought "o0n a negative ver"ict against Vicentino in the "e)ate' is a!so an outs o3en critic o% the ne0 st&!e* /A He inveighs against those se!%-st&!e" mo"erns 0ho vitiate the er%ect art .)& imitating the maniera o% 6i!!aert' a st&!e 0hich the& ca!! Cne0*C. 2anc3erts re%ers to 6i!!aertCs Musica nova an" to the %act that .ne0 music. is the mani%esto o% 6i!!aertCs ra"ica! u i!s* In retros ect' 0e can see that he erroneous!& con%use" the t0o* +ut his o inion o% ra"ica! st&!e is not unim ortant* He cites the )a" use o% mo"es an" consonances' em hasis on homo hon&' an" the e( !oitation o% uncom%orta)!e interva!s* 2anc3erts conc!u"es that this ne0 music is !ugu)rious an" !ac3s )eaut& as 0e!! as art%u! counter oint* The notorious esca a"es o%

ra"ica!s such as Vicentino must not o)scure our rea!i5ation that 6i!!aertCs st&!e is esteeme" as the natura! cu!mination o% tra"ition* This vie0 a ears in the 0ritings o% another o% his u i!s' 8iose%%o Far!ino* For him' the music o% anti#uit& re resente" a consummate an" uni#ue "octrine* As time asse"' music "egenerate" %rom somma altezza to infima bassezza an" conse#uent!& !ost the res ect o% men 0ith taste* +ut no0' 6i!!aertCs elegante maniera has restore" music to its %ormer honor* /B Far!inoCs treatise co"i%ies the st&!istic resu ositions o% 6i!!aertCs generation' a er%ect art that is at once a restraine" "e iction o% the te(t an" an em)o"iment o% autonomous harmon& ?numero sonoro@* 7: This theorist "ivi"es goo" music into t0o historica! erio"s' the antichi ?c!assica! anti#uit&@ 0hose musica! ractice must )e a""uce" %rom theoretica! 0ritings' an" the moderni ?his contem oraries@ 0ho com ose o!& hon& accor"ing to er%ect ru!es* 7/ Far!ino a!so oints out that ra"ica! music' 0hich su ose"!& revives the ancient genera' is nothing more than an eccentric a)erration* 77 Li3e the Venetian visua! arts' Venetian music remains !arge!& untouche" )& mannerist ten"encies* In vie0 o% the s ecia! !ace occu ie" )& Venice' it is !ogica! that another re!ative!& conservative theorist shou!" emerge %rom that cit&* Lo"ovico Facconi 0rites at the turn o% the centur&' an" his treatise resents a tra"itiona!ist vie0 o% histor& a!ong 0ith one si"e!ight on mo"ern ractice* Facconi too s ea3s o% ancients an" mo"erns* The antichi are "ivi"e" into t0o grou s= hi!oso hers o% the science o% music 0ho esta)!ishe" ro ortiona! interva!s' an" com osers 0ho create" music )ase" on soun"ing num)ers* 7< This ancient music is regu!ate" )& consonance an" harmonious mathematics' an" its construction %eatures canons an" imitation* Facconi notes that this music arises %rom invention' an" 0e can there%ore surmise that he re%ers to a)stract counter oint that o)e&s inherent!& musica! !a0s* The moderni search %or "i%%icu!t an" )eauti%u! e%%ects' an" ornamentation is ver& im ortant in their music* 7> ,o"ern st&!e contains %e0er errors an" im urities than ancient st&!e$in other 0or"s' it is more re%ine"* Facconi )e!ieves that goo" music can )e rein%orce" )& goo" singers' es ecia!!& those 0ho are .masters o% charming accenti an" gracious maniere*. +ecause mo"ern music is )etter com ose" an" er%orme"' it ossesses more o0er than the o!" music* 79 It is c!ear that Facconi 1u"ges the merit o% st&!es %rom t0o oints o% vie0* The %irst %ocuses on the inner 0or3ings o% com ositiona! metho"* Accor"ing to this reasoning' ancient st&!e a ears se!%-su%%icient4 its entire e%%ect resi"es in the in"e en"ent roce"ure o% mathematica!!& conceive" harmon&* The notes thus arrange" )& ure invention nee" no %urther assistance %rom singers traine" in the art o% ornamentation* This assessment o% o!" music is a si(teenth-centur& %a)rication' an" Facconi is on!& one o% a num)er o% theorists to a!!u"e to it* The most stri3ing %ormu!ation o% this vie0 occurs in the treatise o% Nico!as Listenius* He "ivi"es the stu"& o% music into three )ranches= theorica ?science@' practica ? er%ormance "i"actics@' an" poetica ?com osition@* The poetici are not content 0ith theor& an" e(ecution* Their aim is to ro"uce the consummate an" com !ete art0or3 (opus

consumatum & effectum) thus' a%ter their "eath' the& !eave )ehin" the opus perfectum & absolutum* 7D It goes 0ithout sa&ing that such em hasis on the er%ect an" a)so!ute 0or3 o% art in music 0ou!" )e im ossi)!e )e%ore the invention o% rinting' inasmuch as this techno!og& %osters the notion o% the accurate re ro"uction o% music ma"e avai!a)!e to osterit& as 0e!! as the notion that once o!" music has )een thus recor"e"' it must not )e tam ere" 0ith* Facconi echoes this i"ea 0hen he sa&s that the music o% the antichi must )e sung e(act!& as 0ritten )ecause o% its obblighi an" other osservatione. In his o inion' the re%inements achieve" )& the mo"erns concern )oth the inner an" outer as ects o% music* As in the case o% the antichi' the moderni %a!! into t0o grou s' an o!"er an" a &ounger generation* The vecchi o% ne0 music ?6i!!aert' Ci riano "e Rore' an" 8iovanni Pier!uigi "a Pa!estrina@ intro"uce" ne0 )eauties' an" the &ounger com osers o% ne0 music )ase their art on the com ositions o% this grou * 7E At %irst g!ance' it ma& seem o"" to cou !e Rore' %amous %or his innovative ma"riga!s' 0ith Pa!estrina' the aragon o% tra"itiona! church o!& hon&* +ut )oth these men change" the st&!e o% o!" music' the %irst in the "irection o% 0or"-oriente" me!o"ies an" rich chor"a! sonorit&' an" the secon" in the "irection o% !inear counter oint )ase" on sim !i%ie" mo"a! schemes* The oint im !ie" )& Facconi is that )oth ne0 st&!es are amena)!e to im rovise" em)e!!ishment* An" no0 it )ecomes c!ear 0h& singers assume such im ortance %or the goo" e%%ect o% mo"ern com ositions* Their art has cause" the "eve!o ment o% a o!& honic st&!e suite" to it* Furthermore' the ne0 s0eet )eauties %oun" in chromaticism an" in the "ramati5ation o% in"ivi"ua! !ines "eman" sensuous an" stri3ing er%ormances %rom each singer* It is evi"ent that conservatives an" mo"erates see musica! rogress as a natura!' organic evo!ution to0ar" er%ection* The& gra !e 0ith the ro)!ems o% "issecting the e!ements o% er%ect st&!e' )ut the& 0ish to arrest this c&c!e at the ea3 o% its achievement an" to %ree5e this moment into an eternit& o% greatness* 6riters more attune" to the ne0 3e& o% mannerist rogress give us an entire!& "i%%erent icture* For e(am !e' Agostino ,iche!e comments on the musica! scene in the !ate si(teenth centur& as %o!!o0s= .Ta3e music' in 0hich man& &ears ago ;os#uin an" 6i!!aert %!ourishe" 4 in the ast age' Rore an" Lasso 0ere %amous4 an" in these "a&s ,aren5io an" Vecchi )ecome singu!ar an" i!!ustrious4 an" neverthe!ess their manners o% com osing are so "i%%erent that it seems the& are not ractitioners o% the same art*. 7A O% course' ,iche!e s ea3s 0ith the )ene%it o% hin"sight* +ut ear!ier 0riters a!so "emonstrate sensitivit& to ra i"!& changing %ashion* The vie0s o% Stomius an" 2anc3erts have )een mentione"* One o% the inter!ocutors in Anton Francesco 2oniCs o u!ar )oo3 o% /9>> remar3s %acetious!& that ;aco) Arca"e!tCs ma"riga!s' u)!ishe" %ive or si( &ears ear!ier' are no0 outmo"e"* 7B Vicen5o 8iustiniani' a no)!e amateur' rovi"es us 0ith a ers icacious surve& o% mannerist rogress* He )egins 0ith the com osers active "uring his &outh ?Arca"e!t' Rore' an" Lasso@ an" then cites the "e!ight%u! ne0 inventions o% &ounger innovators ?,aren5io' Ruggiero 8iovane!!i' an" Car!o 8esua!"o@* Their contem oraries o% the Roman schoo! ?Pa!estrina an" 8iovanni ,aria Nanino@ have "eve!o e" goo" so!i" counter oint an" 8iustiniani notes that their 0or3s are sti!! use" as mo"e!s in the ear!&

seventeenth centur&* <: His remar3s in"icate an a0areness o% t0o mo"ern st&!es' one )ase" on ra"ica! nove!ties an" one on gent!e re%inement* 8iustiniani a!so "iscusses at !ength a ne0 st&!e o% so!o singing that !ea t into rominence aroun" /9E9* He !ists man& singers %amous %or their gorgeous voices an" their art o% im rovise" ornamentation* He then ma3es a ver& astute o)servation4 this singing st&!e ins ire" man& com osers o% o!& hon& to te(ture their 0or3s as i% the& 0ere 0ritten %or so!o voice an" accom animent* </ He notes that the cu!t o% the so!o virtuoso #uic3!& s rea" a!! over Ita!&' )ringing 0ith it a ne0 )o"& o% !iterature that inc!u"es %!ori" ?ornamente"@ an" sentimenta! ? o u!ar@ songs* <7 Fina!!&' 8iustiniani turns his attention to the most mo"ern com osers' such as ,ontever"i' 0ho have a""e" more ne0 )eauties to ne0 music* He a!so notes the rise o% nationa! an" regiona! st&!es o% singing* << At the en" o% his in%ormative out!ine' 8iustiniani states that amateur singing has "ec!ine" in his "a&* Pro%essiona!s ?such as 8iu!io Caccini@ have ta3en over' an" the& have a)an"one" the un o!ishe" music o% o!" as 0e!! as the e(cessive ornamentation o% ne0er so!o !iterature* As a resu!t' current recitative is the %inest st&!e ever "eve!o e" in the histor& o% music* <> 8iustiniani in e%%ect traces here the ra"ica! changes in st&!e %rom the ear!iest o!& honic manner )ase" on renaissance rece ts to the !atest mannerist nove!ties such as concerte" music an" so!o song' nove!ties that are ta3en u )& )aro#ue com osers* Vincen5o 8a!i!eiCs t0o treatises resent some0hat "i%%erent o inions on sa!ient e!ements o% mo"ern rogress* Pa!isca eva!uates his 0or3 on mo"ern counter oint as one o% ro hetic vision an" origina!it&* <9 8a!i!ei envisages the tra"itiona! to ic o% the "e !o&ment o% consonances an" "issonances %rom a tota!!& ne0 vantage oint o% vertica! harmon&' an" he there%ore recogni5es the !ogic )ehin" mo"ern music* His aesthetic remise a)out the use o% interva!s in a ne0 0a& to e( ress the te(t means that the& are not to )e !imite" )& the ru!es o% contrapunto osservato, a term that re%ers to Far!inoCs i"ea o% the er%ect art* Here 8a!i!ei a"um)rates a "istinction )et0een strict counter oint o% a tra"itiona! cast as o ose" to %ree counter oint o% a ra"ica! 3in"* An" ,annerism !ies "irect!& a!ong the route o% this st&!istic change* 8a!i!ei "oes more than e(cuse the un)ri"!e" use o% rohi)ite" interva!s* He insists that even though such interva!s su)mit to no mathematica! s&stems' the& are 1ust as natura! as those interva!s that "o so* Scienti%ic ru!es must &ie!" to the 1u"gment o% the ear* Signi%icant!&' he sing!es out Rore as the %oun"er o% the ne0 st&!e* 8a!i!eiCs u)!ic mani%esto sho0s the in%!uence o% 8iro!amo ,ei inso%ar as 8a!i!ei su orts F!orentine mono"& an" attac3s his %ormer teacher' Far!ino* <D To )egin 0ith' 8a!i!ei states )a!"!& that contem orar& o!& hon& can never resurrect' !et a!one sur ass' the a%%ective o0er o% ancient music* Po!& hon& is on!& /9: &ears o!" an" certain!& not a er%ect art* In %act' it has "ec!ine" since the great master ieces o% Rore* Theorists 0ho c!aim that o!& hon& ossesses the marve!ous #ua!ities o% ancient music are !itt!e short % im ertinent in 8a!i!eiCs estimation* Their theories arise %rom a com !ete misun"erstan"ing o% ancient s&stems' an" hence their ractica! tenets are a!so mista3en*

Tra"itiona! o!& hon& mi(es "i%%erent 0or"s' rh&thms' mo"es' registers' an" interva!s in a contra unta! ho"ge o"ge so that the a%%ective im ression o% one e!ement is simu!taneous!& cance!e" )& another* This roce"ure goes against the %un"amenta! nature o% ancient voca! music* 8a!i!ei even "ismisses instrumenta! music as mere sensua! !easure* +ut he "oes conce"e that mo"ern o!& hon& has some commen"a)!e oints* He raises the ingenious' rare' an" "e!icate mi(ture o% consonance 0ith harsh an" )itter "iscor"s* This ana!&sis re%ers to mannerist st&!e in the ma"riga!* +ut at the same time' 8a!i!ei ta3es a "im vie0 o% the meta horica! 0or" ainting to 0hich mo"ern st&!e is ut' an" categori5es it as una ridicola maniera. His oint' o% course' is that the so!o song )est "e !o&s the %ree mi(ture o% a%%ective e!ements* On!& this st&!e can ho e to match the %a)!e" rhetorica! e!o#uence o% ancient music* In man& 0a&s' A"riano +anchieri a"heres to 8a!i!eiCs "ivision o% counter oint into o!" an" ne0 st&!es* <E He s3etches a ru"imentar& icture o% musica! rogress en"ing 0ith ,aren5ioCs moderna novit!* An" he conc!u"es that mo"ern music has achieve" a ne0 3in" of gratiosa maniera. +anchieri o)vious!& ri5es the mannerist #ua!ities o% nove! s0eetness an" s ic& re%inement* He a!so notes that the !atest innovation is the so!o song' a genre )ase" on the sense o% the 0or"s* In "escri)ing mo"ern counter oint' he "istinguishes )et0een t0o st&!es= osservato, strict counter oint using ure!& musica! !a0s' an" commune, mi(e" counter oint 0ith %iguration an" %ree "issonances* +anchieri consi"ers osservato st&!e to )e the ro er training %or %!e"g!ing com osers* It is er%ect o!& hon& )ut neg!ects the a%%ective o0er o% the te(t* O% commune st&!e' +anchieri sa&s that a!though it is er%ect orator&' .it is not susce ti)!e o% )eing 0ritten a)out since it has *** no rationa! rinci !es e(ce t to !ease the sense o% hearing*. <A +anchieriCs statement e itomi5es the )e0i!"erment o% theorists traine" in tra"itiona! theor& 0hose ana!&tica! too!s are no !onger use%u! in ana!&5ing the ne0 st&!e* ,ore mi!itant conservatives there%ore "ismiss mo"ern music as irrationa! stu%% er etrate" )& com osers uns3i!!e" in the %un"amenta!s o% the cra%t* This ro)!em !ies )ehin" the controvers& )et0een 8iovanni ,aria Artusi an" C!au"io ,ontever"i' as 0e!! as the un3no0n author %rom Ferrara 0ho ca!!s himse!% l"#ttuso $cademico. The %irst art o% ArtusiCs treatise ta3es the %orm o% a "ia!ogue )et0een Luca' 0ho o%%ers a %ee)!e "e%ense o% the mo"erns' an" Vario' 0ho "emo!ishes their retensions* A%ter Vario u!!s a art some e(tracts %rom ,ontever"iCs ma"riga!s ? rinte" anon&mous!&@' Luca sums u the osition o% the mo"erns 0ho )e!ieve .that theirs is the true 0a& to com ose' maintaining that this nove!t& an" ne0 or"er o% com osing can ro"uce man& e%%ects that are not' nor ever 0i!! )e ma"e )& or"inar& music %u!! o% so man& an" such suave harmonies4 an" the& %anc& that' %ee!ing such i#uant soun"s' the sense is move" an" "oes marve!ous things*. <B Vario counters that "iscor"s have )een use" )& man& eminent com osers %or a%%ective ur oses 0ithout transgressing esta)!ishe" an" res ecte" ru!es* >: ArtusiCs voca)u!ar& c!ear!& in"icates that he sees mo"ern ractice as nothing more than an unru!& an" e(travagant "e%ormation that resu!ts in a)sur" music* The secon" art o% his treatise recor"s his arguments 0ith the .stu))orn aca"emic*. It rehearses the same oints over again an" ro%i!es even more strong!& than the %irst art his %ee!ing that the nove! st&!e is sim !& the haven o% uns3i!!e" char!atans* >/

,ontever"iCs ce!e)rate" "ivision o% contem orar& music into prima an" seconda prattica is' o% course' a "irect re)utta! o% ArtusiCs attac3* From the %ichiaratione 0e g!ean ,ontever"iCs theor&* >7 The %irst ractice' a)stract counter oint' en1o&s an august tra"ition er%ecte" )& 6i!!aert in com osition an" Far!ino in theor&* Here ,ontever"i a!!u"es to the ars perfecta or contrapunto osservato. Li3e 8a!i!ei' ,ontever"i sees the ne0 st&!e' the secon" ractice' as stemming %rom Rore an" attri)utes to this com oser a rene0a! o% ancient i"ea!s* Un!i3e 8a!i!ei' ,ontever"i osits a continuous !ine o% re%inement an" rogress ensuing %rom RoreCs ins iration* He grou s together com osers o% o!& honic ma"riga!s' concerte" ma"riga!s' accom anie" mono"&' an" o era* His reasons are sim !e* In the %irst ractice' the er%ection o% harmon& is mistress o% the 0or"s' 0hereas in the secon" ractice' the er%ection o% me!o"& ta3es rece"ence* ,ost im ortant to the resent "iscussion is the %act that ,ontever"i tries to "igni%& mo"ern music )& intimating that it too has a venera)!e tra"ition )ase" on the re1uvenation o% the marve!ous e%%ects o% ancient st&!e* An" the tra"ition o% 0hich he s ea3s is the one that I ro ose to ca!! ,annerism )et0een i 9<: an" /D<:* ,ontever"iCs remar3s in"icate that certain as ects o% his mannerist tra"ition serve as mo"e!s %or )aro#ue ractice* >< One ma& argue that his shar "ivision )et0een t0o ractices is .e(aggerate" an" arti%icia!.4 >> it resents a sim !istic notion e(acer)ate" )& the o!emic nature o% his con%!ict 0ith Artusi* An" ArtusiCs o inions are e#ua!!& onesi"e"* +oth men arta3e o% the se!%-conscious s irit that im)ues musica! theor& in the mannerist erio"* Their %orce%u! statements on )eha!% o% o!" an" ne0 st&!es are sha e" )& their res ective conce ts o% rogress an" )& their a0areness that a critica! change in st&!e is at sta3e at the time the& are 0riting* The notion o% the musica! genius mirrors the "i%%erent %acets o% various vie0s a)out historica! "eve!o ment* This notion is not invente" )& the mannerists' )ut it ta3es on a ne0 signi%icance %or ra"ica! thin3ers* The magica!' #uasi-"ivine #ua!it& o% music has )een a tra"itiona! to ic since anti#uit&* In the ,i""!e Ages' this agan i"ea' one that e#uates the o erative e!ements o% music 0ith a cosmos create" %rom num)er' is unite" 0ith Christian ethics* Conservative theorists in the %i%teenth an" si(teenth centuries natura!!& stress the scienti%ic si"e o% music an" there%ore contri)ute to the continuation o% this notion* ,usic !eases 8o" 0ith its mathematica! harmon&* 8!areanus is the %irst 0riter in our urvie0 to use the term .genius. (ingenium), an" his conce t re!ates to the ro)!em o% art versus nature in music* He oses the #uestion as to 0hether the com oser o% a chant me!o"& or the com oser o% a ,ass on this me!o"& is the greater o% the t0o* 8enius %or 8!areanus is e#uiva!ent to natura! ta!ent* He is u55!e" )& the %act that musica!!& untraine" eo !e can )oth invent an" res on" to goo" tunes* Counter oint' on the other han"' is a stu"ie" art 0ith a m&ria" o% ru!es to gui"e the com oser' an" its intricacies are %u!!& un"erstoo" )& ver& %e0 ersons* Having state" the ro)!em' 8!areanus 1um s to the conc!usion that one musician can have the genius %or the invention o% me!o"& as 0e!! as %or the art o% counter oint* >9 His

reconci!iation o% natura! ta!ent an" !earne" arti%ice ena)!es him to hai! ;os#uin as the greatest genius o% the ars perfecta* Far!ino resents a more so histicate" an" !ogica! "iscussion o% genius* True to his conviction that a!! usa)!e interva!s con%orm to the senario, he stresses the scienti%ic %oun"ation o% musica! stu"& that ro"uces the musico perfetto. The com oser 0ho re!ies on ractica! ha)it is mere!& a prattico* This "oes not mean that Far!ino neg!ects the nee" %or ractica! ta!ents' such as a goo" ear an" a 3no0!e"ge o% singing* +ut he is 0ar& o% the ra"ica! tren"s in his "a& that romote the 1u"gment o% the ear over scienti%ic reason' %or he insists that musicians must use sense an" science* Sense a!one is ure!& su)1ective 0hereas reason a""s o)1ectivit& that transcen"s the vagaries o% ersona! taste* >D Thus 0e see that Far!inoCs conce t o% ingegno amounts to natura! cra%t* This notion is !ess ara"o(ica! than it ma& seem at %irst g!ance* I% one ta3es Far!inoCs rece ts as a 0ho!e' his e( !anation o% o!& hon& resents a remar3a)!e cr&sta!!i5ation o% contem orar& ractice* He )e!ieves that the er%ect musician has a natura! a)i!it& %or com osing counter oint on a su)1ect* >E 6hether his chosen theme is his o0n or a ree(istent me!o"&' it im oses certain !imitations= mo"e' rh&thm' interva!s' etc* The com oser must "o more than 0or3 0ithin these restrictions 4 he must have the innate ta!ent %or %in"ing' e( !oiting' an" "eve!o ing the !atent ossi)i!ities o% his su)1ect as the )asis %or imitative counter oint* In e%%ect' Far!ino is the %irst 0riter to resent us 0ith 0hat amounts to an aesthetic %or the ars perfecta* A com oser can !earn the a)stract ru!es governing the ro er construction o% counter oint' )ut i% he ossesses on!& this 3no0!e"ge' he is at )est a me"iocre com oser* The genius is one 0ho can mani u!ate the ru!es to create o!& hon& that gro0s in a natura! an" ins ire" %ashion %rom the 0or3ing-out o% the su)1ect* This tacit assum tion un"er!ies Far!inoCs "etai!e" "iscussion an" com arison o% "i%%erent 3in"s o% counter oint* The a)ove oint )rings us to Coc!icoCs "escri tion o% the #ua!ities nee"e" )& the stu"ent com oser* He must )e a)!e to im rovise counter oint an" more im ortant' he must sho0 a great "esire an" inner com u!sion %or com osition* Coc!ico cites these re#uirements as those stresse" )& ;os#uin* >A A!though Lo0ins3& oints out that Coc!icoCs i"ea is not e#uiva!ent to the !atonic furor poeticus, an i"ea that came to the %ore in !iterar& criticism o% the !ate si(teenth centur&' >B it is im ortant to note Coc!icoCs a reciation o% s iritua! enthusiasm* His notion is 1ust another version o% Far!inoCs natura! cra%t* Finc3Cs "iscussion o% the same su)1ect sho0s a simi!ar vie0 oint* He s ea3s o% artifices ?com osers@ .0ho are "ra0n to com osition )& natura! inc!ination an" 0ho' %rom chi!"hoo"' regu!ar!& cu!tivate their natura! gi%t )& art' ractice' an" varie" an" %re#uent e(ercises*. A !itt!e !ater in the same assage he a"vises the care%u! choice o% a goo" master %or the stu"ent .0ho )urns )& nature 0ith !ove o% music*. 9: It is not insigni%icant that this "iscussion occurs at the start o% a )oo3 "ea!ing 0ith singing an" im rovisation* Evi"ent!&' Finc3 0ishes to "istinguish )et0een the higher #ua!i%ications re#uire" o% the com oser ?0hom he ca!!s musicus) in contra"istinction to the singer* An" this "istinction arises %rom his ear!ier "e%inition o% music an" its "ivisions* 9/ Finc3Cs three c!assi%ications ?theorica' practica' poetica) re%!ect those osite" )& Listenius nineteen &ears ear!ier* In %act' ListeniusCs 0or"s seem to rever)erate in the )rie% e( !anation o%

poetica given )& Finc3= "&oetica, that invents songs an" com ositions' an" !eaves )ehin" some constructe" 0or3s a%ter !a)or' an" it is e(c!usive!& Gthe rea!mH o% com osers*. Inevita)!&' the "e%inition o% genius resenting the c!osest ara!!e! 0ith the mannerist conce t in the sister arts comes %rom ra"ica! theorists o% music 0hose a ro)ation o% the grazia an" dolcezza im ute" to nove! techni#ues rests on a )e!ie% in the com oserCs in"ivi"ua! gi%ts* Su)1ective inc!ination no0 )ecomes the e(cuse %or musica! !icense* 8iovanni S ataro e!a)orates on this nove! a roach 0ith an e(treme!& ertinent comment 0hen he suggests that !earne" com osers$through natura! instinct' a certain grace' an" manner$intro"uce harmonies an" e( ressions that cannot )e e( !aine" )& an& ru!e or rece t* 97 The im !ication o% such a statement %or !ater mannerist e(travagances nee"s no e!a)oration* S ataroCs corres on"ence great!& in%!uence" Pietro Aaron 0ho es ouse" man& o% his ra"ica! i"eas* In one o% his !ate 0or3s' Aaron ta3es a ver& critica! vie0 o% the scienti%ic "e%inition o% music* On!& the ignorant ta!3 o% this "ivine art as a cra%t* The& thin3 that he more one ractices' the more grace an" master& one ac#uires* An" &et this is sim !& not true' he argues' %or some musicians com ose 0e!! 0ho have stu"ie" !itt!e' an" some com ose )a"!& 0ho have stu"ie" much* 8oo" com osers are )orn' as are oets* To )e sure' com osers must 3no0 the ru!es4 )ut the& must a!so ossess in"ivi"ua! s3i!! an" natura! grace' as 0e!! as the instinct to 3no0 0hen to "e art %rom the ru!es 0henever the& 0ish to create nove! e%%ects* These gi%ts' receive" %rom heaven' are grante" on!& to a s ecia! %e0* 9< 6ith these 0or"s Aaron ronounces the mannerist "octrine o% the "ivine!& ins ire" genius 0hose rare ta!ent sets him a art %rom or"inar& cra%tsmen* A!though Vicentino "oes not "iscuss genius' his activities in"icate his )e!ie% in it* An" in his treatise he mentions that theories an" ractices var& %rom countr& to countr&' an" generation to generation* 9> One manCs oison is anotherCs "e!icac&' in other 0or"s* O% course' these remar3s o%%er an o)!i#ue vin"ication o% his o0n au"acious e( eriments* VicentinoCs avant-gar"ism' as 0e!! as that o% others' is un"erta3en %or the sa3e o% sur rising an" start!ing e( ressivit&* As the conce t o% music moves %rom the mathematica! #ua"rivium to the rhetorica! trivium' rationa! cra%t ce"es its %ormer rominence to a ne0 aesthetic o% irrationa! genius* This "ichotom& is im !icit in the Artusi-,ontever"i "e)ate* Artusi 1u"ges mo"ern st&!e )& the rece ts o% contra unta! cra%t an" natura!!& %in"s it !ac3ing in !ogic* ,ontever"i re !ies that mo"ern st&!e ta3es !i)erties 0ith esta)!ishe" ru!es in or"er to "e ict the te(t* It ma& !ac3 !ogic' )ut it revives ancient i"ea!s' an" the !atter aim is su erior to that o% constructing a)stract counter oint* One ma& even suggest' as "oes Lo0ins3&' that ,ontever"i im !ies .it too3 !ess genius to 0rite in the o!" st&!e*. 99 This im !ication is ma"e e( !icit in a treatise on o era )& 8iovanni +attista 2oni* 2oni ma3es a shar "istinction )et0een strict counter oint ?a c!ose"' "ea" !anguage$the cra%t an" e(ercise o% ru!es@ an" "ramatic music ?an evo!ving' !iving !anguage $the instinctive e( !oration o% a%%ective communication@* He a"mits tacit!& that "ramatic music "oes not entai! the rigorous a !ication o% reset ru!es an" there%ore an&one 0ith ta!ent can

com ose it* 9D An" this is recise!& the criterion invo3e" )& conservatives 0ho con"emn mo"ern st&!e* In their o inion' the ver& )sence o% o)1ective stan"ar"s rovi"es an o en invitation to me"iocrities an" #uac3s* +ut 2oniCs osition e(em !i%ies a tota!!& ne0 a roach* The rhetorica!' "ramatic' an" emotiona! e%%ect o% the ne0 st&!e is the gauge )& 0hich mo"ern music shou!" )e 1u"ge"* On!& those com osers 0ith the genius %or creating nove! an" stri3ing 0or3s are "eeme" su erior musicians* One nee" not )e a !earne" theorist to assess mo"ern music' )ut one must )e a sensitive connoisseur* 2oniCs ans0er is not a re)utta! o% criticism o% ne0 music* Li3e his co!!eagues' he %ai!s to see that ne0 music has its o0n 3in" o% !ogic* The t0o cam s are in e%%ect arguing at cross ur oses' an" their res ective shortsighte"ness arises out o% the mannerist mi!ieu in 0hich these "e)ates ta3e !ace* At an& rate' the i"ea o% creative genius versus e"antic cra%tsmanshi gro0s concurrent!& 0ith the "eve!o ment o% e( ressive i"ea!s in music' an" it is use" an" a)use" )& generations o% ra"ica!s see3ing to 1usti%& nove! inventions* This situation is centra! to mannerist st&!e in the si(teenth centur&* There can )e no "ou)t that the e(travagances o% mannerist musicians' )oth in their music an" )ehavior' %orm &et another %acet o% the cu!t o% %ame an" genius* A!though the cu!tivation o% )iogra hies is not as strong in music as in the sister arts' 0ritings e(hi)it a !i)era! "ose o% anec"otes a)out com osers an" their re!ations 0ith atrons* Socio!ogica! rea!ities a!so a)et the e( !oitation o% arrogance' an" this as ect o% musica! cu!ture receives an a""e" im etus %rom the rise o% virtuoso singers an" their a"oring u)!ic* +ut these henomena are e(terior mani%estations o% "ee er conce tua! changes* ,an& historians eva!uate the +aro#ue as the )eginning o% mo"ern music* Even more than in the case o% the sister arts' the rise o% )aro#ue music re resents a continuum o% events' %or the seconda prattica %!o0s %rom the bella maniera, a st&!e that thrives on aesthetic an" technica! nove!ties throughout the si(teenth centur&*

6e can ta3e it as s&m tomatic o% the genera! situation at this time that interva!!ic s&stems arise in con1unction 0ith historica! conce ts o% musica! st&!e* This si"e o% the science o% counter oint )ecomes increasing!& a!!ie" 0ith ractice* For e(am !e' Henricus 8!areanus concentrates on those interva!s 0ith a use%u! %unction in counter oint i!!ustrative o% the ars perfecta' unison' %i%th' an" octave ? er%ect consonances@' thir" an" si(th ?im er%ect consonances@' semitone' tone' %ourth' an" ma1or seventh ?"issonances@* A!! "issonances e(ce t the %ourth must a ear in s&nco ation4 the %ourth' on the other han"' can )e em !o&e" 0ithout s&nco ation 0hen it artici ates in %au()our"on or ca"ences* 8!areanus "istinguishes )et0een the e%%ect o% er%ect an" im er%ect consonances an" gives ru!es e( !aining the !imite" "e !o&ment o% "issonances' 0hich' he %ee!s' "istur) the ear* / His "e%inition o% "issonances )etra&s the tra"itiona! )ias against this categor&* In the si(teenth centur&' it )ecomes customar& to "iscuss interva!s in the manner out!ine" )& 8!areanus* Thomas ,or!e& re eats this c!assi%ication as !ate as /9BE in his ru!es %or im rovise" "escant on a cantus %irmus* Li3e other theorists' ,or!e& ma3es an e(tensive

investigation o% the su)1ect o% the %ourth* This s ecia! attention is necessar& )ecause accor"ing to musica practica the %ourth is a "issonance 0hereas accor"ing to musica theorica it is a consonance* The so!e ractica! e(ce tion that uses the %ourth as a consonance note" )& ,or!e& is %au()our"on* 7 +& mi"-centur&' ho0ever' %au()our"on no !onger %unctions as a norma! mo"e o% com osition* It has )ecome a s ecia! e%%ect' usua!!& rom te" )& a te(tua! assage ca!!ing %or harmonic un"erscoring* 8iose%%o Far!inoCs contri)ution to tra"itiona! theor& resi"es in his uni#ue reconci!iation )et0een st&!istic er%ection in music an" mathematica! science* He gives ractice a %irm s ecu!ative )asis' an" this as ect o% his 0or3 a!one su%%ices to earn him the ran3 o% a ma1or theorist in the !ate si(teenth centur&* As in"icate" in the "iscussion o% Far!inoCs tuning %or voca! music' this theorist c!assi%ies a!! interva!s e(ce t the semitone' tone' an" seventh as consonances* He sett!es the #uestion o% the %ourth )& uniting science an" ractice' )oth o% 0hich resent this interva! as an un#ua!i%ie" consonance* < In Far!inoCs o inion' im er%ect consonances are not as satis%&ing as er%ect ones4 the reason is that the %ormer invo!ve ratios %rom %our to si(' 0hereas the !atter resu!t %rom ratios )et0een one an" %our* > +ut in s ite o% their !o0er theoretica! status' im er%ect consonances ossess characteristics that %ascinate Far!ino* The ma1or s ecies has a !ive!&' cheer%u! #ua!it&' an" a )right sonorit&* The minor s ecies is s0eet' smooth' sa"' an" !angui"* Furthermore' minor im er%ect consonances ten" to contract to the nearest er%ect interva! 0hereas ma1or im er%ect consonances e( an" in the o osite "irection* Im !icit in these o)servations is the notion that these natura! atterns enhance the emotive as ects o% the t0o categories* Far!ino a!so notes that these movements re#uire !inear motion )& semitone' an interva! he ca!!s the sa!t an" seasoning o% goo" me!o"& an" harmon&* 9 This oint )rings Far!ino to the e( osition o% "issonances* Un!i3e his co!!eagues' he ta3es a ositive stan" on the su)1ect* He ostu!ates that "issonances are necessar& %or motion %rom one consonance to another* The& constitute a con"iment that !en"s i#uanc& to the )!an"ness o% consonant soun"s* The on!& use%u! "issonances are those %oun" in the "iatonic or"er* To )o!ster his scienti%ic s&stem' Far!ino notes that in a sense these interva!s a!so arise %rom the senario4 their ratios use num)ers outsi"e the senario )ut the ca!cu!ations ro"ucing them invo!ve num)ers 0ithin the sacre" s&stem* D It is no0 ossi)!e %or Far!ino to construct a!! interva!s 0ithin the octave 0ith ratios corres on"ing to 1ust intonation* One o% Far!inoCs origina! achievements is his aesthetic conce tion o% interva!!ic categories' an" this conce tion arises %rom his tuning s&stem* Far!ino a!so "escri)es certain e(treme!& harsh interva!s that he "oes not a!!o0 in goo" com osition* The %act that these interva!s ro"uce a030ar" %a!se re!ations is !in3e" to their irrationa! ratios $one more roo% o% the so!i"it& o% his tuning s&stem* Ho0ever' Far!ino 0ishes to avoi" rigi"it& in matters ertaining to %ine oints o% st&!e' an" he there%ore notes that the "iminishe" %i%th an" the tritone ma& a ear occasiona!!& to goo" e%%ect* E The )asic thrust o% Far!inoCs theor& is no0 c!ear* He has %oun" a res ecta)!e mathematica!' ergo scienti%ic' 1usti%ication %or 1ust intonation 0ith his senario. At !ong !ast' a!! interva!s come to rest secure!& in an integrate" s&stem that %uses musica theorica

an" musica practica. In this 0a&' Far!ino can resent convincing evi"ence %or the notion o% music as soun"ing num)er' numero sonoro. The ancient 8ree3 i"ea! is no !onger a s ecu!ative %a)rication4 it has attaine" h&sica! em)o"iment in the st&!e o% A"rian 6i!!aert an" his contem oraries' 0hose music re resents a ne0 er%ection in the histor& o% this art* The 0eight o% Far!inoCs s&stem is %e!t )& a!! conservative theorists 0ho come a%ter him* His treatise' re rinte" a num)er o% times' a!so rea ears in a"a te" %orm in sim !er han")oo3s )& other 0riters* A +& the en" o% the centur&' 5ar!inian rece ts )ecome the s&m)o! o% tra"itiona! theor&' an" %or this ver& reason' his i"eas are su)1ecte" to o%ten unreasona)!e attac3s )& the &ounger u starts o% mo"ern ractice* Sevent&-si( &ears )e%ore Far!inoCs treatise a eare"' +arto!omIo Ramos "e Pare1a start!e" his contem oraries )& a"vocating a tuning much !i3e 1ust intonation* His s&stem has re ercussions on his "e%inition o% interva!s* Ramos a"heres to a )ac30ar" vie0 oint )& c!assi%&ing the %ourth as a "issonance' )ut he shoc3s ever&one )& suggesting that the unison' thir"' %i%th' si(th' an" octave are ure an" sim !e consonances 0ithout an& %urther #ua!i%ication* B Nee"!ess to sa&' this arrogant "eviation %rom acce te" theor& earns him the re utation o% a ra"ica! thin3er* From his vie0s there arises the +urtius-8a%uriusS ataro controvers&* 6hen 0e rea!i5e that it ta3es /:: &ears o% musica! ractice to ins ire someone to %ormu!ate a scienti%ic rationa!e %or mo"ern st&!e' the tenacit& o% tra"itiona! &thagorean theor& comes shar !& into %ocus* On!& a%ter Far!inoCs treatise "oes 1ust intonation )ecome an acce ta)!e s&stem* The o"" as ect o% this "eve!o ment is that RamosCs notions re resent an e( !anation o% a ne0 st&!e' the ars nova, as ;ohannes Tinctoris ca!!s it* /: +& the mi""!e o% the si(teenth centur&' this st&!e is a!rea"& the re ositor& o% conservative ractice' at !east in the estimation o% avant-gar"e musicians* Thus' Far!inoCs s&stem 1usti%ies tra"itiona! counter oint at a time 0hen secu!ar music is moving to0ar" an even more "aring an" iconoc!astic !anguage* The "iatonic )oun"aries o% 1ust intonation are sim !& inca a)!e o% accommo"ating this ne0er st&!e' ,annerism' in the Ita!ian ma"riga!* The on!& theorist to 0or3 out a s&stem co"i%&ing some e!ements o% !ate si(teenth-centur& ractice is Vincen5o 8a!i!ei* // His conce tion o% interva!s ara!!e!s the %ina! hase o% ,annerism' a hase that in some res ects carries over into the +aro#ue* 8a!i!ei )egins )& contra"icting Far!ino* He )e!ieves that interva!s outsi"e the senario must )e 1u"ge" to )e as natura! an" as via)!e as those 0ithin it* 8a!i!eiCs 1usti%ication %or this vie0 oint is the 1u"gment o% the ear* For 8a!i!ei' on!& the semitone' tone' an" seventh are "issonant* The %ourth an" tritone %orm a s ecia! categor& o% interme"iate "issonances4 the& are !ess harsh than rea! "issonances an" there%ore ma& )e use" 0ith %e0er restrictions* He %urther intimates that "issonances have an autonomous e(istence an" integra! va!ue* In e%%ect' 8a!i!eiCs nove! conce t !i)erates this interva!!ic categor&' an" it there%ore mirrors the %ree use o% "issonance )& com osers o% mo"ern counter oint* An" this mo"ern metho" is ca!!e" seconda prattica )& ,ontever"i in contra"istinction to the o!" manner' the prima prattica ri5e" )& Far!ino an" Artusi* Vicentino 0rites in the mainstream o% mannerist st&!e* His "ivision )et0een consonances an" "issonances' as art o% the e( osition o% musica! ru"iments' resents nothing

e(traor"inar&* /7 He "oes' ho0ever' a"vocate the tritone' the most "enigrate" o% interva!s' %or marve!ous e%%ect* /< The ra"ica! si"e o% VicentinoCs interva!!ic theor& emerges %rom the h& erre%ine" characteristics that he ascri)es to in"ivi"ua! interva! si5es* His rime o)1ective is a%%ective an" rhetorica! ainting o% the te(t through musica! means' an" his musica! voca)u!ar& inc!u"es e(travagant chromatic an" enharmonic in%!ections* VicentinoCs "escri tion o% interva!!ic #ua!ities rea"s !i3e a recursor o% )aro#ue $ffektenlehre* /> A!though his construct e(hi)its se!%-evi"ent !imitations as a manua! %or com osition' it neverthe!ess re resents a reoccu ation 0ith the e( ressive %unction o% voca! music* Li3e a!! "etai!e" theories o% musica! a%%ections' VicentinoCs s&stem a ears some0hat chi!"ish an" sim !istic in its attem t to categori5e ever& conceiva)!e interva!* An" &et it corres on"s in a stri3ing 0a& to the instinctive use o% interva!s )& mannerist com osers* ,a"riga!ian st&!e has a!so )een accuse" o% in%anti!ism )& antimannerists' )oth o% the ast an" o% the resent* In contrast to interva!!ic theor&' the su)1ect o% the mo"es e( oses the conservative si"e o% contra unta! theor&* An& i"ea! o% mo"a! urit& mi!itates against chromaticism an" the in"iscriminate mi(ture o% mo"es or their 0i"e-ranging trans osition* Tra"itiona!ist attitu"es' there%ore' are a!ien to mannerist st&!e* Even 0ithin the con%ines o% the si(teenthcentur& ars perfecta, theorists encounter "i%%icu!ties in re!ating !inear mo"es to o!& hon& that is vertica!!& conceive"* These ro)!ems are aggravate" )& the %act that s&stematic e(egesis o% the mo"es ten"s to )e more ana!&tica! an" s ecu!ative than ractica!* In the %odecachordon, 8!areanus e( !icates his ne0 s&stem %or the mo"es* As a ream)!e' he resents the customar& ana!&sis o% the acce te" eight mo"es "uring 0hich he notes that the com)ination o% authentic an" !aga! varieties is ca!!e" permi(tio* /9 In !a&ing the %oun"ation %or his o0n s&stem' 8!areanus critici5es the receive" a roaches as con%using an" "u!!* For one thing' he re1ects the tra"itiona! %ocus on %ina!s an" constitutive s ecies in %avor o% the arrangement o% semitones' 0hich' in his vie0' gives each mo"e its articu!ar structure an" character* /D 8!areanusCs metho" o% artitioning the gamut into arithmetic an" harmonic "ivisions &ie!"s a tota! o% si(teen mo"es' %our o% 0hich are re1ecte"* The remain"er constitute the t0e!ve mo"es ertinent to mo"ern music' the ars perfecta' 2orian' Phr&gian' L&"ian' ,i(o!&"ian' Aeo!ian' an" Iastian or Ionian' an" o% course' their !aga!s* /E 8!areanus has e(ten"e" the mo"es in or"er to e( !ain more %u!!& the "iatonic )asis o% er%ect st&!e' an" )ecause he inc!u"es %our more mo"es' he %ee!s that his s&stem is more than a"e#uate %or this ur ose* Hence 8!areanus roun"!& con"emns com osers 0ho venture outsi"e the con%ines o% this scheme* His mo"a! theor& thus contains )oth revo!utionar& an" conservative e!ements* An interesting %eature o% his trans osition s&stem is that the mo"e on F 0ith a + is no0 the Ionian once trans ose"* For the %irst time' the ro)!em o% this mo"e is sett!e" in an or"er!& %ashion* 8!areanus ne(t resents a "etai!e" "escri tion o% the ethos o% each mo"e 0ith numerous e(am !es %rom !ainchant* He is here concerne" 0ith the art o% the phonascus* A!though he "oes not out!ine an ana!&sis o% me!o"ic phrasis' the rea"er can arrive at his o0n

conc!usions %rom an e(amination o% the i!!ustrations* 8!areanus com)ines the o!"er vie0 o% mo"a! character 0ith a rogressive a roach stressing a%%ective #ua!ities an" a!so gives some ertinent comments on o!" versus ne0 me!o"ies* For e(am !e' he com oses chants on the re1ecte" .tritone. mo"es %or the sa3e o% e(egesis' )ut at the same time cautions that com osers 0ho use these mo"es are those 0ho thirst a%ter %ame* /A The o!" %orm o% the L&"ian ?0ith +@ is to"a& com !ete!& a!tere" )& the use o% +4 it )ecomes the trans ose" Ionian* The a!!uring s0eetness o% the Ionian gives it an air o% %rivo!it&' an" it is there%ore a goo" mo"e %or "ances* O!" church music "i" not use it an" its resent o u!arit& "ates )ac3 >:: &ears* /B The H& oaeo!ian occurs on!& in a %e0 8ra"ua!s' 0hi!e the Aeo!ian' 0ith its !easant seriousness' is rimari!& suita)!e %or !&rica! songs* 7: The H& omi(o!&"ian' much use" in o!" church music' is to"a& change" into the Ionian )& means o% conne(io4 the charm o% the H& oionian' !itt!e use" in o!" church music' enhances !ove songs an" is articu!ar!& goo" %or )rass instruments* 7/ 6hen 8!areanus gives e(am !es o% the mo"es in o!& honic 0or3s' he se!ects them accor"ing to the ages o% music* The rea"er can thus %in" i!!ustrations o% )oth the o!" an" ne0 L&"ian* 77 To sho0 the use o% the Ionian' he rovi"es e(cer ts %rom ;os#uinCs $ve verum, as 0e!! as other 0or3s* 8!areanus ma3es an im ortant o)servation 0hen he notes that the Ionian is %re#uent!& trans ose" to F in or"er to ma3e room %or the !o0est voice in counter oint' as %or e(am !e' in ;os#uinCs )tabat mater* 7< It is thus ver& im ortant to rea!i5e that the F mo"e 0ith a + is not the L&"ian )ut the Ionian mo"e* 8!areanus c!oses his "iscussion 0ith the H& oionian' a mo"e e(treme!& o u!ar in his "a&' an" rints ;os#uinCs $ve Maria, a 0or3 that in his o inion em)o"ies an es ecia!!& )eauti%u! treatment o% the mo"e* 7> Inc!u"e" among the e(am !es o% the Ionian mo"e are severa! secu!ar com ositions* To sum u ' 8!areanus ma3es a c!ear "istinction )et0een o!" an" ne0 %orms o% certain mo"es' an" more im ortant' %urnishes convincing evi"ence %or his ne0 mo"es* Having esta)!ishe" his mo"a! s&stem' 8!areanus can em)ar3 on an ana!&sis o% the su)t!e com)inations ossi)!e among in"ivi"ua! mo"es* He "escri)es t0o "i%%erent techni#ues* The %irst is permi(tio, the com)ination o% authentic an" !aga! versions o% the same mo"e* In a""ition to e(am !es o% permi(tio in chant' a "etai!e" investigation is "evote" to ;os#uinCs 0or3s )ecause the& "emonstrate su erior techni#ue* 79 8!areanusCs comments on the secon" 3in" o% com)ination' commi(tio, are scattere" throughout his treatise* This 3in" o% com)ination invo!ves unre!ate" mo"es' an" 8!areanus ta3es ains to note that a!! 3in"s o% commi(tio are ossi)!e an" in"ee" %re#uent!& seen in ractice* Ho0ever' not ever& commi(tio is e#ua!!& %e!icitous* +a" commi(tio resu!ts %rom utting together mo"es 0hose phrases are ver& "i%%erent* 7D 8oo" commi(tio, mar3ing the natura! genius o% the symphoneta, arises %rom the smooth mi(ture o% "ivergent phrases. The !atter can )e e%%ecte" )et0een L&"ian an" Ionian' 2orian an" Aeo!ian' an" ,i(o!&"ian an" Ionian* At this oint' it shou!" )e c!ear that permi(tio is a necessar& outcome o% counter oint 0ith voices in "i%%erent ranges* *ommi(tio, )& 0a& o% contrast' is an o tiona! roce"ure invo!ving aesthetic 1u"gment*

8!areanus s en"s consi"era)!e time on the su)1ect o% )a" commi(tio. He states that the com)ination o% the Phr&gian an" H& omi(o!&"ian mo"es is not ermitte" )ut that some com osers "o use this com)ination %or the sa3e o% voluptas ?e*g*' ;os#uinCs +actum est autem@* 7E In the secon" Agnus 2ei o% the Missa Mater patris' ;os#uin uses )oth the Aeo!ian an" Ionian mo"es* This )a" commi(tio rom ts 8!areanus to comment that ;os#uin o%ten %avore" the unusua! rather than the customar& or"ering o% the mo"es* 7A The most e(ecrate" e(am !e o% )a" commi(tio is the com)ination o% 2orian an" Phr&gian* It o%%en"s ver& strong!& )ecause it intro"uces %re#uent tritones* 8!areanus "escri)es t0o cases 0here this %au!t a ears in ;os#uinCs 0or3s$Memor esto verbi tui an" %e profundis. He is %orce" to a"mit' ho0ever' that in the %e profundis ;os#uin e%%ecte" the mi(ture 0ith nove! s3i!!* Furthermore' the roughness seems suite" to the te(t* 8!areanus there%ore conc!u"es that the re roach .%rom 2orian to Phr&gian. "oes not a !& in this instance* 7B These remar3s he! to c!ari%& 8!areanusCs criticism o% his other0ise er%ect aragon* ;os#uin seems too ra"ica! an" !i)era! in his commi(tio modorum. This is the reason 0h& 8!areanus states that ;os#uin !ac3e" %u!! 3no0!e"ge o% the mo"a! s&stem* An" his uneasiness a)out the %ate o% the er%ect art arises %rom his "is!i3e o% the "istorte" music o% the mo"erns* 8!areanusCs t0e!ve-mo"e s&stem is )& no means acce te" )& a!! other theorists* In %act' man& o% them' even ra"ica!s' continue to ana!&5e mo"es in the o!" 0a&* The on!& ma1or theorist to ta3e u his s&stem is Far!ino* <: In the /99A e"ition o% the ,stitutioni' he 3ee s the or"er given )& 8!areanus4 )ut in vie0 o% the gro0ing o u!arit& o% the Ionian mo"e' Far!ino changes the or"er in the I9E< e"ition' !acing it at the hea" o% the !ist* </ From Far!inoCs 0or3' the t0e!ve-mo"e s&stem rea ears in theorists 0ho emu!ate him* 8a!i!ei ta3es issue 0ith this s&stem in the %ialogo )ecause ,ei has taught him that 8!areanus an" Far!ino misun"erstan" the )asis o% the 8ree3 tonoi* 8a!i!ei concurs 0ith Pto!em& in insisting that on!& seven mo"es are ossi)!e )ecause a mo"e or tonos is an arrangement o% the interva!s 0ithin the octave* For 8a!i!ei' theoretica! ignorance o% the 8ree3 s&stem amounts to %urther roo% o% the !imitations o% tra"itiona! o!& hon&* <7 8!areanusCs conce tion o% mo"a! character is %air!& so histicate" inso%ar as it resu oses that me!o"ic phrasis contri)utes to the a%%ective #ua!it& o% each mo"e* Far!ino a!so stresses the im ortance o% phrasis, a %eature that he ca!!s forma$a more humanistic term 0ith artistic overtones* Far!ino o)serves that ma1or im er%ect consonances occur at strategic oints in the cheer%u! mo"es ?F' 8' an" C@' 0hereas minor im er%ect consonances "o the same in the sa" mo"es ?2' E' an" A@* << A!though this o)servation har"!& constitutes an a"mission o% ma1or-minor mo"a!it& in the mo"ern sense' it "oes in"icate that the o!"er notion o% in"ivi"ua! ethos is "isso!ving un"er the im act o% ne0 roce"ures )ase" on vertica! sonorities* The gro0ing em hasis on rhetorica! e!o#uence' so o)vious in the ma"riga!' a!so in%!uences this conce tion* O% course' ethos has )een a common !ace to ic since its a earance in me"ieva! theor&* As the authorit& on this su)1ect' +oethiusCs vie0s 0ere acce te" as true to ancient 8ree3 "octrine* In s ite o% his man& ra"ica! i"eas' Ramos gives us a version o%

)oethian ethos* He "escri)es the %our mo"a! airs in terms o% ga!enic s&cho!og& an" astro!og&* <> The triumvirate o% musica mundana, humana, an" instrumentalis ro er!& )e!ongs to musica speculativa. Thus' scienti%ic treatises re eat this august "octrine* Practica! 0or3s usua!!& omit it or e!se a& cursor& o)eisance to it in short "e%initions o% music* <9 O% course' musica! cosmo!og& survives in other scienti%ic %ie!"s such as astro!og&' me"icine' an" astronom&* Even though the hi!oso hica! va!i"it& o% mo"a! ethos "isa ears' the conce t o% in"ivi"ua! mo"a! #ua!ities hangs on 0ith remar3a)!e tenacit&* The ro)!em 0ith such e(egeses is that the& )ear !itt!e re!ationshi to musica! ractice' even though 0e ma& acce t them as instances o% the in%!uence o% renaissance an" mannerist humanism* Conce tions o% ethos in the si(teenth centur& move in t0o "i%%erent "irections* The %irst re%!ects humanist scho!arshi 4 ethos is a roache" %rom an anti#uarian vie0 oint in 0hich 0riters "escri)e s eci%ic c!assica! or he!!enistic conce ts* At the same time' these inter retations %oster the notion that ancient music ossesse" great a%%ective o0er* Far!ino )e!ieves that this o0er !ives on to some e(tent in mo"ern o!& hon&' 0hereas 8a!i!ei "oes not* The !atter argues that ethos is a !inear conce t re!ate" to so!o singing 0here the ranges o% the human voice in%!uence the character o% each mo"e* The secon" tren" arises %rom a re%ine" notion o% me!o"ic phrasis or forma )ase" on ractica! consi"erations* +ecause the& re"icate mo"a! structure an" character on this notion' )oth 8!areanus an" Far!ino resent convincing arguments su orte" )& music o% their "a&* Vicentino a!so !ists a%%ective traits %or the eight mo"es* +& themse!ves' these traits seem rather genera! an" unremar3a)!e* +ut 0hen the& are com)ine" 0ith his !ist create" %rom the three genera' giving a tota! o% t0ent&-%our mo"es' there sur%aces a com !e( an" "etai!e" s&stem o% musica! e( ressivit&* +ecause mo"a! characteristics' )oth technica! an" aesthetic' are "e%ine" %rom a !inear oint o% vie0' theorists encounter s ecia! ro)!ems 0hen ana!&5ing mo"es in o!& hon&* 6hen the& )egin to un"erstan" counter oint as the simu!taneous aggregation o% interva!s' one notices an increasing "ivergence )et0een contra unta! an" mo"a! theor&* For e(am !e' Pietro Aaron' the %irst 0riter to insist on the simu!taneous a roach to o!& hon&' sti!! maintains that the tenor governs the mo"e o% a com osition* <D Vicentino mo"erni5es the o!" eight mo"es )& a"vocating ca"entia! %ormu!as on the %ourth or %i%th "egree* <E An" Far!ino ignores the ro)!em o% commi(tio )ecause he consi"ers it outsi"e the a!e o% acce ta)!e metho"s* Here is not the !ace to "iscuss in "etai! a!! theoretica! attem ts to s&stemati5e rece ts %or han"!ing the mo"es in si(teenth-centur& o!& hon&* <A Ho0ever' 0e shou!" note that no 0riter o% this erio" con%ronts the rea!ities o% avant gar"e au"acities' even though some are a0are o% nove!ties in other technica! areas* Thus' mo"a! theor& "oes not change a ace 0ith musica! ractice )et0een the Renaissance an" ,annerism' an" )et0een ,annerism an" the +aro#ue* Chromaticism

,an& 3in"s o% innovation are su)sume" un"er the genera! term .chromaticism'. an" this situation e( !ains the "i%%icu!ties e( erience" )& si(teenth-centur& theorists 0ishing to come to terms 0ith avant-gar"e tren"s* For the most art' theorists tr& their )est to mo"erni5e tra"itiona! conce ts' an" the& use as too!s the renaissance s&stems o% he(achor" so!mi5ation' mutation' an" musica %icta* The continuing resence o% the he(achor" s&stem in numerous treatises o% the time in"icates that it is sti!! "eeme" to )e a re!evant e"ucationa! "evice* O% course' as the er%ect art )ecomes more an" more out"ate" 0hen com are" to ra"ica! st&!e' the e%%icac& o% this s&stem 0anes* A case in oint is the treatise )& A"rianus Petit Coc!ico* A%ter e( !aining the gamut 0ith its three he(achor"s' Coc!ico out!ines those mutations nee"e" %or singing o!& hon&* A art %rom a %e0 s!i s' his !ist inc!u"es one untra"itiona! e!ement= -fa ?E@' a mutation e(tra manum, re#uire" 0hen E "oes not ascen" to F* This is 1ust another 0a& o% stating the .%a-!a. ru!e* / Coc!icoCs e(am !es' on the other han"' resent nothing out o% the or"inar&* 7 Nico!aus Listenius resents the same genera! s&stem' )ut in a more success%u! "i"actic manner* He ma3es a signi%icant o)servation a)out three t& es o% voca! music' one )ase" on *ut corres on"ing to the natura! he(achor"' one )ase" on .ut corres on"ing to the har" he(achor"' an" one )ase" on +ut corres on"ing to the so%t he(achor"* < Listenius a!so notes that mutation )et0een so%t an" har" he(achor"s is %or)i""en* No0' this ers icacious ana!&sis suggests that the he(achor" s&stem is %ast )ecoming an integra! art o% sonorous an" harmonic character* I% a com osition in the L&"ian mo"e can )e "e%ine" as )e!onging to the so%t he(achor"' then )& converse !ogic' a com osition that mi(es the so%t an" natura! he(achor"s can )e "e%ine" as )e!onging to the L&"ian an" Ionian mo"es* The a roach e(em !i%ie" )& Listenius 0i!! have a great im act on !ater mo"u!ator& ractices in chromatic music* A simi!ar i"ea is intimate" )& Franchinus 8a%urius* +ecause proprietas is the articu!ar attern o% each he(achor"' there are then three such ro rieties= durum, molle, an" naturale* > This "e%inition "i%%ers su)stantia!!& %rom the tra"itiona! one that e( !ains ro riet& as the unchanging interva! se#uence in a!! he(achor"s* ,& oint is that 8a%urius ma3es a #ua!itative "istinction among the characters o% three he(achor"a! structures* He "oes not' ho0ever' e!uci"ate his reasons* In vie0 o% his conservative )ias' it ma& ver& 0e!! )e that he re%ers sim !& to notationa! "i%%erences* +ut !ater musicians 0ho are intereste" in harmonic au"acities 0i!! use this conce t o% he(achor"a! character as one o% the %oun"ations o% nuova maniera. 8a%urius o%%ers one hint o% %uture "eve!o ments in his !ist o% causes ertaining to mutation* These causes com)ine those o% necessit& an" those o% )eaut&* The %ormer' o% course' concern the or"er!& rogression o% interva!s )& 0hich the& avoi" a!! harsh an" irrationa! se#uences* The !atter are not so c!ear-cut inasmuch as the& entai! aesthetic 1u"gments* Even in tra"itiona! ractice' causa pulchritudinis is summone" to "e%en" "e artures %rom the norm that cannot )e other0ise 1usti%ie"* 6hen such "e artures )ecome norms o% com osition' 0e have arrive" at mannerist st&!e in music* Returning to

8a%urius s eci%ica!!&' 0e note his re%erences to s0eeter mo"u!ation ?voice !ea"ing@ an" mi(ture o% mo"es un"er causae pulchritudinis. +oth o% these are re!evant to inci ient chromaticism )ecause the use o% %!at acci"enta!s in ractice )oth "e icts an" s&m)o!i5es s0eet harmon& an" me!o"&* In the mannerist ma"riga!' %!ats a ear consistent!& on 0or"s such as dolce. O% course' 8a%urius "oes not a"mit %!at acci"enta!s )e&on" / fa. +ut in the han"s o% mannerist com osers' mutation on the %!at si"e gra"ua!!& 0i"ens to inc!u"e he(achor"s )e&on" the norma! three* An" 0hen this innovation )ecomes common !ace' a corres on" ing set o% mutations on the shar si"e a ears to a"" i#uanc& to musica! voca)u!ar&* 8a%uriusCs conservative i"ea!s can )e a""uce" %rom his em hasis on care%u!' con1unct mutation* He evi"ent!& %ro0ns on su""en an" unusua! changes' recise!& those that 0i!! emerge as %avorites in avant-gar"e ractice* +ut 8a%urius a!so mentions that "is1unct mutation occurs %re#uent!& in o!& hon&* A!though he "oes not "e%ine it' 0e can surmise that "is1unct mutation ha ens )et0een so%t an" har" he(achor"s necessitating the harsh permutatio %rom / fa to /mi* 8a%urius %urther notes that the use o% une#ua! semitones characteri5es the chromatic genus4 it is there%ore %or)i""en in "iatonic counter oint* Henricus 8!areanus a!so a"heres to &thagorean tuning' an" he there%ore !imits his "e%inition o% mutation to the tra"itiona! one e(c!u"ing permutatio* 9 +ut )ecause he uses mutation to e( !icate mo"a! structure' he ina"vertent!& e(ten"s the )oun"aries norma!!& create" )& this s&stem* D Furthermore' his "iscussion o% musica %icta a!!o0s %ictive he(achor"s outsi"e the gui"onian gamut* E Thus 8!areanus' !i3e a!! tra"itiona!ists 0ho %ace the tas3 o% accommo"ating contem orar& st&!e' must contra"ict his initia! remise* An" the )roa"ening o% the he(achor" s&stem causes !ogica! com !e(ities an" ver)a! circum!ocutions* One o% the ear!iest inroa"s into the neutra! hegemon& o% this s&stem comes %rom the com)ination o% mo"es an" he(achor"s* ,artin Agrico!a uses so!mi5ation on /fa an" /mi to e( !ain the mo"es= /mi in the 2orian' Phr&gian' an" ,i(o!&"ian mo"es4 /fa in the L&"ian mo"e* A Even though he %ai!s to mention he(achor" s ecies in this conte(t' the ertinent s&!!a)!es cannot )e conceive" 0ithout them* Listenius goes more "irect!& to the oint* A%ter surve&ing the voces musicales, he states that the 2orian )e!ongs to the natura!' the L&"ian to the so%t' an" the Phr&gian an" ,i(o!&"ian to the har" he(achor"s* B 8!areanus a!so e( !ains his t0o ne0 mo"es accor"ing to he(achor" mutation* Even ;ohannes TinctorisCs convo!ute" "iscursus on the L&"ian mo"e 0ith + rests on the remise that mutation to the so%t he(achor" avoi"s the tritone* /: 6hen "iscussing counter oint' the ro)!em o% voca! range %orces Tinctoris to consi"er matters o% mo"a! trans osition* A%ter c!ari%&ing that trans ose" mo"es en" on irregu!ar %ina!s' Tinctoris resents a com !e( e(egesis that ermits trans osition u to t0o %!ats* This scheme re#uires a he(achor" on +' 0hich he ca!!s a coniuncta on -lami ?E@' a term that saves him %rom having to a"mit a )ona %i"e he(achor" outsi"e the gamut* // A!though Nico!a VicentinoCs trans ositions are not ver& a"venturesome' the conte(t o% his remar3s resents a nove! a roach* He ta3es it %or grante" that an e( !anation o% the

mo"es an" their treatment in o!& hon& cannot )e con"ucte" 0ithout musica finta* Furthermore' he e( !ores the interre!ationshi )et0een acci"enta!s an" mo"es 0ithout recourse to he(achor" mutation* /7 This ma& at %irst seem a sma!! oint4 ho0ever' it "emonstrates that acci"enta!s in VicentinoCs theor& have assume" an e(istence in"e en"ent o% the s&stem that %or generations ha" given them their 1usti%ication* ,o"es %or Vicentino em)o"& e( ressive #ua!ities* There%ore' the com oser o% secu!ar music must var& them in or"er to aint a %!eeting series o% assions' 0uando aspre, & 0uando dolce, & 0uando allegre, & 0uando meste. Vicentino !i3ens this techni#ue to the mi(ture o% maniere in architecture' a mi(ture un"erta3en %or the sa3e o% variet& an" ornamentation* No0 he comes to his car"ina! argument* The mo"es contain interva!s %rom the three genera' an" this is 0h& contem orar& music must )e ca!!e" musica participata & mista* /< 8eneric mi(ture is articu!ar!& evi"ent in the trans osition o% mo"es "ue to the use o% acci"enta!s' )oth shar an" %!at* It %o!!o0s that trans osition retains the musica! structure o% the mo"es 0hi!e changing their character* Thus Vicentino states that music in the L&"ian mo"e ?0ith +@ is *romatica Musica* /> 8enera!!& s ea3ing' he a"mits the ossi)i!it& o% trans osition u to %our %!ats in his charts* The thrust o% VicentinoCs oint o% vie0 is no0 c!ear* ,usica %icta' intro"uce" 0ithout mutation' a%%ect the e( ressive #ua!it& o% the mo"es an" ro"uce musica mista. This characteristic a ears most rominent!& in mo"ern secu!ar music' an" it e( !ains the su eriorit& o% the bella maniera* A!though 8iose%%o Far!ino attac3s VicentinoCs ra"ica! theories' his o0n "iscussion o% mo"a! trans osition sho0s an a0areness o% mi!"er re%inement* In ana!&5ing %easi)!e trans ositions' he in"icates that mo"es can )e trans ose" t0ice on the %!at an" t0ice on the shar si"e4 this scheme !egitimi5es +' E' F' an" C* /9 Once again' Far!ino in"icates his 0i!!ingness to accommo"ate ractice 0hi!e maintaining the rece ts o% the ars perfecta. I re%er s eci%ica!!& to shar acci"enta!s' 0hich 0ere revious!& a"mitte" on!& in cases o% commi(tio modorum4 %or e(am !e' an F subsemitonium modi in e%%ect mi(es the ,i(o!&"ian an" Ionian mo"es* An" it cou!" ver& 0e!! )e that 8a%uriusCs "is1unct mutation means trans osition on the shar si"e* O% course' musica %icta a ear in o!& hon& %or reasons other than trans osing mo"es* Those connecte" to causa pulchritudinis %urnish the )asis %or ra"ica! e( eriments in the mannerist erio"' an" this concrete re!ationshi sho0s us that the roots o% mo"ern st&!e are em)e""e" in the hi""en re%inements o% tra"itiona! music* 6e can un"erstan" this situation %rom the "iscussion o% fictae or coloratae given )& 8a%urius' a "iscussion that "iverges %rom the re"ominant!& conservative out!oo3 characteristic o% his 0or3* He notes that co!oration ma& )e intro"uce" in three 0a&s= chromatic' mi(e"' an" enharmonic* A!! three are ornaments o% the )asic "iatonic genus* 8a%urius !imits his e( !anation to the mi(e" genus ?"iatonic-chromatic@* +eginning 0ith the as ect that "eve!o s %rom authorit&' he %irst sho0s ho0 one arrives at fa permutatum ?the or"inar& /fa@* At the same time' he in"icates that it is customar& to sing the itches' 8 F 8' as 8 F 8* This 3in" o% subsemitonium modi has no authoritative he(achor"* 8a%urius then conc!u"es that man& theorists assign mutations to ever& "egree in the gamut* As

e(am !es' he gives mi1fa on E' fa1mi on C' an" mi1fa on +* In e%%ect' 8a%urius is "escri)ing -fa )ase" on the + he(achor"' *mi )ase" on an A he(achor"' an" /fa )ase" on the tra"itiona! so%t he(achor"* A!! these notes an" he(achor"s he ca!!s musica ac0uistata. 8a%urius "oes not con"emn this ractice' )ut he is care%u! to ascri)e its acce tance to other theorists* /D Neverthe!ess' his e(am !es suggest that he is 0i!!ing to conce"e mutation as %ar as t0o %!ats an" t0o shar s* 8!areanus ta3es a simi!ar vie0 o% musica %icta' 0hich he "e%ines as notes not %oun" in the or"inar& gamut' there)& e(c!u"ing /fa. His i!!ustrations o% unusua! mutation inc!u"e mi on F' so! on E' an" fa on A* /E Un%ortunate!&' 8!areanus "oes not state recise!& 0hich he(achor"s are invo!ve" in these mutations* I% 0e ta3e him at his strict 0or"' these %icta must )e itches actua!!& outsi"e the gamut* It there%ore a ears that he means +mi' -sol' an" $fa* In that case' 8!areanus envisages the e(tension o% %!at mutation to a sur rising "egree o% chromaticism$that is' to %our %!ats* An" )ecause mutation )& shar s is unusua! in itse!%' he contents himse!% 0ith the mo"erate a"mission o% one shar * ListeniusCs statements in"icate that e(tensive %!at mutation is not entire!& un3no0n in the ear!& si(teenth centur&* He too "e%ines %icta as notes outsi"e the gamut* The rogression he gives can )e inter rete" as either -ut' +re, .mi, $fa' /sol' an" *la' or as -ut' +re' .mi' $fa' /sol, an" *la* /A A su)se#uent musica! i!!ustration ma3es it c!ear that Listenius re%ers to the he(achor" )eginning on -ut* Its 0ritten acci"enta!s ?+' E' an" A@ necessitate musica %icta ranging %rom + to 2* /B An attem t to so!mi5ate this me!o"& revea!s 0h& Listenius mentions that mutation o% this 3in" cannot )e e%%ecte" 0ithout consi"era)!e "isagreement* It a!so serves to stress that such a chromatic maniera is "e!i)erate!& !imite" to virtuoso singers an" to a se!ect au"ience* Ho0ever' in s ite o% its mani%est "i%%icu!ties' Listenius insists that such mutation is ossi)!e on an& note o% the gamut* It shou!" )e a arent at this oint that 0e have )ri"ge" the ga )et0een conservative an" revo!utionar& theor&* Even conservatives %ee! it incum)ent u on them to ta3e cogni5ance o% certain ra"ica! tren"s* In this vein 0e must un"erstan" the one unusua! e!ement in Coc!icoCs mutation s&stem* His so!mi5ation o% -lami ?E@ an" -lafa ?E@ "isa)uses the re eate" statements %oun" in secon"ar& !iterature to the e%%ect that -lafa 0as never recogni5e" in %i%teenth- an" si(teenth-centur& theor&* 6hat is more' ListeniusCs e(am !e' mentione" revious!&' rovi"es roo% that e(tensive %!at mutation is 0ari!& acce te" as a harmonic re%inement* His me!o"& contains im !icit 0ithin its vertica! re#uirements a series o% transitor& mo"u!ations= C' F' +' E' A' E' an" 2* The .3e& areas. thus suggeste" are' o% course' a resu!t o% the natura! )ehavior o% he(achor" mutation* Ho0ever' an& stu"ent o% )aro#ue harmon& imme"iate!& recogni5es the scheme as e#uiva!ent to circ!e-o%-%i%ths mo"u!ation* It matters not that si(teenth-centur& theorists "o not s ea3 o% mo"u!ation in the mo"ern sense* It e(ists in ractice' an" 0riters a roach this rea!it& %rom the on!& theoretica! too! the& have avai!a)!e to them$he(achor" mutation*

Circ!e-o%-%i%ths mo"u!ation cannot o erate in the strict!& "iatonic %rame0or3 o% mo"a!it&* Its unusua! harmonic "rive is c!ear!& un"erstoo" )& si(teenth-centur& musicians to )e a nove!t& in sonorit&* An" this nove!t&' characteristic o% a great "ea! o% chromaticism' s e!!s the )rea3"o0n o% the mo"es* There%ore' its im !ications are t0o%o!"= it ermits a 0i"e-ranging use o% unusua! acci"enta!s' an" it intro"uces an entire!& ne0 0a& o% organi5ing vertica! tria"s* 6e here 0itness one o% the most im ortant as ects o% he(achor" mutation* Origina!!& a neutra! "i"actic "evice %or singers' it has no0 "rastica!!& a!tere" the harmonic an" tona! s ectrum o% musica! voca)u!ar& at the "is osa! o% com osers* 7: 8!areanus an" Listenius are )& no means the on!& theorists to intimate the ossi)i!it& o% e(tensive %!at mutation* Agrico!a uts the case in a straight%or0ar" manner 0hen he notes that in o!& hon&' the notes A' 2' an" 8 can )e sung as fa* 7/ These %icta ro"uce he(achor"s u to 2* T0e!ve &ears ear!ier' Pietro Aaron a"vocates that a!! notes in the octave can )e so!mi5ate" on a!! si( voces musicales. His s&stem com)ines the tra"itiona! three he(achor"s 0ith a""itiona! %!at ones u to A* 77 This com)ination' ho0ever' ro"uces some inconsistencies in proprietas' the most noticea)!e o% 0hich is the !ac3 o% semitona! ermutations on C an" F* In or"er to ro"uce them' Aaron 0ou!" have to com !ete his roce"ure )& using *fa an" +fa )ase" on he(achor"s starting on 8 an" C* +ecause o% tuning ro)!ems a%%ecting enharmonic e#uiva!ence' Aaron states that these t0o he(achor"s are not goo"* From the stan" oint o% tra"itiona! theor&' AaronCs scheme a ears #uite "aring inasmuch as its "is1unct mutations resu!t in %or)i""en ermutations on ever& note e(ce t C an" F* From this %act 0e can conc!u"e that the he(achor" s&stem itse!% is un"ergoing a %un"amenta! change in the han"s o% those theorists 0ho see3 to 1usti%& chromatic st&!e* An" %or this reason' AaronCs scheme raises consi"era)!e interest in avant-gar"e circ!es* In one o% his !etters' 8iovanni S ataro argues that it is incom !ete on account o% its restriction to %!at mutation' an" he cites ;ohn Hoth)& an" +arto!omIo Ramos "e Pare1a as authorities %or mutation on the shar si"e* 7< Pro)a)!& )ecause o% this an" other !etters' Aaron !ater revise" his s&stem to inc!u"e shar mutation as %ar as the he(achor" on FJ * 7> For the same reasons as those given concerning the %!at s&stem' he omits the he(achor"s on C an" 8' 0hich nee" E an" +J acci"enta!s* No0' musica! com ositions that 0an"er 0i"e!& through mutations an" transitor& mo"u!ations raise severe ro)!ems %or tuning an" intonation' es ecia!!& in vie0 o% the scienti%ic remises o% the !atter* Ho0ever' mannerist ractitioners are not content 0ith or"er!& e( !oration o% either %!at or shar mutation4 the& %re#uent!& com)ine )oth t& es in c!ose ro(imit&* As a resu!t' 8 an" A ma& %o!!o0 each other' an" in some eccentric cases )e soun"e" simu!taneous!&* 6e have a!rea"& in"icate" that e#ua! tem erament rovi"es the on!& so!ution to the ro)!ems ose" )& ra"ica! st&!e* The musica! theorists 0ho su ort this s&stem are %e0* It is im !icit in S ataroCs notion that a!! notes o% the gamut 0ithout e(ce tion can )e raise" or !o0ere" )& a !&ing shar s or %!ats* 79 In a""ition to ver& unusua! acci"enta!s' such as "ou)!e shar s an" "ou)!e %!ats' S ataroCs s&stem entai!s a com !ete "ou)!e c&c!e o%

circ!e-o%-%i%ths mo"u!ation that en"s 0here it )egan' rovi"e" e#ua! tem ering has )een a !ie" a!ong the 0a&* A %e0 "eca"es ear!ier' An"reas Ornito arcnus states that musica %icta are a %act o% !i%e' an" that one o% their e%%ects is subita et improvisa mutatio* 7D +oth iso!ate" mutation an" s&stematic mo"u!ation un"ou)te"!& stri3e si(teenth centur& !isteners as su""en an" une( ecte" harmonic e(citement* 8regor Fa)erCs "iscussion o% %icta in terms o% causa necessitatis an" causa suavitatis must )e consi"ere" as a "ocument o% mannerist theor&* In his o inion' s0eet chromaticism has t0o %unctions$to re!ieve monoton& an" to mirror the 0or"s o% the te(t* 7E Such i"eas a)out musica! e( ressivit& have )een encountere" )e%ore* +ut the use o% the 0or" suavitas' an" the suggestion that ure!& "iatonic music is a !itt!e "u!!' can )e construe" as signa! mannerist conce ts* Even more stri3ing is the musica! e(am !e ic3e" )& Fa)er to i!!ustrate causa suavitatis$,atthaeus 8reiterCs &assibus ambiguis. Its cantus %irmus' +ortuna desperata, un%o!"s in an ostinato scheme 0here)& each statement mutates one ste in the %!at he(achor" s&stem= F' +' E' A' 2' 8' C' an" F* 7A 8reiter himse!% 0rote a )rie% "i"actic han")oo3 that inc!u"es unusua! he(achor" mutation* His technica! thesis maintains that an& note o% the gamut can )e sung to an& s&!!a)!e* His aesthetic thesis re"icates that %icta shou!" a ear in sur rising !aces* 7B This notion "emonstrates another as ect o% mannerist theor& an" rac tice* Once %ormer!& unusua! acci"enta!s have )ecome stereot& es' musicians in search o% nove! e%%ects are %orce" to envisage sti!! more "aring chromaticism* 6e have mentione" that Ramos is one o% the ear!iest authorities %or ra"ica! mutation cite" )& S ataro* Even though Ramos sus ects the much toute" e%%icac& o% the he(achor" s&stem' he neverthe!ess ta3es it as a oint o% "e arture* Ramos %irst e( !ains mi1fa coniunctae on +' E' an" A as 0e!! as fa1mi coniunctae on C an" F* <: He then constructs his o0n gamut 0ith he(achor"s starting on F' 8' A' +' C' 2' an" E$he(achor"s re#uiring the %o!!o0ing acci"enta!s= +' F' C' E' an" A* </ His rogressive attitu"e can )e a""uce" %rom the a"o tion o% unusua! %icta into a regu!ari5e" s&stem o% mutation* +ecause Ramos is most 3een!& intereste" in "evising a %!e(i)!e scheme %or harmonic variet& an" )eaut&' he maintains that one can arrange the natura! gamut on a higher itch on the one si"e an" on a !o0er itch on the other si"e* In this 0a&' the origina! "iatonic or"er engen"ers t0o chromatic ones* RamosCs tri artite s&stem ro"uces the %ive %icta revious!& !iste"* An" Ramos insists his scheme roves that singing the acci"enta! s&stems is e(act!& the same as singing the natura! one4 that is to sa&' that he(achor"a! proprietas o erates on )oth the %!at an" shar si"es* <7 +ut !i3e AaronCs s&stem' it is incom !ete an" there%ore inconsistent4 not a!! ermutations are the same si5e* Yet Ramos cannot )e %au!te" %or stating that contem orar& com osers use a!! the acci"enta!s he has s&stemati5e"' an" that his s&stem' %urthermore' teaches singers to recogni5e +-C as a minor thir" an" E-C as a tone* Consi"ering the "ate o% this treatise' 0e must a"mit the ra"ica! nature o% RamosCs conce t' one that resages !ater mannerist i"eas* The matter o% harmonic au"acities is a roache" %rom an entire!& "i%%erent ang!e )& Vicentino* Li3e other ra"ica!s' he )egins 0ith the gui"onian gamut )ut then !a&s his o0n

variations on it* A!together' he "escri)es seven or"ers= t0o "iatonic' t0o chromatic' an" three enharmonic* The %irst "iatonic resents the norma! gamut 0ithout an& acci"enta!s' 0hereas the secon" "iatonic intro"uces /fa in the !o0 octave* The %irst chromatic gamut uses %!at acci"enta!s' so that it ascen"s )& ma1or an" "escen"s )& minor semitones* Shar acci"enta!s in the secon" chromatic gamut ro "uce the o osite arrangement* The %irst enharmonic gamut mere!& "u !icates the %irst "iatonic one' )ut 0ith its itches raise" )& one "iesis* In the secon" enharmonic gamut' the minor semitone %oun" in the chromatic one is "ivi"e" )& the minor "iesis throughout* The "ivision o% the ma1or semitone into one minor an" one ma1or "iesis resu!ts in the thir" enharmonic gamut* << The com !e(ities o% this e(egesis have !ess to "o 0ith com !ete generic gamuts than 0ith VicentinoCs "esire to sho0 their construction )& !ogica! ste s* In their tota!it&' the gamuts "emonstrate the three genera* In scho!ar!& a raisa!s o% the si(teenth centur&' the ro!e assigne" to Vicentino in the "rama !a&e" )& in%!uentia! ra"ica!s has )een neg!igi)!e* Here is not the !ace to attem t a com !ete eva!uation o% his im ortance* Ho0ever' 0e must stress that his theoretica! vie0s are re!evant to the histor& o% mannerist thought* Ear!ier' 0e mentione" a num)er o% theorists in the !ate si(teenth centur& 0ho com)ine e(cer ts %rom Far!ino an" Vicentino* On!& mi!"!& rogressive to ics %rom his treatise are em !o&e" in these cases' an" it is c!ear that his ra"ica! notions a)out chromatic an" enharmonic st&!es ho!" no interest %or such 0riters* +ut it is incorrect to assume that VicentinoCs i"eas regar"ing voca! st&!es ass unnotice"* That the& are "iscusse" in "i%%erent musica! circ!es can )e a""uce" %rom the %act that severa! theorists' such as Far!ino' 8an"o!%o Sigonio' an" ;ean Taisnier' see %it to u)!ic!& re%ute them* <> Taisnier is a 3no0n !agiarist 0ho unashame"!& !i%ts conce ts %rom other theorists' an" 0e can there%ore assume that his con"emnation o% mo"ern nove!ties comes %rom some0here e!se* Neverthe!ess' his remar3s are revea!ing* Taisnier revie0s %our customar& "ivisions o% music* The %irst is the tri artite schema o% theorica' practica' an" poetica' a "ivision reminiscent o% Listenius' Coc!ico' an" Hermann Finc3* The %ourth "istinguishes )et0een chant an" %igure"' or o!& honic music* It is at this oint that Taisnier in"u!ges in his "is araging "igression* Po!& honic music itse!% e(hi)its t0o st&!es$ancient an" mo"ern* O% GmusicaH moderna, he sa&s that it .is ca!!e" nova or reservata )& some 0ho have "eci"e" that the im osition o% one or the other "iesis or "iaschisma in a secu!ar song or motet turns the "iatonic genus o% music into the chromatic' )eing com !ete!& ignorant o% the "ivergence o% the "iatonic %rom the chromatic an" enharmonic*. <9 As 0e mentione" ear!ier' Far!ino conc!u"es his remar3a)!e e( osition o% the art o% counter oint 0ith a surve& o% the ancient genera* His treatment is more than mere o)eisance to the anti#uarian interests o% humanist rea"ers* This au"ience has )een satis%ie" )& the materia! resente" in +oo3 II* In +oo3 III' Far!ino concentrates on ractica! e!ements a earing in mo"ern music* A%ter out!ining the generic ingre"ients o% the tetrachor"' <D he e( oses the erroneous remise )ehin" current theories o% the genera* Far!ino "ismisses a)stract theories a)out generic integrit& as 0e!! as their va!i"it& %or sustaining the thesis that mo"ern counter oint mi(es the three genera* An" his re%utation is more com !ete an" convincing than either that o% Vicente Lusitano or 8hise!in

2anc3erts* In sim !e terms' Far!ino insists that one must e(amine musica! ractice 0here these three st&!es are "e%ine" )& the nature o% me!o"ic movement* Thus' the "iatonic st&!e resu oses tona! movement' chromatic st&!e nee"s semitona! movement' an" enharmonic st&!e re#uires microtona! movement* <E To "emonstrate the ri"icu!ousness o% the non"iatonic genera' he "e!i)erate!& ic3s the case o% a com osition )ui!t on a chant' so that the cantus %irmus is su)1ecte" to some "evastating!& )i5arre changes* <A Far!ino conc!u"es that ieces in the ure chromatic an" enharmonic genera are oor e%%orts* +ut it is ossi)!e to choose those interva!s %rom the chromatic genus that )!en" 0e!! 0ith the "iatonic one' an" to use them in or"er to s0eeten an" var& the harmon& 0ithout "istur)ing the innate !a0s o% music* <B Far!ino )e!ieves that musicians must "istinguish c!ear!& )et0een t0o maniere o% com osition' one ancient an" one mo"ern* ,o"ern st&!e is o!& honic in contra"istinction to the mono honic ractice o% c!assica! times* +ecause o!& hon& "eman"s er%ection o% interva!s )oth in !inear an" vertica! arrangements' it is im ossi)!e to intro"uce the ure chromatic an" enharmonic genera* ,o"ern ra"ica!s err in thin3ing that the& have revive" ancient st&!e* Their com ositions re!& on a com !ete!& ne0 genus o% their o0n invention' an" one that is im er%ect inasmuch as it ignores the ru!es o% sonorous num)er* >: Far!ino a!so re%utes the i"ea that a!! interva!s' regar"!ess o% their mathematica! ro ortions' are via)!e in a st&!e that see3s rhetorica! e!o#uence* For him' musica! orator& is no su)stitute %or musica! )eaut&* A!though Vicentino is never once name" throughout this "iscussion' the terms o% Far!inoCs argument !eave no "ou)t as to the )utt o% his attac3* >/ VicentinoCs 2ierusalem convertere rovi"es us 0ith an instructive e(am !e o% chromatic e( erimentation in ractica! terms ?E(am !e KII-I@* No %or)i""en interva!s' such as the tritone' a ear* Ho0ever' the consistenc& o% semitona! me!o"ies #ua!i%ies it as a 0or3 in chromatic st&!e accor"ing to Far!inoCs "e%inition* This characteristic is a!so res onsi)!e %or the ecu!iar harmonic se#uences that a)oun" in the com osition' se#uences that 0ou!" sure!& o%%en" Far!ino* The& are articu!ar!& evi"ent in the o ening an" c!osing sections o% the iece' there)& "emonstrating VicentinoCs rece ts a)out the im ortance o% these structura! segments* The %irst one entai!s a constant vaci!!ation )et0een ma1or an" minor thir"s' ren"ere" even more strange )& %a!se re!ations )et0een consecutive shar s an" %!ats* The most %ascinating %eature o% this motet is the s arse use o% "issonances* In %act' ever& sing!e conste!!ation o% vertica! soun"s' ta3en in iso!ation' %orms a er%ect!& consonant tria"ic sonorit&* +ut the semitona! me!o"ic motion$ the !inear as ect o% the te(ture$)rings these tria"s' some o% 0hich re#uire unusua! acci"enta!s' into start!ing a osition* The ensuing "escri tion re!ies on mo"ern voca)u!ar& )ecause si(teenthcentur& ana!&tica! too!s rovi"e an un0ie!"& metho" %or han"!ing vertica! harmon&* The !ong o ening oint o% imitation' 0hose inganno creates the unsta)!e ma1or an" minor a!ternations note" a)ove' is com !ete" )& t0o ver& unusua! rogressions= t0o tria"s re!ate" )& semitone root-movement ?2 ma1or an" E ma1or@ an" t0o tria"s re!ate" )& thir" root-movement ?E ma1or an" C ma1or@* +oth semitona! re!ations an" thir"re!ations are %oreign to "iatonic st&!e4 the& are' ho0ever' inherent in chromatic st&!e an"

give this maniera its high!& "istinctive sona! character* The ne(t sma!! section ro"uces a transitor& mo"u!ation )& means o% a circ!e-o%-%i%ths in %our ste s' moving %rom C ma1or to E ma1or* The !ast t0o tria"s are re eate" in reverse or"er' an" !ea" into another thir"-re!ate" air ?+ ma1or an" 8 minor@* This !ast tria" s0itches imme"iate!& to 8 ma1or an" sets o%% another sma!! circ!e-o%-%i%ths containing three ste s %rom 8 ma1or to F ma1or* The momentum o% this rogression is a)ru t!& cut o%% )& t0o thir"-re!ations in a ro0 ?F Imitation and "#$ression Re!ate" to conce ts o% musica! e( ressivit& that can )e trace" )ac3 to the ear!iest treatises on music o% the ,i""!e Ages are %re#uent re%erences to mo"a! ethos that %orme" art o% a strong tra"ition o% citing c!assica! authors* An" to the same tra"ition o% auctoritas 0e must ascri)e the u)i#uitous comments a)out e( ressive o0er in "e%initions an" encomiums o% music* +oth ta!es o% musicCs magica! a)i!it& to ro%oun"!& move the !istener an" ethica! theories o% mo"es continue" to a ear in 0ritings o% the Renaissance* Ho0ever' %rom the aesthetic vie0 oint' the ne0 i"eas o% histor& em)race" )& renaissance theorists change" the ro%i!e o% these tra"itiona! to ics in a signi%icant 0a&* ,ost im ortant 0as the re!egation o% me"ieva! music to cru"e )ar)arism an" the concomitant )e!ie% that the ars nova o% the %i%teenth centur& s&m)o!i5e" a reviva! o% c!assica! i"ea!s ertaining to harmon& an" e( ressivit&* From the ractica! vie0 oint' mo"a! ethos en1o&e" as am)iguous a re!ationshi to contem oraneous o!& hon& as it "i" to me"ieva! music* For this reason' theorists mere!& re eate" common !ace characteristics %or the mo"es as 0e!! as genera! in1unctions a)out choosing a mo"e a ro riate to the te(t* These er%unctor& o)eisances to a minor to ic "i" not o)viate musicCs %irm !ace in the #ua"rivium* The "eve!o ment o% mannerist theor& )egins 0hen e( ressivit&' seen as a concrete musica! matter' in%!uences the o!"er a)stract conce ts o% counter oint* T0o stri3ing e(am !es o% this henomenon are the mo"a! s&stems o% Henricus 8!areanus an" 8iose%%o Far!ino* Their su)t!e too!s %or ana!&5ing me!o"ic structure an" mo"a! mi(ture o%%er a %!e(i)!e harmonic !anguage %or e( ressive st&!e* 8!areanus raises ;os#uin "es Pre5' the rince o% the er%ect art' %or his han"!ing o% the mo"es to create sonorous )eaut&' !&rica! charm' an" ro%oun" athos* +ut 8!areanusCs s&stem is sti!! some0hat o!"-%ashione" in that he c!ings to i"eas o% in"ivi"ua! mo"a! integrit& an" character* Far!ino' on the other han"' a""s a ne0 ana!&tica! insight that arises %rom his o)servation o% the st&!e o% A"rian 6i!!aert' the ne0 P&thagoras o% music* On the )asis o% the reva!ence o% ma1or or minor sonorities' Far!ino "ivi"es the mo"es into t0o grou s' ha & an" mourn%u!* 6hi!e it is remature to attri)ute to Far!ino even inci ient ma1or-minor tona!it&' / the mo"ernit& o% his s&stem cannot )e "enie"* In"ivi"ua! mo"es are !osing their %ormer!& "istinct character an" no0 coa!esce into t0o e( ressive categories' each o% 0hich is "e%ine" )& sa!ient common #ua!ities* A com oser see3ing sa" e%%ects can thus com)ine interva!s ro er to the Aeo!ian' 2orian' an" Phr&gian formae. The o!" taunt against ine t )ung!ers 0ho move %rom 2orian to Phr&gian has !ost its )ar)*

+oth 8!areanus an" Far!ino are humanist scho!ars 0ho rea" c!assica! sources' an" their ne0 i"eas concerning the mo"es are sure!& ins ire" )& the 3no0!e"ge thus gaine"* In these cases' humanist stu"& a!!o0s the a"a tation o% care%u!!& se!ecte" ancient theories %or the ur ose o% ma3ing contra unta! science re!evant to mo"ern st&!e* Such a"a tations are intro"uce" 0ith the un"erstan"ing that the& sha!! not "istur) the rimac& o% se!%-su%%icient musica! !a0s' !a0s that have a mathematica! )ase* Ho0ever' another set o% ne0 i"eas on e( ressivit& "oes succee" in un)a!ancing an" u!timate!& "estro&ing the !atter i"ea!* This henomenon arises out o% another ha & misun"erstan"ing o% c!assica! sources* +ut this ta!e must )e to!" a !itt!e !ater* Humanist scho!arshi is a!so res onsi)!e %or one o% the most %ecun" notions in the si(teenth an" ear!& seventeenth centuries* Rene0e" ac#uaintance 0ith Aristot!e an" the eri atetic schoo! o% ancient hi!oso h& su orts man& nove! i"eas' the most im ortant o% 0hich is the theor& o% mimesis. Its im act on the !i)era! arts is imme"iate an" !asting* An" the evo!ution o% oetic an" !iterar& mimesis has articu!ar re!evance %or musica! theories o% imitation* Among the mu!ti%acete" conce ts re!ating music an" the imitation o% nature' 7 0e can iso!ate t0o "ominant i"eas' one #uite ra"ica! an" one mo"erate!& rogressive* 6e )egin 0ith the !atter* This %acet encourages su)t!e trans%ormation o% neo !atonic i"eas an" concerns the conce t o% nature as a s&stem o% natura! !a0s to )e imitate" )& the arts* In this 3in" o% imitation' art %in"s mo"e!s not in the e(terna! a earance o% nature )ut rather in its inner rinci !es* This is the )asis %or the renaissance )e!ie% in i"ea! mathematica! ro ortions* ,usicians ta3e %or grante" their !ace in the !i)era! arts an" )as3 com%orta)!& in the re%!ecte" g!or& o% their er%ect art' an art )orn %rom the 0e"!oc3 o% mathematics an" a)stract counter oint* +ut various sociomusica! ressures "uring the si(teenth centur& encourage musicians to turn their attention to ractica! criticism an" the art o% com ositiona! st&!e at the e( ense o% s ecu!ative hi!oso h& an" a)stract science* The neo !atonic notion o% cosmo!ogica! harmon& %a!!s into "isre ute' an" the hiatus thus create" !ies )ehin" the crisis in musica! theor& %e!t )& a!! sensitive musicians o% the time* In !osing its hi!oso hica! anchor' music is set a"ri%t* ,an& conservatives stic3 tenacious!& to the rece t that music imitates the natura! !a0s o% the cosmos' even though the& sus ect that man& o% the mathematica! %ormu!ations connecte" 0ith this rece t no !onger seem to have an& )earing on musica! ractice* This re"icament "emonstrates 0h& Far!inoCs 0or3 ma3es such a resoun"ing im act 0ithin the conservative arena* Far!ino revives the honor an" re!evance o% s ecu!ative reasoning 0ithout neg!ecting em irica! sense* His cr&sta!!i5ation o% the er%ect art re!ies on t0o i"eas that su ort his construct= maniera an" imitazione. It is the !atter i"ea that concerns us here* Im !icit in Far!inoCs s&stem is the rimac& o% nature$the mo"e! %or musica! st&!e* Nature gives music its soggetto' an" music %u!%i!!s the inherent #ua!ities o% this su)1ect* < +ut it shou!" not' in"ee" cannot' im rove on nature )& "e arting %rom the mo"e!* > For this reason' Far!ino "oes not a rove o% mannerist e(cesses' even though the& ma& )e 1usti%ie" as ornaments o% nature* The %irst an" most im ortant soggetto given to music )& nature constitutes the mathematica! !a0s o% soun"* ,usic is soun"ing num)er* On a su er%icia! !eve!' this i"ea seems to )e nothing more than a re etition o%

outmo"e" #ua"rivia! theor&* 9 Ho0ever' Far!ino e( an"s the &thagorean tetraktys to the senario, a num)er set that a!!o0s him to "igni%& im er%ect consonances 0ith mathematica! e(egesis* Their incor oration into 1ust intonation vin"icates the musica! st&!e o% his "a&* The senario a!so su orts Far!inoCs ne0 arrangement o% the mo"es* In short' music imitates the re%inements o% nature )& em)o"&ing numero sonoro* D This remar3a)!e scheme ermits Far!ino to unite the s ecu!ative' hi!oso hica!' aesthetic' an" technica! as ects o% music into an organic 0ho!e* Far!ino a!so "iscusses the soggetto in such a 0a& as to intimate ana!ogies 0ith art an" !iterature' ana!ogies )ase" on technica! aesthetic i"ea!s* Counter oint gro0s out o% a soggetto della compositione$a musica! theme* Far!inoCs conce t o% the musica! imitation o% nature )ecomes a !itt!e com !e( at this oint* A musica! theme itse!% cannot )e natura! inasmuch as it is an arti%icia! ro"uct o% the %antas&* +ut it ossesses musica! #ua!ities that are natura! to it* Its nature a%%ects ever& "etai! o% musica! st&!e' )ecause a goo" com oser 0i!! create his iece o% music 0ith a vie0 to revea!ing the !atent attri)utes o% the su)1ect* Furthermore' the more su erior the st&!e' the more convincing an" o0er%u! 0i!! )e the em)o"iment o% the su)1ect* This i"ea o% the soggetto sets the stage %or the entrance o% an e!a)orate conceit* Far!inoCs "etai!e" e( !anation o% fuga an" imitatione resents these t0o contra unta! st&!es in terms o% rhetorica! %igures or tro es* The& emerge as ornaments or re%inements 0rought on soun" an" correct ?i*e* mathematica!@ roce"ure* A!though imitatione occurs in ear!ier theor&' Far!ino is the %irst 0riter to stress the term' ro)a)!& )ecause o% the in%!uence o% the artistic notion o% imitazione della natura. Haar suggests that Far!ino seems "issatis%ie" 0ith fuga as a term )ecause it !ac3s the humanistic an" rhetorica! overtones o% imitatione* E Far!ino' o% course' envisages )oth fuga an" imitatione as means o% attaining a grace%u! an" )eauti%u! st&!e that goes )e&on" mere correctness* +ut his most !avish a"1ectives are reserve" %or imitatione. +& "e%inition' fuga re resents a rigorous 3in" o% counter oint )ecause o% its rigi" restrictions' an" o% course' the com oser "emonstrates his s3i!! an" ingenuit& in han"!ing these restrictions 0ith goo" taste* +ut imitatione, )& virtue o% its %!e(i)i!it&' o%%ers the com oser more %ree"om o% choice* He must there%ore ossess a greater measure o% st&!istic %!air so that his search %or variet& !eases )& its ingenuit& an" &et !ac3s eccentricit&* Origina! an" taste%u! imitatione e(ercises the com oserCs innate %ee!ing %or elegante maniera* A Its %usion o% ru!es an" o% their su)t!e 0or3ing out "emonstrates the com oserCs cra%t an" genius* ,mitatione, then' is e!astic enough to accommo"ate musica! roce"ures un"erstoo" as se!%-su%%icient entities to the notion o% imitating the te(t' this !ast )eing the thir" meaning o% soggetto in Far!inoCs theor&* The rather %ine nuances o% Far!inoCs vie0s regar"ing the thir" soggetto have )een insu%%icient!& stresse" in mo"ern scho!arshi * First o% a!!' 0e note that 0or"s are o)1ective natura! mo"e!s %or musica! com osition* There%ore' the structure o% a 0or3 must imitate their natura! #ua!ities ? roso"& an" grammatica! sense@

0ithout sacri%icing ure!& musica! !a0s* No0' it is true that Far!ino a!so ta!3s a)out the e( ression o% the a%%ections4 )ut in terms o% his o0n argument' this as ect is not connecte" 0ith imitazione del soggetto della parole* An" in this cha ter' his notions a)out a%%ective character 0i!! )e "iscusse" un"er another categor&' one 0hich I ca!! e( ressivit& ermitte" 0ithin the !a0s o% goo" roce"ure* In Far!inoCs s&stem' imitation o% 0or"s invo!ves correct "ec!amation' an" he ma3es this ver& c!ear in his %amous ten ru!es' ru!es a"a te" %rom 8iovanni ,aria Lan%ranco an" in turn a"a te" )& 8as ar Sto#uerus* B These three 0riters share a humanist concern %or ver)a! inte!!igi)i!it&* +ut I must stress at this oint that their rece ts are not e#uiva!ent to ra"ica! interest in vivi"' ictoria!' an" a%%ective re resentation o% conceits an" assions* +ecause I consi"er theories ro oun"ing a"herence to roso"& an" grammatica! sense in tra"itiona! o!& hon& as corres on"ing to imitazione delle parole' I have create" another categor& to com rise theories cham ioning the "e !o&ment o% musica! e!ements %or a%%ective ur oses$that is' e( ressivit& ermitte" 0ithin the !a0s o% goo" roce"ure$a categor& that re resents a com romise concession ma"e )& conservative an" rogressive thin3ers* A"rianus Petit Coc!ico suggests such a "ivision in his "e%inition o% music= the art o% singing an" com osing in a correct an" grace%u! 0a&* /: The a"1ectives recte an" ornate can )e inter rete" as recognition o% the scienti%ic )asis o% music on the one han"' an" o% rhetorica! ornamentation on the other* Coc!ico em hatica!!& re 1ects the o!" a)stract or mathematica! metho"s an" instea" treats music as a sister o% rhetoric' an attitu"e that c!ear!& oints the 0a& to mannerist conce ts* O% course' in mature an" !ate ,annerism' rhetorica! e!o#uence oversha"o0s scienti%ic an" a)stract structura! i"ea!s*// Even those theorists 0ho insist on the mathematica! a roach cannot avoi" a"mitting that musica! materia!s a!so serve genera! e( ressive ur oses* So' Franchinus 8a%urius suggests that each com osition must suit the te(t' )ut he "oes not "emonstrate ho0 to achieve such e( ressivit& e(ce t )& enumerating the customar& !ist o% vague mo"a! characters* /7 As 0e have seen' 8!areanus osits the e( ressive ossi)i!ities o% mo"a! com)inations* An" his "isa rova! o% the enchant %or vo!u tuous soun" evi"ent in these mi(tures is ver& re!evant to inci ient musica! ,annerism* Far!ino a!so "iscusses simi!ar e( ressive "evices* In true humanist %ashion' he )egins )& re%erring to P!atoCs em hasis on the e( ression o% the 0or"s* An" he goes on to sa& that the com oser must choose his mo"e care%u!!&' an" then accom an& the 0or"s 0ith a ro riate harmon& an" rh&thm* ;o&%u! sentiments ca!! %or the tone an" ma1or semitone4 sa" %ee!ings re#uire the minor semitone' minor thir"' an" minor si(th4 harsh a%%ections are )est serve" )& the ma1or si(th' as 0e!! as )& the s&nco ate" %ourth an" seventh* S0i%t an" vigorous rh&thm e( resses ha iness' 0hereas s!o0 rh&thm e( resses a%%!iction an" )itterness* Far!ino a!so notes that music 0ithout acci"enta!s is sonorous an" viri!e' 0hereas musica %icta ro"uce so%t an" !angui" e%%ects* Lest the com oser ta3e these remar3s as ermission to in"u!ge in e(cessive nove!ties' Far!ino 0arns him that these "evices must never o%%en" the senses an" reason* His comments are accom anie" )& musica! e(am !es ta3en %rom the 0or3s o% 6i!!aert' the com oser to 0hom Far!ino attri)utes the re1uvenation o% e!egant st&!e* /<

,annerists "isregar" Far!inoCs !ea %or tem erance* +ecause the& see3 start!ing e!o#uence' the& have no atience 0ith vie0s that co"i%& the i"ea!s o% time!ess st&!e* In their o inion' rogress cannot )e "enie"' an" their re%inements ave the 0a& %or the %uture* Once restraint has !ost its meaning%u!ness' e( ressive "evices can )e use" %ree!& an" in an& e(aggerate" %orm re#uire" )& the vivi" conceits o% oetr&* +ut even this e(treme %orm o% iconoc!asm has hi""en roots in tra"itiona! ractice* Ra"ica! musicians sim !& trans%orm e(ce tions to the ru!e into norms o% st&!e* +ut )e%ore "escri)ing their a roach' it might )e he! %u! to surve& those reactionar& theorists ?reactionar&' that is' in the e&es o% ra"ica!s@ 0ho a"mit the e(istence o% !icenses an" e(ce tions* Tinctoris ermits the re etition o% im er%ect consonances %or the sa3e o% the te(t* /> 8!areanus a!!o0s unusua! mo"a! mi(tures in connection 0ith start!ing "e iction o% the a%%ections* In s ite o% his re eate" a"monitions regar"ing the immuta)!e rimac& o% soun"ing num)er' Far!ino states that some te(ts ins ire nonharmonic rogressions an" e(tensive chromaticism* Even his raise o% contrapunto con obligo can )e construe" as recognition o% mo"ern rhetorica! ornamentation* 6hen the musica! re etitions characteristic o% such counter oint e( ress a articu!ar te(t' their "ramatic #ua!it& )ecomes #uite rominent* In the han"s o% mannerist com osers o% secu!ar music' these e(ce tions )ecome common !ace* At the en" o% the si(teenth centur&' this situation is a"mitte" )& 8iovanni ,aria Artusi 0hen he cites the use o% s0eet an" even harsh "issonances in the ma"riga!s o% Ci riano "e Rore' Or!an"o "e Lasso' 8iaches "e 6ert' an" others* /9 Conservative theorists' then' ermit musica! !icenses to a greater or !esser e(tent' rovi"e" that the mathematica! %oun"ation o% correct ru!es is not too sha3en u * Te(tua! e(igencies are to )e %o!!o0e"4 ho0ever' the& %orm )ut one consi"eration %or the com ositiona! act* As mannerists turn their attention more an" more to etrarchist an" concettist verse' the te(t assumes rimar& im ortance* The un"er!&ing aesthetic o% ra"ica! st&!e can )e thus summe" u $imitazione del concetto delle parole* In this hrase 0e 0itness the "ee in%!uence o% oetic theor& an" ractice on com osers 0ho come into contact 0ith !iterar& notions through courts' aca"emies' an" humanist )oo3s* ,inute an" gra hic re resentation o% oetic conceits )ecomes a matter o% ri"e' an" com osers o%ten a"vertise their ta!ent %or this 3in" o% com osition* For instance' in his re%ator& remar3s to an e"ition o% %unerea! ma"riga!s' 8iu!io +onagionta states that the music therein resents concenti molti proprii alli concetti delle parole* /D ,ontever"iCs ce!e)rate" a o!og& %or the secon" ractice is antici ate" as ear!& as /9DB in another re%ace )& ,arc Antonio ,a55one* This com oser consi"ers critics o% mo"ern music stu i" an" ignorant )ecause the& "o not rea!i5e that 0hi!e the notes are the )o"& o% a com osition' the te(t is its sou!* ;ust as the )o"& %o!!o0s the sou!' the notes must %o!!o0 the sentiments o% the 0or"s* Furthermore' the com oser ma& even neg!ect the ru!es %or a%%ective ur oses* /E In the 0or"s o% 8iu!io Cesare ,ontever"i' l"oratione sia padrona dell"armonia e non serva* /A

The i"ea that music shou!" imitate the conceits o% oetr& ins ires com osers to match the 0it' e!egance' an" grotes#ueness o% oetic invention 0ith a )arrage o% ictoria! "evices* These can )e ure!& visua! e&e music or aura! %igures' an" the& #uic3!& "eve!o into a stereot& e" set o% ma"riga!isms* An" this "ua!it& has cause" some misun"erstan"ing* It is c!ear that in the min"s o% mannerist musicians' concrete 0or" ainting re!ates to the imitation o% the a%%ections* Poetic enargeia is trans%orme" into an aesthetic %or e!o#uence in music* As I have state" revious!&' this aesthetic is 0i"e!& romu!gate" )& humanist 0riters* +& imitating the conceits o% oetr& 0ith ictoria! "evices' mannerist com osers there%ore )e!ieve that the& a!so e( ress the assions o% these conceits in a articu!ar!& vivi" an" moving 0a&* The inte!!ectua! o)1ectivit& inherent in a%%ective re resentation arises %rom its !in3 0ith the imitation o% conceits* ;ust as !iterar& theorists conceive concetti to )e rhetorica! ornaments o% oetic st&!e' so musicians consi"er visua! an" aura! %igures' %igures "e icting oetic conceits' to )e ornaments o% ma"riga!ian st&!e* It shou!" )e %urther note" that mo"ern historians err 0hen the& c!assi%& ictoria! "evices as rea!istic* /B Rea!ism to"a& connotes natura!ism' an" the high!& eccentric re resentation o% 0or"s an" a%%ections in the si(teenth-centur& ma"riga! is an&thing )ut natura!* In %act' the 5ar!inian schoo! o% theor&' 0hich )ases its aesthetic on the imitation o% nature' critici5es ma"riga!isms recise!& on the groun"s that the& are unnatura!4 the& "istort the er%ect art that imitates the inner !a0s o% nature an" are there%ore ver& arti%icia! an" mannere"* Cham ions o% musica! rhetoric 0ou!" a"mit the arti%icia!it& o% their aesthetic )ut at the same time 0ou!" consi"er this aesthetic to )e 0on"er%u! an" marve!ous$in short' mannerist rather than mannere"* O% course' the conservative vie0 %orgets that even th imitation o% natura! !a0s i"ea!i5es an" ornaments nature* The same ro)!ems an" the same "ivergent va!ues can )e %oun" in theories o% the visua! arts an" !iterature* The theoretica! conce tion an" ractica! use o% musica! conceits is a com !e( henomenon* Pure!& ictoria! 0or" ainting consists o% e&e music 0hose visua! e%%ect "e en"s on esoteric uns gras e" on!& )& er%ormers* This tra"ition is a ver& o!" one going )ac3 to the ,i""!e Ages4 )ut even then it 0as vie0e" as a 0itt& rhetorica! tro e* Aura! %igures are more am)iguous inasmuch as the& "e ict conceits an" a%%ect the !istener* The& have a "ou)!e ur ose= to imitate concetti )& their gra hic sha e an" to "ramati5e the a%%ective meaning o% the conceits )& "ra0ing the !istenerCs attention to them* The e%%ectiveness o% aura! %igures remains a matter o% "e)ate to the resent "a&' an" this "e)ate not on!& !um)s the "e ths o% musica! aesthetics )ut a!so in%!uences assessments o% ,annerism* Aura! %igures' then' entai! musica! sha es )ase" on rh&thm an" motion= running me!ismas' sighing contours' une( ecte" sto s' 1agge" interva!s' rising an" %a!!ing me!o"ies* Such "evices concreti5e as ects o% motion containe" in the 0or"s an" "ramati5e innate gestures im !ie" )& the a%%ective meaning o% the conceits* Some o% them a ear in renaissance o!& hon& as 0e!!' )ut here the& are em !o&e" as a)stract s&m)o!s* An" the& never reach e(aggerate" ro ortions that "istur) the ro er mathematica! )asis o% counter oint* ,annerists' on the other han"' mani u!ate such "evices unti! the&

)ecome st&!i5e" com onents o% rhetorica! enargeia* To them' the& a"" other start!ing %igures that not on!& "isru t organic structure )ut a!so augment an un"enia)!& "ramatic "imension* 6e must un"erstan" that 0e are here "ea!ing 0ith an i!!usion $an i!!usion o% a%%ective "rama create" )& the use o% these "evices* +ut this i!!usion a ears ver& rea! )ecause o% the mannerist conviction that music can match the tangi)!e rhetoric o% s eech* To this conviction 0e must a!so attri)ute the in%i!tration o% so!oistic voice treatment 0ithin o!& honic roce"ure' together 0ith its concomitant %eatures o% recitative!i3e "ec!amation an" virtuoso em)e!!ishment* ,annerist "e!ight in a%%ective "ramati5ation thus !ea"s to the )rea3"o0n o% the ars perfecta an" u!timate!& to the "eve!o ment o% the concerte" ma"riga! an" mono"&* In this conte(t' the "egree o% se!%conscious a%%ectation se arates mannerist %rom )aro#ue music* Another means o% aura! e!o#uence sur%aces in the "e !o&ment o% unusua! harmonic rogressions* A!though rece"ents e(ist in the er%ect art' the invention an" e!a)oration o% a ne0 musica! !anguage must )e ascri)e" to mannerist st&!e* Li)era! musica %icta' start!ing he(achor" mutation' circ!e-o%-%i%ths mo"u!ation' %ree "issonance treatment' %a!se re!ations' nonharmonic interva!s' an" semitona! me!o"ies a!! contri)ute to the astonishing gro0th o% chromaticism* Inso%ar as harmonic rh&thm an" sha e are concerne"' these "evices share the characteristics o% the aura! %igures revious!& "escri)e"* In other 0or"s' harmonic nove!ties can )e gra hic an" a%%ective at the same time' an" are so conceive" )& most mannerist com osers* In iso!ate" usage' au"acious harmon& mere!& im resses )& its intrusion into tra"itiona! soun"s* +ut this as ect o% com ositiona! techni#ue a!so "eve!o s into a stereot& e" )atter& o% rhetorica! ornaments* I% 0e ta3e ma"riga!isms as a grou ' 0e then notice a situation ana!ogous to that o% musicCs sister arts* I% the a%%ective o0er o% music resi"es in its a)i!it& to sur rise' %ormer nove!ties that have )ecome common !aces o% st&!e must )e re !ace" )& ne0er nove!ties* Inso%ar as even the most e( ressive an" convincing com ositions retain an e!ement o% arti%icia!it&' this e!ement arising %rom the inte!!ectua! o)1ecti%ication o% imitative-a%%ective rinci !es' such com ositions easi!& stan" as mo"e!s* Thus' the )est an" 0orst e(am !es o% ,annerism contri)ute to a se!%-conscious attitu"e to0ar" musica! achievement* Attenuate" st&!i5ation is an inesca a)!e %eature o% maniera* An" this #ua!it& o% contrive" rhetoric is cherishe" )& an e!ite circ!e o% ro%essiona!s an" amateurs 0ho e#uate connoisseurshi 0ith a reciation o% the re%ine" an" )i5arre* Consi"ering this c!imate' it seems ara"o(ica! that ever&one in the si(teenth centur& insists so much on the e( ressive o0er o% maniera. S ontaneous reaction to arti%icia! conceits 0ou!" a ear to )e a contra"iction in terms' )ut the "e!icate )a!ance struc3 )et0een "e!i)erate inte!!ectua!ism an" invo!untar& emotiona!ism can )e ta3en as the ha!!mar3 o% musica! ,annerism* Pro%i!e" against the musica! heritage o% the Renaissance' arti%icia! conceits emerge as the 0ea ons 0ith 0hich mannerists convince their so histicate" au"ience o% the emotiona! o0er o% music* +oth creators an" consumers !a& the game o% 0i!!ing "is)e!ie%* The sa!ient oint is that musicCs e( ressive ca a)i!it& rests entire!& on the o)1ective imitation o% conceits an" the o)1ective re resentation o% the a%%ections* I have

stresse" this oint )ecause the remise o% the mannerist aesthetic remains %oreign to t0entieth-centur& hi!oso h& o% music' an" it re#uires a consi"era)!e e%%ort to un"erstan" the issues in their ro er historica! %rame0or3* Our search %or si(teenth-centur& %ormu!ations o% conce ts re!ate" to imitative-a%%ective st&!e )rings us to theories that !ie c!ear!& outsi"e the ru)rics o% music un"erstoo" as the imitation o% natura! !a0s an" e( ressive "evices a!!o0e" 0ithin these !a0s* Com are" to the theorists o% or"inar& counter oint 0ho can "e en" on a 0eight& tra"ition' cham ions o% nove!t& re resent a sma!! )ut voca! minorit&* Avant-gar"e theor& "oes not a"e#uate!& mirror the o u!arit& or e(tent o% mannerist e!ements as the& e(ist in ractice* In the %rame0or3 o% the histor& o% musica! thought' ho0ever' ra"ica! vie0s attest to a gro0ing conviction that ne0 music is %ar su erior to o!" music* Un!i3e 0riters on the visua! arts an" !iterature' ra"ica! thin3ers in music must com)at a %irm!& entrenche" esta)!ishment that u ho!"s the revere" rece ts o% a er%ect art* The !atter' as 0e have seen' %urnishes t0o hints e!uci"ating the im act ma"e )& nove!t&= %irst' the %re#uent attac3s on mo"ern ractice' an" secon"' the e(ce tions to acce te" ru!es* The %irst hint casts a vio!ent!& negative !ight on maniera 0hereas the secon" rovi"es 0ar& recognition o% some o% its technica! re%inements* Nico!a Vicentino resents a "etai!e" an" ver& mi!itant statement on )eha!% o% ,annerism in music* Those as ects o% his theor& a!rea"& "iscusse" sho0 that %or Vicentino' imitative-a%%ective aesthetics are inse ara)!e %rom technica! %eatures* Consi"ering the "ate o% his 0or3' this ama!gam is high!& origina!* Notions a)out musica! e( ressivit& are no !onger a en"e" as a%terthoughts to the science o% counter oint* On the contrar&' the& arise natura!!& %rom consi"erations o% com ositiona! rinci !es re"icate" on st&!e* Vicentino stresses throughout his treatise that interva!s' har monies' mo"es' rh&thms' an" the genera have e( ressive character* This remise vin"icates )oth his tit!e an" his o ening remar3s$ the effetti musicale an" dolci concenti 7: o% ancient music can )e riva!e" an" sur asse" )& mo"ern music* In his instructions %or com osing s0eet an" harmonious com ositions' Vicentino sing!es out three im ortant as ects o% musica! e!o#uence* First o% a!!' the com oser must arrange the interva!s ?in !inear succession@ al suggietto delle parole. Then' these me!o"ic interva!s must )e accom anie" )& a ro riate harmonies an" )& ertinent movements* 7/ Vicentino stresses the ro!e o% tem o' an" "istinguishes among %our genera! s ee"s= s!o0' me"ium' %ast' an" ver& %ast* He a!so 0arns the stu"ent that the rate o% motion can a!ter the a%%ective #ua!ities o% interva!!ic structures* 77 ,ost re!evant to our resent to ic is VicentinoCs "escri tion o% the com onents that ma3e u goo"' )a"' an" in"i%%erent e%%ects* The goo" t& e arises %rom e(cite" interva!s accom anie" )& e(cite" harmonies an" %ast movement' or %rom sa" interva!s accom anie" )& sa" harmonies an" s!o0 movements* An& com)ination o% o osites 0i!! ro"uce a )a" e%%ect )ecause the e( ressive e!ements contra"ict each other* His %ina! i!!ustration is a stri3ing commentar& on mannerist o inions o% or"inar& st&!e* Vicentino states categorica!!& that i% the com oser mi(es sa" an" e(cite" e!ements throughout a com osition' the e%%ect is neither goo" nor )a"4 it is at )est con%use"* 7< I% 0e com are this eva!uation 0ith Far!inoCs a"vice to mi( interva! s ecies an" rh&thms in

or"er to achieve variet& an" harmonious com osition' the 0i"e!& "ivergent vie0s o% conservatives an" ra"ica!s a)out bella maniera emerge 0ith articu!ar!& strong %orce* Vicentino a!so re eats RamosCs "ivision )et0een "evout sta)i!it& an" mo)i!e 1o&ousness* +ut this genera! "ec!aration' 0hich re%ers to )asic moo" evocation' re!ates to the motet* 7> Secu!ar music' )& 0a& o% contrast' %eatures minute 0or" ainting an" ra i"!& changing e( ressive e%%ects* It is in this conte(t that 0e must rea" VicentinoCs %amous summation o% the aesthetic remise )ehin" mannerist st&!e= For music is 0ritten to a te(t an" is ma"e so!e!& to e( ress the conceits' assions' an" a%%ections o% the 0or"s 0ith harmon&* An" i% the 0or"s s ea3 o% mo"est&' the com osition shou!" rocee" mo"est!&' an" not in an in%uriate" 0a&4 an" i% the& s ea3 o% 1o&' the music must not )e sa"4 an" i% o% sa"ness' it shou!" not )e com ose" gai!&4 an" 0hen the& are )itter' it shou!" not )e s0eet4 an" 0hen s0eet' it shou!" not accom an& them "i%%erent!& )ecause the& 0i!! seem "istorte" %rom their conceit4 an" 0hen the& s ea3 o% s0i%tness' it shou!" not )e s!ac3 or s!o04 an" 0hen o% stan"ing' it shou!" not run4 an" 0hen the& "emonstrate going together' the music shou!" )e arrange" so that the arts are 1oine" 0ith a )reve )ecause the !atter is more o)vious than a semi)reve or minim**** 79 A%ter continuing 0ith sti!! more concrete a"vice' Vicentino conc!u"es that care%u! o)servance o% a!! his recommen"ations ena)!es the com oser to ro"uce una bella maniera* It is in re!ation to the a)ove comments that Pa!isca ma3es the %o!!o0ing o)servation= .VicentinoCs greatest contri)ution to musica! aesthetics 0as that he re !ace" the renaissance i"ea! o% harmoniousness an" ro ortion 0ith the )aro#ue i"ea! o% e( ressiveness*. 7D A!though man& o% VicentinoCs notions survive in !ater $ffektenlehre an" +igurenlehre' his aesthetic )etter e(em !i%ies ,annerism )et0een /9<: an" /D<:* His conce tion ro%i!es the "eve!o ment o% a "istinct st&!e that ta3es as its remise the norms o% the er%ect art o% the renaissance' trans%orms them an" "istorts them into a convention o% a%%ecte" re%inement' an" contri)utes to the i"ea! o% rhetorica! o0er in music' an i"ea! to )e %u!!& e( !oite" )& the +aro#ue* Re%erences to imitative-a%%ective st&!e in other 0ritings i!!ustrate that ,annerism is a %u!!& mature henomenon' an" that' at the c!ose o% the centur&' it has cause" a seeming!& irre ara)!e )reach )et0een tra"itiona! an" mo"ern music* This )i%urcation !ies at the heart o% C!au"io ,ontever"iCs ce!e)rate" remar3s' annotate" )& his )rother' 8iu!io Cesare* 7E The source is too 0e!! 3no0n to re#uire "etai!e" comment4 I there%ore concentrate on its mannerist im ort* ,ontever"i ta3es issue 0ith ArtusiCs accusation that he com oses ha ha5ar"!&* Ha" Artusi rovi"e" the 0or"s %or the e(cer ts he critici5e"' then ever&one cou!" "iscern the error o% his 1u"gment* ,ontever"iCs st&!e ta3es the te(t as its oint o% "e arture' an" there%ore' its "issonance treatment "i%%ers %un"amenta!!& %rom that %oun" in the music Artusi va!ues* The attitu"e e(em !i%ie" )& this re)utta! is t& ica! o% mannerist aesthetics' an" m& inter retation receives su ort %rom other comments' such as the !ist o% com

osers su !ie" to give the secon" ractice a historica! tra"ition* O% s ecia! im ortance is 8iu!io CesareCs re%erence to Ci riano "e Rore' the %irst com oser to rene0 the secon" ractice* This %ascinating remar3 suggests that mo"ern music re1uvenates ancient c!assica! i"ea!s ?hence the re%erence to P!ato@' an" that it is the unru!& heir o% the %irst ractice* To achieve its su erior goa!' mo"ern music "istorts an" a)an"ons tra"itiona! rece ts* ,ontever"i states "e!i)erate!& that mo"ern music is a secon" ractice an" not a secon" theor&* He there%ore ro oses to ca!! his %orthcoming treatise' 3he &erfection of Modern Music, a tit!e that stresses t0o things= %irst' mo"ern music em)o"ies the er%ection o% me!o"&' or the e( ressive union o% 0or" an" tone4 an" secon"' its remises em)race ractica! rather than theoretica! consi"erations* 7A Lest Artusi or an& o% his conservative co!!eagues continue to attac3 mo"ern music on the groun"s that imitative-a%%ective "evices create a tota!!& a)sur" st&!e 0ith no musica! merit 0hatsoever' ,ontever"i c!oses his argument 0ith the ro osition that the secon" ractice satis%ies )oth reason an" sense* 6hen "ea!ing 0ith reason' 8iu!io CesareCs !ogic )ecomes a !itt!e %u55&* His secon" roo% is se!%-evi"ent on!& to those 0ho acce t the i"ea! o% mo"ern music$to 0it' that te(tua! su remac& ro"uces me!o"ic er%ection* To those 0ho "o not acce t it' er%ection o% me!o"& cannot con"one im er%ection o% harmon&* His %irst roo% is mani%est!& untrue* He c!aims that mo"ern music uses the consonances an" "issonances a rove" )& mathematics* ArtusiCs an" Far!inoCs "isa rova! o% nove! maniera invo!ves the incontesta)!e %act that nonharmonic rogressions' !&ing outsi"e sonorous num)er' a)oun" in mo"ern music* ,ontever"iCs te(t goes on to sa& that mo"ern music !eases the senses )ecause te(tua! comman" over rh&thm an" harmon& resu!ts in a tota! e%%ect that can in%!uence the "is osition o% the min"* Here he c!ear!& re%ers to the a%%ective an" rhetorica! o0er o% the secon" ractice* Se!%-su%%icient harmon& a!one is inca a)!e o% ro"ucing e(trinsic e%%ects* It can re are the min" %or genera! moo"s' )ut it cannot e( ress e(tramusica! things* Far!ino agrees 0ith these i"eas' )ut o% course' he eva!uates them %rom a "i%%erent oint o% vie0* The rece"ing notion is c!ari%ie" )& one concrete e(cursus* 8iu!io Cesare oints out that in the %irst ractice' harmon& remains the same regar"!ess o% the variet& o% com ositions an" genres* Its a)stract an" immuta)!e !a0s "o not a!!o0 it to %o!!o0 the te(t* This i"ea 0i!! recur in our "iscussion o% maniera. ,ontever"i conc!u"es that the secon" ractice' a term 0hich he c!aims to have invente"' )ui!"s on the %oun"ation o% truth* In other 0or"s' it is not a %a!se ractice %avore" )& ine t musicians* Even i% ,ontever"iCs "e%ense seems insu%%icient' his )rother em hasi5es that in his "a&' "iscerning eo !e a"mire on!& a st&!e o% music that a"mits the comman" o% the 0or"s* Thus is Artusi summari!& "ismisse" as a car ing e"ant* 6hi!e on the su)1ect o% ,ontever"i' 0e shou!" remem)er that in one other instance this com oser ta!3s a)out a ne0 st&!e o% music )ase" on reviving a %orgotten ancient ractice $the stile concitato. ,ontever"i in"icates that in his rea"ing o% c!assica! hi!oso h&' he encountere" the conce t o% the three main assions= anger' mo"eration' an" humi!it& or su !ication* These menta! states 0ere ara!!e!e" )& the three ranges o% the human voice' an" )& three st&!es in music ?concitato, temperato, an" molle@* Turning to music o% the

ast' he %oun" on!& e(am !es o% the so%t an" mo"erate st&!es* ,ontever"i then set out to re"iscover the agitate" st&!e' on the theor& that o osites move the min" 0ith greater %orce* It is signi%icant that the same aesthetic i"ea un"er!ies e(cessive mannerist "evices in !iterature an" the visua! arts* ,ontever"i cites the *ombattimento di 3ancredi e *lorinda as his %irst attem t in stile concitato, an" e( !ains that he chose this section o% TassoCs e ic %or s eci%ic reasons' rinci a!!& its re resentation o% anti o"a! assions in start!ing ro(imit&* No0 that the stile concitato has )ecome a norm %or contem orar& music' ,ontever"i 0rites this re%ace so that the 0or!" might 3no0 that he invente" a ne0 st&!e* 7B ,ontever"iCs e( !anation o% stile concitato %a!!s s#uare!& in the mannerist %rame0or3' an" his music' re !ete 0ith vivi"!& ictoria!' even grotes#ue' moti di cavallo an" moti di guerra, re resents a stri3ing e(em !ar o% )oth the strengths an" 0ea3nesses o% this aesthetic* One scho!ar 0arns us against over !a&ing the signi%icance o% this re%ace )ecause its a earance is e( ost %acto to the musica! event* <: Since "ocuments concerning the 0riting o% the re%ace "o not e(ist' 0e can on!& s ecu!ate a)out the reasons that rom te" ,ontever"i* It ma& ver& 0e!! )e that he arrive" at this st&!e through an intuitive res onse to the ro)!ems o% setting a articu!ar te(t' an" that someone e!se !ater ointe" out to him the c!assica! authorit& )& 0hich he cou!" name an" 1usti%& it* 6hatever the case ma& )e' ,ontever"iCs o)vious ri"e in his ersona! invention can )e ta3en as another mani%esto o% the mannerist out!oo3* His re%ace a!so i!!ustrates another t& ica!!& mannerist !o&$vin"icating nove! st&!istic e(travagance )& c!aims o% re1uvenating ancient ractice* +oth his 0or"s an" his music attest to the vita!it& o% maniera in the ear!& seventeenth centur&* The& re resent the !ast great %!o0ering o% ,annerism in music* Furthermore' ,ontever"iCs *ombattimento s ans the rea!ms o% voca! cham)er music an" theatrica! resentation' an" thus it serves as an in"icator o% a genera! tren"* The imitativea%%ective "evices o% mo"ern music' )o!stere" )& notions o% rhetorica! e!o#uence' %orce increasing!& "ramatic #ua!ities on to the !&rica! remises o% o!& hon&* 6hat )egins as a re%inement o% the er%ect art o% counter oint soon evo!ves into a "rastic "istortion o% this st&!e* The %ina! resu!t o% this tren" is the emergence o% the so!o voice accom anie" )& instruments* At this oint' the musica! conceits o% the o!& honic ma"riga! come un"er %ire %rom t0o cam s= the reactionar& a"herents o% tra"itiona! counter oint 0ho %ee! that a%%ective maniera has gone too %ar' an" the ra"ica! cham ions o% mono"& 0ho %ee! that a%%ective maniera has not gone %ar enough* Strangu!ate" in this vise' rhetorica! o!& hon& "ies in the most e!egant an" grace%u! tra"ition o% mannerist "emises' )ut not 0ithout !eaving )ehin" a !egac& %or the %uture* For some eight& &ears' the "ramatic nove!ties gra%te" onto the o!& honic ma"riga! are neverthe!ess hai!e" as ste!!ar achievements o% st&!istic rogress* A"riano +anchieriCs statement sums u the mannerist osition* O!"er com osers 0rote er%ect contrapunto osservato, )ut their music contains no ver)a! e( ressivit&* ,o"ern com osers o% contrapunto commune )reathe !i%e into o!& hon& )& emu!ating the er%ect orator* Their e!o#uent music imitates the a%%ections o% the 0or"s 0ith harmon&* For this reason' mo"ern music "e!ights not on!& the com oser' )ut a!so the singers an" au"ience* </ Here

0e have t0o sa!ient re#uirements characteristic o% ,annerism* ,usic is no0 a vehic!e %or virtuoso "is !a& )& singers' an" this virtuosit& ro"uces au"ience-oriente" music* +oth re#uirements "erive %rom the inherent!& "ramatic as ect o% imitative-a%%ective ornaments* +ecause the "e iction o% the te(t 1usti%ies musica! e( eriments that transcen" an" )rea3 tra"itiona! ru!es' it a!so e( !ains the greater genius o% com osers 0ho e( !ore effetti meravigliosi. Rhetorica! ornamentation contri)utes to an aesthetic o% creative e(ce!!ence )ase" not on the o)servance o% the ru!es' )ut rather on in"ivi"ua! ta!ent' innate genius' ersona! idea, an" ins ire" oetic %uror* ,usic has move" out o% the s here o% #ua"rivia! science into that o% the rhetorica! trivium* O% course' mannerists hai! e( ressive "evices as testimon& o% their iconoc!astic origina!it&* +ut a tren" to0ar" s&stemati5ation evi"ent in the ear!& seventeenth centur& manages to gather these 0i!!%u! eccentricities into a "oci!e scheme o% musica! rhetoric* These schemes %irst a ear un"er the ru)ric o% musica poetica, in itse!% a suggestive term' an" "eve!o su)se#uent!& into the +igurenlehre an" $ffektenlehre o% )aro#ue theor&* Coc!ico ca!!s the com osers o% tra"itiona! counter oint the mathematici* Their o osites' the poetici, are the most mo"ern e( onents o% e( ressive st&!e* The humanist )ias o% this statement is o)vious' an" Coc!icoCs encomium o% musica! oets cou!" )e a covert attac3 on the authorit& o% +oethius 0ho he!" the genus poetarum, the ma3ers o% songs' in such !o0 esteem* <7 8iovanni S ataroCs an" Pietro AaronCs )e!ie% that com osers are )orn 0ith ta!ent as are oets a!so re%!ects humanistic em hasis on e( ressivit& in music* +ut humanism in musica! theor&' su orte" )& the rinting techno!og&' a!so %osters the aristote!ian notion o% the com oser as a %a)ricator o% the er%ect an" a)so!ute 0or3 o% art* The hrase is %irst coine" )& Nico!aus Listenius' 0ho is a!so the %irst in a !ine o% 8erman theorists to use the term musica poetica as an aesthetic technica! categor&* << Sim !& ut' musica poetica means a theor& o% musica! com osition* <> +ut the matter is not so sim !e as it a ears on the sur%ace* ListeniusCs three )ranches o% music seem to )e nothing more than an attem t to c!ari%& meaning%u! termino!og& an" to intro"uce musica poetica as a more %ashiona)!e a!ternative to arte sive scientia contrapuncti. Ho0ever' musica poetica su)sumes more than the or"inar& conce t o% contra unta! cra%t4 it re%ers rea!!& to the art o% com osition* As 0e have seen' this humanist i"ea o% com osition "eve!o s %rom st&!istic consi"erations' an" st&!e' or maniera, is inse ara)!e %rom e( ressive content* Thus' it is not ina ro riate to ca!! VicentinoCs %ourth )oo3 on musica! ractice' musica poetica* <9 ,ost im ortant o% a!!' theories o% musica poetica are %re#uent!& couche" in "escri tive an" rescri tive terms )orro0e" %rom !iterar& rhetoric* The signi%icance o% this voca)u!ar& has &et to )e investigate" in an& s&stematic 0a&* From 0hat 0e 3no0 o% this su)1ect' it seems c!ear that rhetorica! %igures %unction as convenient means o% "escri)ing %eatures o% st&!e in an a"mitte"!& arti%icia!' hence' se!%conscious' manner*

Treatment o% some musica! %igures or "evices' garnishe" 0ith authentic or transmogri%ie" c!assica! names' a ears intermittent!& in a num)er o% si(teenth-centur& treatises* +ut I sha!! !imit the "iscussion to ;oachim +urmeisterCs 0or3' 0hich resents a com !ete an" s&stematic e( osition o% the art o% counter oint in terms o% rhetoric an" st&!e* Its si(teen cha ters )egin 0ith the ru"iments o% music an" cu!minate in a "etai!e" e(egesis o% e( ressive an" structura! techni#ues* He "e%ines musica poetica as .that art o% music that teaches one to 0rite voca! music' 1oining the soun"s o% me!o"ies in harmon& a"orne" )& various erio"ic a%%ections to turn the s irits an" hearts o% man to "i%%erent emotions*. <D +urmeister "ivi"es musica! st&!e into %our categories* The stylus humile( uses smooth interva!s an" consonances* Its o osite' the stylus grande, is )ase" on !arge !ea s an" numerous "issonances* +et0een these t0o e(tremes there !ies the stylus mediocre. A %ourth categor&' the stylus mi(tus, %ree!& com)ines e!ements o% the revious st&!es accor"ing to the a%%ections o% the te(t* <E 8iven the "iscussion o% si(teenth-centur& i"ea!s resente" in this cha ter' it shou!" not )e necessar& to stress that the %ourth categor& re resents the )est st&!e* In"ee"' +urmeister se!ects Lasso as the i"ea! st&!ist %or stu"ents to emu!ate' recise!& )ecause he a"heres to the stylus mi(tus* <A An" a!though most o% +urmeisterCs e(am !es are cu!!e" %rom church music' their characteristics can )e %oun" in secu!ar genres as 0e!!* +urmeisterCs %igures' !a)e!e" 0ith rhetorica! names 0herever ossi)!e' %a!! into three grou s= figurae harmoniae ?si(teen@' figurae melodiae ?si(@' an" utrius0ue figurae ?%our@* T0e!ve are c!ear!& %orma! or structura!' an" %ourteen have e( ressive connotations* <B The %orma! %igures "escri)e matters o% artistic structure4 the& there%ore %unction as ornaments that trans%orm correct counter oint into st&!ish st&!e* Out o% the t0e!ve' seven are harmonic' t0o are me!o"ic' an" three )e!ong to the categor& com)ining )oth as ects* Among the tra"itiona! ornaments o% correct counter oint 0e ma& inc!u"e imitation ?fuga realis@' canon ?fuga imaginaria@' "ou)!e %ugue ?hypallage@' %ugue 0ith t0o themes ?metalepsis@' s&nco ation ?syncope or synaeresis@' an" +au( /ourdon. O% ne0er vintage are musica! em)e!!ishments such as incom !ete %ugue ?apocope@' "issonance at ca"ence oints ?pleonasmus@ or ermitte" )& voice !ea"ing ?parrhesia@' "ou)!e-choir re etition o% homo honic assages ?anaploce@' %u!! consonant sonorities ?parembole@' an" se#uentia! harmonic re etitions ?congeries@* Nee"!ess to sa&' the e( ressive %igures rovi"e a cata!og o% the "evices associate" 0ith nuova maniera. The& inc!u"e a set o% %igures "escri)ing various 3in"s o% homo honic te(tures= a sing!e homo honic assage in the mi"st o% counter oint ?noema@' a "ou)!e noema ?analepsis@' t0o re eate" homo honic hrases on "i%%erent itch !eve!s ?mimesis@' a "ou)!e mimesis ?anadiplosis@' an" varie" re etition o% a homo honic assage in ascen"ing motion ?au(esis@* T0o %igures ertain to "issonances$the %irst ?symblema or commissura@ to the a%%ective use o% assing notes' an" the secon" ?pathopoeia@ to the a%%ective use o% chromatic semitones* +urmeister a!so e( !ains the rhetorica! %unction o% the genera! ause ?aposiopesis@' the overste ing o% mo"a! !imits ?hyperbole an" hypobole@' as 0e!! as three 3in"s o% re etition= me!o"ic ? pallilogia@' ascen"ing se#uences ?clima(@' an" artia! re etition o% some voices in a com !e( ?anaphora@*

The a)ove e(cursus covers a!! )ut one o% the %igures' hypotyposis. This one "eserves s ecia! attention inasmuch as +urmeisterCs "e%inition is some0hat ro)!ematic= .2ypotyposis is that ornament )& 0hich the meaning o% the te(t is revea!e" in such a 0a& that 0hatever Ge!ementsH are hi""en in the te(t an" !ac3 sou! an" !i%e' seem to )e en"o0e" 0ith !i%e*. >: Ruhn3e suggests that hypotyposis invo!ves the musica! re resentation o% a)stract i"eas ?a 3in" o% em)!ematic s&m)o!ism@ rather than 0or" ainting* >/ In the Lasso e(am !e #uote" )& +urmeister' ho0ever' 0e %in" the %o!!o0ing %eatures= a me!isma un"er 4aetatur cor, tri !e meter un"er gaudebit, )us& counter oint un"er laborem, an" !ong notes un"er dolorem. Consi"ering this e(cer t an" +urmeisterCs "e%inition' it is more !i3e!& that hypotyposis is the means 0here)& com osers achieve vivi" musica! enargeia. Thus hypotyposis corres on"s to imitazione del concetto delle parole, an" in this sense' it is a )roa" aesthetic tro e covering other in"ivi"ua! %igures or concrete e%%ects* Nine harmonic' %our me!o"ic' an" one harmonic-me!o"ic %igure com rise a tota! o% %ourteen e( ressive "evices* The& can )e %oun" in o!& honic 0or3s ranging %rom rogressive e(am !es in tra"itiona! st&!e to ra"ica! e( eriments in avant-gar"e st&!e* +urmeister a ears articu!ar!& ta3en 0ith homo honic assages in various "ramatic se#uences* 5oema an" analepsis a ear o%ten in the 0or3s o% ;os#uinCs generation 0here the& serve )oth structura! an" mi!"!& e( ressive ur oses* It is in"icative o% mannerist roce"ures that these techni#ues shou!" )e e( !oite" %or their rhetorica! o0er an" "eve!o e" into mimesis, anadiplosis, an" au(esis. Re etition a!so contri)utes to e!o#uent e%%ects' one o% 0hich is ca!!e" clima(. A!though Far!ino "iscusses pertinacie, he ignores their e(tramusica! otentia!' a otentia! that 0i!! )e rea!i5e" in mannerist st&!e* E(cee"ing the mo"es %or a%%ective consi"erations is recogni5e" )& 8!areanus' an" the ne0 mannerist em hasis on these "evices can )e seen %rom +urmeisterCs terms* He is a!so the %irst to stress the "ramatic #ua!it& o% auses' "evices o%ten use" an" a)use" in mannerist music* Fina!!&' +urmeisterCs e( !anation o% 0or" ainting an" chromaticism ?hypotyposis an" pathopoeia $!itera!!&' the ma3ing o% atterns an" athos@ c!ear!& "emonstrates ho0 mannerist aesthetics survive in )aro#ue "octrine* The actua! in%!uence o% this theorist on su)se#uent 0riters must a0ait more "etai!e" stu"& o% ear!& )aro#ue sources* >7 The same ho!"s true %or his conce ts in re!ation to rhetoric in contem orar& an" ear!ier 0ritings on !iterature an" music* ,ost scho!ars agree' neverthe!ess' that +urmeister contri)utes to the heritage )in"ing the Renaissance an" the +aro#ue' >< a heritage' it seems to me' that is )est un"erstoo" as a erio" o% ,annerism %in&in& and Ornamentation 2ocuments revea! that in the Renaissance' musicians receive" their e"ucation %irst as singers an" then as masters o% the science o% counter oint* +e%ore the a"vent o% rinting an" the %u!! im act o% humanism' theorists assume" the e(istence o% a master- u i! a renticeshi an" there%ore %e!t %ree to omit certain to ics* +ecause si(teenth-centur& 0riters are reoccu ie" 0ith ro"ucing com !ete an" s&stematic )oo3s' the& incor orate revious!& un0ritten ractices an" 3no0!e"ge gaine" in the stu"io or on the 1o)' as it

0ere* Thus the& rationa!i5e in rint the "i"actic re!ationshi )et0een the training o% singers an" com osers* The to ic o% im rovise" ornamentation )ecomes an issue o% car"ina! im ortance in the 0or3 o% A"rianus Petit Coc!ico* 6e have a!rea"& note" that he re!ates music to rhetoric' an" %rom this osition comes his %ocus on .correct an" )eauti%u! singing as 0e!! as arti%icia!' s0eet an" co!ore" "e!iver&*. / In Coc!icoCs vie0' the sa!ient as ect o% a singerCs art is his master& o% a!!uring ca"ences ?clausulorum lenociniis@' that is' ornamenting sim !e ca"entia! atterns 0ith e!egant "iminutions* 7 To ai" the stu"ent' he inc!u"es severa! e(am !es o% em)e!!ishe" ca"ences su ose"!& taught )& ;os#uin "es Pre5 as 0e!! as others resuma)!& o% his o0n invention* The cha ter conc!u"es 0ith t0o French chansons )& C!au"in "e Sermis& an" his o0n motet' a!! re !ete 0ith ornamentation* 2isregar"ing the "u)ious attri)ution to ;os#uin' the e(am !es "emonstrate Coc!icoCs inter retation o% t& ica!!& renaissance roce"ures* In the ornamente" assages' either the %irst or !ast note corres on"s to the origina! version* The ornaments themse!ves "o not seem ver& ins ire" an" com rise a !imite" re ertor& o% stereo t& e" atterns' !a)e!e" various!& as .e!egant'. .co!ore"'. .s ic& meat'. or .meat seasone" 0ith sa!t an" mustar"*. No0' the art o% "iminution re resents one o% Coc!icoCs 1usti%ia)!e c!aims to nove!t&* A!ong 0ith the art o% im rovising counter oint on a given tune' an art that is c!ose!& connecte" to ornamente" ca"ences' this ractice raises the musician to the ran3 o% oet* Such an artist not on!& creates music )& e(tem orar& roce"ure' )ut a!so "e!ights the au"ience 0ith the )eaut& o% his voice an" 0ith the artistr& o% his vo!u tuous ornamentation* He )ecomes an orator* This im !icit i"ea re%igures the mature hase o% ,annerism 0hen the virtuoso singer reigns su reme* +ecause o% the )reath contro! an" sheer h&sica! vigor re#uire" )& e(cessive em)e!!ishment' )o& so ranos an" %a!settists are #uic3!& su !ante" )& %ema!e singers an" a ne0 henomenon' the ma!e castrato* It is signi%icant that the castrato %irst a ears in the Pa a! Cha e! in /9D7* The su)se#uent cra5e %or this voice t& e' a %a" that inva"es )aro#ue o era' can )e attri)ute" to the mannerist !ove o% arti%icia!it& an" st&!i5ation* < A art %rom %urnishing evi"ence %or the ne0 socia! rominence o% so!o singers' Vicen5o 8iustiniani ma3es other interesting o)servations in his )oo3* He notes the gro0ing em hasis on so!o singing an" the "eve!o ment o% a musica! st&!e tai!or-ma"e %or ro%essiona! "is !a&4 these henomena ro"uce a mi!ieu in 0hich connoisseurs have )een trans%orme" into a reciative !isteners %or a ne0 c!ass o% 0on"er%u! singers* 8iustiniani conc!u"es that music has reache" an unusua! an" a!most ne0 er%ection* > This short statement revea!s &et another %acet o% mannerist aesthetics= re%inement 0hose 5enith o% er%ection is )oth nove! an" start!ing* ,anneristic stress on e!egant st&!i5ation in singing a!so emerges %rom 8iustinianiCs comments on singers* A%ter "escri)ing the st&!es o% s eci%ic virtuosos' such as the men %rom Na !es' the %amous concerto delle donne in Ferrara' 9 Roman an" F!orentine singers ?es ecia!!& Vittoria Archi!ei@' D 8iustiniani o%%ers a ver& ertinent comment= it is ossi)!e %or a singer to have a oor voice an" a grace%u!

st&!e* E In t& ica! mannerist %ashion' he attri)utes maniera to natura! ta!ent rather than to art* 8iustiniani ascri)es the invention o% a re%orme" so!o st&!e to 8iu!io Caccini 0ho' in his 0or"s' has a)an"one" the un o!ishe" an" e(aggerate" em)e!!ishments o% ear!ier ractice 0ith the resu!t that in CacciniCs com ositions' the 0or"s are c!ear' an" grace%u! ornaments enhance the oetic thought* 8iustiniani conc!u"es this encomium 0ith a genera! ronouncement$so!o st&!e has )een so er%ecte" that nothing remains to )e a""e"* A It is 0e!! 3no0n that Caccini himse!%' 0hen 0riting a)out so!o singing' %avore" a su)t!er 3in" o% ornamentation4 nonethe!ess' mo"ern scho!ars %in" that his songs %re#uent!& em)o"& the mechanica! rou!a"es o% te(t)oo3 notoriet&* B The a earance o% a s ecia!i5e" c!ass o% virtuoso singers has im ortant re ercussions on the musica! scene* Their o u!arit& ins ires com osers to create a st&!e %or their e(c!usive use* Herein !ie the roots o% the %a)!e" t&rann& o% singers* Their "eman" %or "a55!ing passaggi an" gorgie )rings a)out t0o changes in the music then )eing 0ritten* On the one han"' com osers )egin to incor orate ornamenta! %igures into their 0ritten st&!e' there)& "istorting a )a!ance" o!& honic i"iom* This oint is ma"e e( !icit )& 8iustiniani* An" in this regar"' 0e note an assessment ma"e o% Lu55asco Lu55aschiCs concerte" ma"riga!s %or the Ferrarese !a"ies$.among the most e(treme e(am !es o% the rather tiresome si(teenth-centur& art o% "iminution*. /: On the other han"' these singers strong!& in%!uence com osers o% unaccom anie" o!& honic ma"riga!s* F!ori" "iminutions enetrate the te(ture o% the 0or3s o% 8iaches "e 6ertCs eighth )oo3 ?/9AD@ as 0e!! as +ene"etto Pa!!avicinoCs %ourth )oo3 ?/9AA@* For the same reason' C!au"io ,ontever"i e( !ores %ree "issonances in the %!ori" sections o% his ma"riga!s %rom the %ourth )oo3 on* +oth the socio!ogica! an" the musica! rominence o% virtuoso singers are such that ever& u i! as ires to %ame' an" the ensuing e"ucationa! crisis is so!ve" )& the rationa!i5ation o% .s ontaneous. ornaments in instruction manua!s* This rash o% )oo3s re"uces an ins ire" an" im rovise" art into a e"antic an" o%ten !u"icrous s&stem o% technica! e(cesses* // The ara!!e!s to art an" !iterature are stri3ing* Ornamentation rovi"es t0o sa!ient in%!uences on the "eve!o ment o% mannerist st&!e4 %irst' the rise o% virtuoso singers' 0hose start!ing acro)atics satis%& the current !ove o% effetti meravigliosi4 an" secon"' the use o% an arra& o% iconoc!astic "issonances that "rastica!!& a!ter the tra"itiona! ru!es o% counter oint* It is true that "iminution an" "issonances in instrumenta! music a!so he! the inci ient "e%inition o% a ne0 musica! !anguage* +ut the most au"acious %eatures in instrumenta! harmon& are !in3e" socio!ogica!!& as 0e!! as musica!!& to voca! st&!e* Furthermore' the "eve!o ment o% instrumenta! music is )& an" !arge not im e"e" )& the o osition o% conservative theor&' 0hereas the con%!ict )et0een o!" an" ne0 st&!es ta3es !ace in the rea!m o% voca! music' an" es ecia!!&' the mannerist ma"riga!* At %irst' the im rovise" art o% ornamentation "oes not %igure rominent!& in the controvers& over unortho"o( music* ,ost theorists' !i3e Far!ino' are content to caution against over!& %!ori" em)e!!ishments* /7 +ut 0hen the

techni#ues of gorgia are a)sor)e" into the voca)u!ar& o% 0ritten concertato st&!e' the )att!e !ines are c!ear!& "ra0n* Critics such as 8iovanni ,aria Artusi in e%%ect %ight a rearguar" action against mo"ern ractice* An" m& thesis osits that this maniera, an" a!! it entai!s' he! s trans%orm the ars perfecta o% the Renaissance into the various st&!es an" genres associate" 0ith the +aro#ue* The !iterature "ea!ing 0ith ornamentation resents a con%using icture o% vague!& "e%ine" terms' am)iguous usage' an" even in"iscriminate mi(ture o% er%ormance me"ia* ,ost treatises o% the !ate si(teenth centur& e( !ain e(treme!& e!a)orate an" "i%%icu!t %igures that "isso!ve notes o% the origina! me!o"& into )ri!!iant runs an" turns o% a!! 3in"s* A!though these ornaments a"here to rinci !es simi!ar to those "escri)e" )& Coc!ico' the& ma3e his i!!ustrations seem !i3e chi!"Cs !a&* This situation is evi"ent in one o% the ear!iest manua!s 0ritten )& 8iro!amo "e!!a Casa' a singing teacher' a manua! "escri)ing im rovise" tri!!s ?groppi@' tremo!os ?trilli@' an" the more e(travagant art o% co!oratura passaggi* /< 8iovanni +assanoCs rece ts an" e(am !es %urther "emonstrate the gro0ing virtuosit& o% ornamentation that no0 inc!u"es "otte" rh&thms an" 0i"e !ea s* /> Lo"ovico Facconi stresses the im ortance o% s0eet an" e%%ective ren"ering )& singers 0hose artistr& ma3es goo" com osition a!! the more en1o&a)!e* In his vie0' the most mo"ern an" er%ect com osers 0rite in a st&!e that a!!o0s singers to "is !a& their enticing 0ares* An" these 0ares consist o% voca! em)e!!ishments* His e(am !es o% gorgia techni#ue range %rom sim !e interva!!ic %i!!ers ?accenti@ to e!a)orate t0isting runs ?vaghi@* Facconi a!so ma3es a signi%icant statement to the e%%ect that in his "a&' singers 0in u)!ic %avor an" ro%essiona! esteem on!& i% the& are masters o% this art* /9 A%ter /9B7' 0ritings in this %ie!" concentrate a!most e(c!usive!& on so!o virtuosit&* Singers ma& change one voice %rom a o!& honic com !e( to a high!& ornate version sung 0ith instruments' or the& ma& com ose their o0n me!o"ies %or this ur ose* This "ua! metho" is ma"e c!ear in the tit!e o% 8iovanni Luca Con%ortoCs treatise* /D A %a!setto singer himse!%' Con%orto natura!!& ro agates his ersona! techni#ue' an" his e(cessive gorgia st&!e' 0hich even entai!s harmonic a!terations' is attac3e" as an a)use )& 8iustiniani* /E Ram ant com !e(ities in the ne0 "a55!ing st&!e o% ornamentation are a!so am !& i!!ustrate" in 8iovanni +attista +ovice!!iCs 0or3* Even though this 0riter ta!3s a)out taste%u! a !ication o% ornaments' his e(treme e(am !es %a!! into the categor& o% sho0 ieces* It is a!so interesting to note that +ovice!!i is the %irst theorist to attem t a "escri tion o% acce!erate" tem o in trilli, groppetti, an" passaggi* /A +ecause o% the intricac& invo!ve" in these t& es o% ornaments' A"riano +anchieri sti u!ates that gorgie must )e use" on!& in so!o singing 0ith instrumenta! accom animent* He intro"uces an e!ement o% s&stemati5ation )& "ivi"ing the techni#ues o% gorgia into t0o 3in"s= accenti an" fioretti, corres on"ing to sim !e an" com !icate" ornaments* /B ,& ur ose in "escri)ing )rie%!& the rece"ing han")oo3s is not to give a histor& o% ornamentation' )ut rather to rovi"e a conte(t %or eva!uating the innovations %eature" in CacciniCs s&stem* 7: The ver& %act that his u)!ication com rises ne0!& com ose" mono"ies %or so!o voice an" instrumenta! accom animent is su%%icient reason %or ca!!ing it 5e6 Music. +ut the mannerist i"ea! o% nove!t& goes "ee er* Caccini states that his

ur ose is to revea! the secrets o% the no)!e manner' or st&!e' o% singing' a manner %orgotten )& singers an" com osers a!i3e in their inor"inate !ove o% running "ivisions that on!& maim the music* 7/ He a!so 0ishes to recti%& the con%usion surroun"ing the ro er 0a& to er%orm trilli, gruppi, esclamazioni' an" il crescere o scemare della voce* Caccini %urther in"icates that %rom "iscussions he hear" in 8iovanni "eC+ar"iCs Camerata' he came to rea!i5e that o!& hon& uts the te(t in a su)or"inate osition' !acerating the oetr& an" ruining the concetto o% the verse* Even so!o songs o% his time are "e%icient )ecause the& su)merge the te(t )eneath a ro!i%eration o% "ivisions* The vu!gar !ove this st&!e* +& in%erence' re%ine" connoisseurs %in" it )oring an" ine( ressive* His rece ts are aime" at reme"&ing )oth i!!s' i!!s that re%!ect a state o% "eca"ence* First o% a!!' Caccini tac3!es the aesthetic remise o% his ne0 st&!e' the nobile sprezzatura del canto. From a com ositiona! vie0 oint' it re!ies on nove! treatment o% "issonances in the me!o"&* From the vie0 oint o% er%ormance ractice' it osits ne0 criteria %or the use o% ornaments* F!ori" ornaments' such as gorgie an" the !i3e' 0hich )e!ie the assions an" on!& tic3!e the ear' must )e care%u!!& restricte" to the !ighter sentiments' an" even in such cases' the& are acce ta)!e on!& on !ong s&!!a)!es an" at ca"ences* On the other han"' short ornaments' such as accenti, contri)ute to a assionate manner o% singing that is a ro riate %or serious an" a%%ective verse* Caccini a!so mentions in assing that his songs are consi"ere" su erior to so!o versions o% o!& honic ma"riga!s* From his comments' 0e can conc!u"e that sprezzatura arises %rom his ersona! st&!e ?maniera@ o% using 0ritten an" s ontaneous "issonances* The term in"icates' moreover' that Caccini rea!i5es his "issonance treatment "oes not a"here to the ru!es o% counter oint* 5obile sprezzatura im)ues this nove! technica! %eature 0ith a no)!e aesthetic i"ea$e( ressing the conceits an" the assions o% the te(t 0ithout un"ue e(cesses* O% course' CacciniCs ne0 st&!e o% mono"ic com osition shou!" )e matche" )& a no)!e manner o% singing' a maniera that a!so entai!s sprezzatura* Accor"ing to this i"ea!' the singer must a!ter note va!ues an" rh&thmic atterns in in%initesima! 0a&s to suit the conceits o% the 0or"s* 6ith this su)t!e ractice' he achieves an e(ce!!ence that arises %rom grace%u! neg!igence* He must a!so cu!tivate c!ear intonation as 0e!! as a natura! rather than a %eigne" voice4 these t0o s3i!!s a!!o0 the singer to var& "&namics an" tem o' )oth o% 0hich are im ortant e!ements o% CacciniCs ornamentation ractice* Caccini conc!u"es 0ith the comment that %eigne" voices can never attain the no)!e manner o% singing* Unti! recent!&' this assage has "ra0n insu%%icient attention* One as ect o% sprezzatura is i"enti%ie" correct!& as the "i%%icu!t art o% rh&thmic an" "&namic %!e(i)i!it&' an art that %rees the singer %rom the 0ritten notes* +ut the other as ect o% the no)!e manner o% singing re%ers to a ne0 0a& o% ro"ucing the voice* 77 This %un"amenta! innovation a)an"ons the %a!setto in %avor o% the natura! %u!! voice' 3no0n to"a& as the .mi"-voice*. The mi"-voice ossesses a ring an" )ri!!iance or"inari!& !ac3ing in the %a!setto' or %eigne" voice as Caccini ca!!s it' as 0e!! as a natura! vi)rato that %aci!itates uni%orm contro! over the singerCs entire register* The oint is that in CacciniCs "a&' the no)!e manner o% singing

re#uire" a ver& stri3ing an" contrive" voice t& e* In the conte(t o% his time' the nobile maniera di cantare re resents a "e!ight%u! mannerist nove!t&* CacciniCs e( osition o% "esira)!e ornaments' then' "e en"s on this ne0 e!ement o% the oise" mi"-voice* A art %rom this e!ement o% mannerist nove!t&' his "escri tion o% some em)e!!ishments a!so revea!s mannerist va!ues* For instance' Caccini !ists t0o acce te" manners o% st&!i5e" intonation* The %irst entai!s )eginning a thir" )e!o0 the note an" rising u to it' a techni#ue corres on"ing to im rovise" accenti* 7< Caccini re1ects it on t0o counts= it ro"uces in"iscriminate "issonances an"' more im ortant' it has )ecome a te"ious common !ace* The secon" manner entai!s )eginning on the note itse!% an" then increasing its "&namic !eve!* Caccini recommen"s this metho" )ecause it is sti!! re!ative!& unusua!* At this oint' Caccini a"mits that he a!0a&s searches %or nove!t& that "e!ights an" moves the a%%ections* He there%ore suggests &et a thir" 0a& o% intoning* In this manner' one sings the note an" then imme"iate!& "ecreases its "&namic !eve!* The e!ement o% sur rise shou!" )e o)vious* An" Caccini ma3es this c!ear in stressing that i% one sings so%ter on the initia! intonation' a su)se#uent increase in "&namics then a ears e(treme!& assionate* In CacciniCs s&stem' l"esclamazione is one o% the rinci a! "evices %or moving the a%%ections' an" its e%%icac& is great!& augmente" 0hen it %o!!o0s his thir" manner o% intonation* C!ear!&' these e%%ects re#uire a voice o% consi"era)!e %!e(i)i!it&' an" Caccini comments that crescen"os are articu!ar!& insu%%era)!e in %a!setto voices* It is e#ua!!& evi"ent that his ne0 ornaments are )ase" on mannerist va!ues* CacciniCs no)!e st&!e o% so!o songs )rings u the su)1ect o% theories o% mono"& an" the circ!es %rom 0hich the& emanate* Conce tions o% mono"& an" their re!ationshi to ear!& o era %orm a er !e(ing net0or3 o% notions that )es ea3s a high!& e( erimenta! an" %!ui" mi!ieu* Technica!' aesthetic' an" socio!ogica! ro)!ems are %urther e(acer)ate" )& the ett& riva!r& o% not one' )ut three' i"enti%ia)!e grou s in F!orence* 7> The ear!iest o% these is the Camerata ro er' a t& ica!!& mannerist aca"em& that congregates at +ar"iCs home )et0een rough!& /9E9 an" /9A7* This in%orma! sa!on' com ose" o% 8iovanni "eC +ar"i himse!%' Vincen5o 8a!i!ei' Piero Stro55i' an" Ottavio Rinuccini' in"u!ges in casua! "iscussions on science' oetr&' astro!og&' an" o% course' music* In the !atter %ie!"' these men concentrate on so!o mono"& as the means 0here)& it is ossi)!e to revive the marve!ous e%%ects o% ancient music* The gist o% the CamerataCs vie0s can )e g!eane" %rom +ar"iCs !etter to Caccini* Li3e a!! cham ions o% ne0 music' +ar"i starts 0ith a re1ection o% esta)!ishe" st&!e* A%ter citing P!atoCs "e%inition o% music an" the innumera)!e marve!ous e%%ects "escri)e" )& ancient authors' +ar"i "ismisses si(teenth-centur& o!& hon& in terms 0hich are remar3a)!& simi!ar to those em !o&e" )& 8a!i!ei* The art o% goo" singing' )& im !ication %ar su erior to counter oint' com rises ensem)!e or so!o er%ormance* For ensem)!es' +ar"i recommen"s )!en"ing the voices' ornamentation in strict time' an" a reserve" st&!e o% ro"uction* He "oes not "escri)e the music' )ut one can su ose that he re%ers to contrapunto commune* The so!oist' o% course' ma& ta3e !i)erties 0ith tem o an" rh&thm* These !i)erties shou!" serve the no)!est aim o% the singer $to e( ress e(act!& the a%%ections o% the song 0ith a!! the suavit& an" s0eetness he can muster* %olcezza in voice

an" me!o"& re resents the most im ortant aesthetic %oun"ation o% goo" singing' an" in +ar"iCs estimation' Caccini is unsur asse" in this regar"* 79 The remar3s o% this atron suggest t0o things a)out the CamerataCs i"ea!* First' its mem)ers 0ish to vin"icate so!o me!o"& %or its o0n sa3e' an" secon"' the& 0ish to vin"icate the s0eet vo!u tuousness o% the so!o voice* A"monitions %or correct roso"& an" "ec!amation ta3e on secon"ar& im ortance' )ecause the ver& me"ium o% so!o singing 0ithout e!a)orate gorgie ensures te(tua! c!arit&* 6e can conc!u"e' there%ore' that ure recitative st&!e an" stri3ing "ramatic #ua!it& "o not %igure rominent!& in the 3in" o% mono"& ri5e" )& +ar"i an" his co!!eagues* +ar"iCs !etter a!so revea!s another %un"amenta! theme in the ta!3s o% the Camerata$ name!&' the "is ute )et0een the re!ative merits o% ancient an" mo"ern st&!e* 6hereas ear!ier mannerists a)i"e )& the )e!ie% that their st&!istic re%inements raise o!& hon& to that !eve! o% a%%ective o0er characteristic o% ancient music' the Camerata stan"s %or outright re1ection o% counter oint on the groun"s that it cannot even a ro(imate this %a)!e" e(ce!!ence* The main source %or this vie0 oint' the !ast in a !ine o% rogressive i"eo!ogies' is the great humanist' 8iro!amo ,ei* ,ei ha" man& aca"emic a%%i!iations' among them the Acca"emia "eg!i A!terati* 7D His a roach to music "e arts %rom the remises o% aristote!ian mimesis. 6hat is most interesting is that ,ei a"o ts this notion in conscious o osition to Far!ino an" his %o!!o0ers' 0hose theories stress numerica! ro ortions as the common !in3 )et0een nature an" music* In e%%ect' ,ei re1ects this conce t )& "e%ining musica! imitation in terms o% rhetoric* The ver& %act that o!& hon& must o)e& the !a0s o% sonorous num)er ren"ers it inca a)!e o% imitating the assions* An" this su erior goa! can )e attaine" on!& )& the so!o song* Pa!isca characteri5es ,eiCs in%!uence 0ith the %o!!o0ing statement= .In a time o% e( eriment' uncertain esthetics an" aca"emicism' ,ei ignite" the imagination o% the in%!uentia! men o% +ar"iCs Camerata an" ins ire" them to re%ashion the !anguishing an" casua! sa!on art o% mono"& in the image o% a no)!e an" cu!tivate" art o% the ast*. 7E The a)ove #uotation' a"mira)!e in its summation o% the mono"ist a roach' a!erts us to the mannerist remise )ehin" it$se!%$conscious st&!i5ation* 8a!i!ei 0as %irst a rise" o% ,eiCs research into ancient music in /9E7' an" the t0o men corres on"e" )et0een that "ate an" I9BB* 7A ,eiCs atient !etters eventua!!& turne" 8a!i!ei into an acri" critic o% Far!ino an" an ar"ent e( onent o% mono"&* The %ruits o% his !a)ors %ina!!& a eare" in a some0hat gar)!e" version in 8a!i!eiCs %ialogo della musica antica e della moderna ?/9A/@* In the course o% his !etters' ,ei "escri)es the techni#ues 0here)& ancient so!o song e( resse" an" arouse" the assions4 in a""ition to %i"e!it& to the metric structure o% 8ree3 verse' this music uti!i5e" the three ranges o% the human voice an" the three "egrees o% rh&thmic motion* In %act' the e%%ective "e !o&ment o% these e!ements constitute" the ethos o% the ancient mo"es' so great!& misun"erstoo" )& contem orar& musicians* Furthermore' the 8ree3s recogni5e" three mo"es o% me!o"ic com osition' mo"es 0hich 0ere a!!ie" to three st&!es= the gran" manner ro er %or e!evate" e%%ects4 the

restraine" manner a ro riate %or !ove an" !amentation4 an" the serene manner %or tran#ui!' h&mn!i3e e%%ects* 7B 8a!i!ei trans%orms ,eiCs #uiet scho!arshi into a etu!ant o!emic against o!& hon&* His negative attac3 is te!!ing' )ut his "escri tion o% mono"& !ac3s )oth origina!it& an" s&stematic organi5ation* Re%!ecting the genera! vie0s o% the Camerata' 8a!i!ei neg!ects the ro)!em o% trage"& recite" to music an" stresses mono"& as a vehic!e %or natura! "ec!amation an" )eauti%u! me!o"&* He %irst cites P!utarchCs comment that the mo"es must re!ate to the a%%ections o% the 0or"s' an" then remar3s that music 0as invente" in ancient times %or one so!e reason$to e( ress the conceits o% the sou! 0ith great e%%icac&* <: +& itse!%' this statement is har"!& remar3a)!e an" mere!& echoes ear!ier mannerist mottoes concerning imitative-a%%ective music* +ut 8a!i!ei continues to the e%%ect that in ancient music this aim 0as attaine" )& the e( !oitation o% the so!o voice accom anie" )& the !&re or cithara* </ It is at this oint that 8a!i!eiCs argument "iverges %rom the mannerist aesthetic o% the o!& honic ma"riga!* He notes that ancient oets an" musicians 0ere usua!!& one an" the same' an" that er%ormers recite" their verse to an im rovise" me!o"&* 8a!i!ei rea"i!& a"mits that this custom sti!! e(ists in his "a& in the so!o recitation o% oetr& 0ith the su ort o% a !ute or 3e&)oar" instrument* <7 Ho0ever' one receives the "istinct im ression that this t& e o% im rovise" er%ormance is not ver& high!& rate" )& 8a!i!ei* This theorist rea!!& 0ishes to restore the !ace 0ithin res facta im ro er!& usur e" )& counter oint to the com osition o% me!o"&* ,o"ern counter oint o erates on the 0orth!ess rinci !e o% !easing the ear an" thus has !ost the marve!ous e%%ects o% ancient voca! ractice* 8a!i!ei "oes not "en& that some e!ements o% ancient harmon& survive in contem orar& counter oint4 ho0ever' the& have )een "e)ase" )& a %a!se an" ernicious aesthetic* The attem ts o% more ra"ica! st&!e ?i*e* the imitative-a%%ective ma"riga!@ to e( ress the te(t are at )est ueri!e* For these reasons' !earne" men o% su erior 1u"gment re%er the sim !icit&' viri!it&' an" gravit& o% the so!o song* << So much %or 8a!i!eiCs aesthetic vie0* As %or ractica! a"vise to contem orar& song0riters' 8a!i!ei recommen"s that the& imitate c!assica! orators 0hose art can )e "iscerne"' to some e(tent' in mo"ern er%ormances o% s o3en "rama* I% the com oser ignores the immo"erate !aughter o% actors' an" instea" o)serves their grace%u! manner o% using voice ranges' accents' gestures' an" rh&thms to ortra& character' he then enetrates the secrets o% ancient st&!e* <> Here it seems that 8a!i!ei is arguing %or increase" "ramati5ation in the voca! me"ium* +ut the %u!! im !ications o% his notion are not rea!i5e" unti! the %irst essa&s in the dramma per musica, a genre in 0hich 8a!i!ei sho0s no interest 0hatsoever* In the cham)er mono"ies cu!tivate" )& the Camerata' 0e can "iscern t0o inci ient!& "ivergent st&!es4 )ut the "istinction )et0een them )ecomes c!ear in the seventeenth centur&* One st&!e' ca!!e" the so!o ma"riga!' sta&s c!ose to the imitative a%%ective "evices o% through-com ose"' a%%ective music' an" it uses man& o% the "evices associate" 0ith the much-"enigrate" ma"riga!* The other st&!e' the aria' is a stro hic song in 0hich )eaut& o% me!o"& ta3es rece"ence over recitative rinci !es* From the conte(t o% his entire treatise' 0e conc!u"e that 8a!i!ei mi!itates %or re1uvenating the secon" st&!e* This is the im !ication o% his statement to the e%%ect that in

ancient times' harmon& meant the )eauti%u! an" grace%u! roce"ure o% the aria o% the song* <9 Part!& %rom mannerist arrogance an" art!& %or o!emic reasons' cham ions o% mono"& c!aim the& are the %irst musicians to have "iscovere" the true nature o% ancient music* E( onents o% tra"itiona! counter oint are cast in the ungrate%u! ro!e o% e"antic reactionaries 0ho )ase their ru!es on ignorance an" oor scho!arshi * O% course' mono"ists %ai! to see that their o0n inter retation o% ho0 one revives ancient ractice is 1ust as %anci%u!* An" )ecause Far!ino seems to )e the most res ecte" %igure among conservatives in the !ast ha!% o% the centur&' he automatica!!& )ecomes a target %or ri"icu!e )& the ra"ica!s* His critics convenient!& over!oo3 those ortions o% his treatise that "emonstrate the "e th o% Far!inoCs humanist !earning an" musica! sensitivit&* Far!ino resents #uite a erce tive com arison )et0een ancient an" mo"ern st&!es* At the outset' he re eats the tra"itiona! notion o% rogress !ea"ing to the music o% his "a&* Ancient music 0as re"icate" on sim !e an" some0hat cru"e rinci !es4 its theoretica! !iterature sho0s that it su%%ere" %rom an im overishment o% consonances* +ecause mo"ern counter oint contains more consonances' it natura!!& em)o"ies great heights o% re%inement in the "eve!o ment o% musica! voca)u!ar&* It is the er%ect art to 0hich nothing can )e a""e"* From this historica! %act a!one' Far!ino )e!ieves that one can "e"uce the im er%ection o% ancient harmon&* <D A%ter a "igression on P&thagoras' <E Far!ino )rings u the ara"o( that rom ts so man& mannerist e( eriments* I% ancient music 0as so im er%ect' his rea"ers ma& %in" it im ossi)!e to )e!ieve that it cou!" imitate vivi" a%%ections as recounte" in c!assica! sources* An" he %ree!& a"mits that mo"ern o!& hon&' in s ite o% its musica! er%ection' "oes not ro"uce such marve!ous e%%ects as those cre"ite" to ancient music* Ho0 "oes one' then' reso!ve these incom ati)!e %actsL Far!ino ro oses to rocee" %rom the thesis that ancient music "i" in"ee" e( ress the assions in a manner un3no0n to mo"ern st&!e* An" this "es ite the im er%ection o% the %ormer an" the er%ection o% the !atter* <A Far!ino )ui!"s u his argument )& %irst "escri)ing ancient ractice* 8ree3 musicians use" so!o me!o"&* The& recite" their trage"ies an" come"ies to musica! song4 "ance an" mime too3 !ace at the same time as this recitation' an" instruments 0ere chosen to suit the moo" o% the scenes* <B At this oint Far!ino cannot re%rain %rom thro0ing a "art in the "irection o% mannerist ri"e= mo"ern u starts 0ho )ase their cu!t o% %ame on their imitation o% ancient st&!e are gui!t& o% gross temerit&* The stu i"it& o% their notions is sho0n )& the incontroverti)!e %act that mo"ern counter oint cannot aint 0ar!i3e 0ea ons' nor move the !istener to vio!ent or eace%u! %ee!ings an" actions* Ho0ever' this mista3en vie0 "oes not mean that )oth ancient an" mo"ern raise o% 8ree3 music as an e!o#uent art is un1usti%ie"* Lest his rea"ers conc!u"e that ancient marve!ous e%%ects are ure!& %ictitious' Far!ino e(amines the groun"s %or their e(istence* He iso!ates %our e!ements an" stresses that a!! %our must )e resent in musica! com osition in or"er %or it to imitate an" arouse the assions* The %irst is me!o"ic harmon&' the mathematica!!& sonorous "e !o&ment o% interva!s* The secon"' num)er' is "etermine" )& the verse an" is

there%ore ca!!e" meter* Narration o% a stor&' 0hich "e icts customs an" characters' com rises the thir" e!ement4 it can )e re%erre" to as s eech or oration* An" the %ourth re#uirement is a 0e!!-"is ose" su)1ect 0hose nature res on"s to musica! recitation an" su)mits to the arousa! o% assions* >: aving !iste" the %our car"ina! e!ements o% ancient art' Far!ino can no0 ma3e his oint* +ecause mo"ern o!& hon& "e en"s so!e!& on harmon&' it is inca a)!e o% ro"ucing e(trinsic e%%ects* Harmon& ma& "is ose the min" to e( eriencing certain intrinsic' genera! a%%ects' such as gaiet& or sa"ness* Ho0ever' )eauti%u! counter oint' 0hich imitates the numerica! harmon& o% nature' on!& arouses a %ee!ing o% !easure in its ro ortions* >/ These statements re resent the cru( o% Far!inoCs aesthetic concerning the er%ect art* It imitates the inner !a0s o% nature an" thus a%%or"s no)!e !easure* The a%%ective #ua!ities o% mo"es an" harmonies that he "escri)es e!se0here on!& contri)ute to a vague emotiona! a ea!* There%ore' attem ts 0ithin this st&!e to "e ict an" arouse concrete images an" o)1ective a%%ections are mis !ace"4 the& on!& "istort the er%ection o% o!& hon&* >7 Far!ino goes on to sa& that 0hen a o!& honic com osition com)ines harmon& an" meter' it ac#uires a more o)vious a)i!it& to move the sou!* This situation ertains to the "ance 0hich a""s e(trinsic )o"i!& movements to the intrinsic motion o% harmon& an" meter* The ne(t ste ' o% course' is to unite harmon&' meter' an" oration* In this instance' the com osition e( resses character )& recounting a stor& or historica! theme* Far!ino avers that it is im ossi)!e to estimate the e( ressive %orce o% this tri artite %usion ?in e%%ect' the dramma per musica@ )ecause it is none(istent in mo"ern ractice* Fina!!&' he notes that the com osition must stri3e a s&m athetic chor" in the !istenerCs emotiona! ma3eu * Harmon& a!one can inc!ine the sou! to ha & or sa" moo"s* ,etrica! rh&thm "ou)!es musicCs a%%ective o0er* One assumes that Far!ino 0ou!" grant more concrete assions to st&!i5e" "ances on the groun"s that their metrica! structure suggests unseen movements* >< Ho0ever' he insists that these t0o e!ements )& themse!ves cannot generate e(trinsic assions* This o0er )e!ongs to oration* Thus' the marve!ous e%%ects o% ancient musica! st&!e "e en" on me!o"&' the rinci a! me"ium o% oration* >> The vie0s resente" a)ove shou!" not )e inter rete" to mean that Far!ino re1ects the a%%ective o0er o% a!! contem orar& music* On the contrar&' he a"mits that one 3in" o% mo"ern music can move the a%%ections as "i" ancient music* To )e recise' effetti meravigliosi occur 0hen )eauti%u!' !earne"' an" e!egant verse is recite" )& a so!oist to the soun" o% an instrument* The !isteners are then move" "ee !& an" ins ire" to tears' !aughter' an" so on* As a concrete e(am !e' Far!ino cites the recitation o% AriostoCs oetr&* Ancient music o erate" in the same 0a&$that is' s ontaneous mono"ic recitation )ase" on %ormu!as* Far!ino a!so notes that care!ess com osers ro"uce o!& hon& 0ithout an& e%%ects at a!!* The& %orget that meticu!ous "ec!amation can give this st&!e a measure o% ancient "ignit& an" o0er* >9 This is the reason he stresses the ru!es %or correct te(t un"er!a&* +ut he "oes not e#uate this re#uirement 0ith the "ramatic re resentation o% concrete assions* I% the !atter o)1ective means the "estruction o% soun" contra unta! roce"ures' then Far!ino re1ects it out o%

han"* His thesis rests on the eminent!& reasona)!e assum tion that effetti meravigliosi, a"mira)!e in their o0n right' )e!ong ro er!& to the rovince o% the so!o recitation o% a narrative* Their resence in ancient music or mo"ern song has nothing to "o 0ith the er%ection o% o!& hon&* This vie0 is ma"e e( !icit in the 0or3 Far!ino 0rote ans0ering 8a!i!eiCs )!istering criti#ue* In it he oints out that mono"ists attac3 counter oint on t0o counts= its mi(ture o% musica! e!ements an" its se!%-su%%icient ru!es governing these mi(tures* In Far!inoCs o inion' ho0ever' these roce"ures are necessar& %or goo" contra unta! 0riting4 the& are inherent in the cra%t* He %urther oints out that in his %irst treatise' he em hasi5e" that the com oser must never neg!ect the te(t* He meant to sa& that 0ithin the !imits o% reason' harmon& an" num)er are servants o% the 0or"s* There%ore' 8a!i!eiCs criticism is )oth onesi"e" an" un%air* Far!ino re eats his contention that the marve!ous e%%ects o% ancient st&!e 0ere re!ate" to the so!o song' an" thus "o not in an& 0a& vitiate the er%ections o% mo"ern o!& hon&* Furthermore' 8a!i!eiCs a"vice to com osers to imitate orators an" actors has nothing to "o 0ith counter oint or even 0ith )eauti%u! me!o"& in song* His recommen"ation is via)!e on!& %or the recitation o% a "ramatic su)1ect* >D In a 0a&' Far!inoCs comments un"erscore the con%usion evi"ent in 8a!i!eiCs "iscussion o% mono"&* The& certain!& esta)!ish Far!ino as a ers icacious theorist o% musica! st&!es* ,o"eration an" sanit& in u)!ic "e)ates o% this erio" constitute oor 0ea ons %or conten"ing 0ith im assione" an" %!am)o&ant tactics* As the mannerist )e!ie% in rogress gains momentum' theorists o% ra"ica! ersuasions can a%%or" to )e more an" more "aring* Thus' a tru!& avant-gar"e movement at the turn o% the centur& romu!gates a ne0 maniera 0ithout su%%ering the %ate that houn"e" +arto!omIo Ramos "e Pare1a /:: &ears ear!ier* 8a!i!ei an" his cohorts su ort mono"&' a ne0 st&!e no !onger conceive" as a mi!" or even an e(treme "istortion o% the o!"' )ut rather as a com !ete "e arture %rom it that re!egates o!" st&!e to o)!ivion* Though man& musicians ac3no0!e"ge the e(istence o% t0o ractices' their va!ue 1u"gments im !& that tra"itiona! counter oint has "egenerate" into aca"emic cra%t' the stu"& o% 0hich is restricte" to stu"ents* A%ter thorough master& o% a c!ose" !anguage 0ith %inite ru!es' the stu"ent then tries his han" at mo"ern st&!e' a st&!e that resents a "i%%erent 3in" o% cha!!enge to his genius an" ins iration* The #uarre! )et0een ancient an" mo"ern music is a com !icate" a%%air in%orme" )& variegate" notions o% histor& an" rogress* The "ichotom& out!ine" a)ove invo!ves t0o i"eas= %irst' that ancient music com rises a re ute"!& er%ect art 0hose scienti%ic remises are no !onger a!ive4 an" secon"' that mo"ern music em)o"ies the otentia! %or un!imite" rogress to true er%ection* I% 0e shi%t the terms o% re%erence )ac3 a %e0 "eca"es' 0e o)serve a "i%%erent set o% o osites* 8enera!!& s ea3ing' mo"ern music can mean the er%ect art' ra"ica! chromaticism' or so!o mono"&4 converse!&' ancient music can re%er to o!"-%ashione" counter oint' me"ieva! music' or the music o% c!assica! 8reece an" Rome* Ho0ever' )e!o0 this atch0or3 o% i"eas there runs one ersistent threa"* A!! conce ts o% historic-st&!istic rogress cu!minating in some %orm o% ne0 an" er%ect art are )ase" on notions a)out revising' e#ua!ing' an" sur assing the g!ories o% anti#uit&* This attitu"e'

together 0ith the o osition it occasiona!!& engen"ers' survives in the )aro#ue erio"' an" 0e!! )e&on" it* A!though the 0or3s o% 8iovanni +attista 2oni !ie %or the most art outsi"e the chrono!ogica! !imits o% the mannerist erio"' man& o% his vie0s re%!ect' either "irect!& or in"irect!&' the theoretica! an" ractica! controversies o% that time* I cite %irst o% a!! his "issi"ent vie0 o% mo"ern su eriorit& over c!assica! music' a vie0 e( !icate" in "etai! in his %e praestantia musicae veteris ?/D>E@* The attri)utes given )& 2oni to ancient singers ?e*g*' goo" voices' marve!ous ornamentation' e!egance' an" suavit&@ >E are recise!& those c!aime" %or mo"ern music )& ro onents o% mannerist nove!ties in )oth o!& honic an" mono"ic st&!es* 2oniCs negative o inion aims at "estro&ing the re utation o% mo"ern rogress' an" his !ist o% com osers 0ho )e!ieve in such rogress as 0e!! as his "escri tion o% s eci%ic "etai!s o% a musica! nature amount to a cata!og o% mannerist musicians an" mannerist ten"encies in com osition an" er%ormance* >A 2oniCs ana!&tica! rigor &ie!"s %ruit%u! resu!ts 0hen he turns his attention to the ne0est st&!es an" genres* As a humanist scho!ar 0ith consi"era)!e 3no0!e"ge o% ancient cu!ture' 2oni is %ascinate" articu!ar!& )& the henomenon o% o era' a genre that tries to %use oetr&' "rama' an" music in a manner simi!ar to ancient re resentation* O% s ecia! interest is his tri artite "ivision o% mono"ic st&!es* >B Narrative mono"&' 0ith its sma!! interva!s an" ra i" rh&thmic con%igurations imitating s eech atterns' re resents the most straight%or0ar" st&!e o% the three* Recitationa! mono"& resem)!es the st&!e given to heroic oems* 2oni notes that its %re#uent ca"ences create a monotonous e%%ect4 8iustiniani ma3es a simi!ar comment* 9: The a%%ective e!ements in me!o"& an" harmon& characteristic o% the thir" 3in"' e( ressive mono"&' are reserve" %or moments o% great athos* A!! three can )e ta3en as musica! st&!i5ations o% oratorica! or histrionic mannerisms* The& there%ore a"here to one oint in 8a!i!eiCs a"vice to mono"ists* An" the& "emonstrate &et another as ect o% mannerist aesthetics in that the& omit arias' or stro hic songs* The reason %or this omission' one that strengthens the mono"istsC cause' resi"es in the %act that arias em)o"& the same se!%-su%%icient musica! !ogic that su orts tra"itiona! counter oint* S&stematic aesthetics o% o era in in"e en"ent 0ritings "o not sur%ace unti! the +aro#ue* The ear!& cameratas o% ;aco o Corsi an" Emi!io "eCCava!ieri concentrate on ractica! e( eriments an" not on a)stract theori5ing* In vie0 o% this situation' !iterar& humanists rovi"e the %irst ma1or sources* Notions !in3ing music to oetr& an" "rama 0ith re%erences to aristote!ian catharsis an" mimesis )egin in the mi"-si(teenth centur&* Later' theorists o% the ne0 mannerist e ic an" astora! ac3no0!e"ge the uti!it& o% music in these genres* Furthermore' rea"ings o% astora! oems' such as ,l pastor fido' a!0a&s %eature inci"enta! music in the %orm o% o!& honic choruses' "ances' instrumenta! inter!u"es' an" even so!o songs* O% course' 0e are not "ea!ing 0ith a com !ete!& musica! resentation o% a "ramatic oem* +ut )oth the astora! an" e ic genres constitute one stream that !ea"s eventua!!& to the opera in

musica. In a""ition to setting a rece"ent %or the use o% music' their structures are %use" in ear!& o eratic !i)rettos* The other im ortant in%!uence on ear!& o eratic e( eriments comes %rom humanist research into the nature o% ancient "rama* A!though Francesco Patri5i )e!ongs to an antiaristote!ian minorit&' his criticism o% the con%usion resent in Aristot!eCs "e%inition o% mimesis i!!ustrates the common !ace si(teenth-centur& inter retations o% this to ic* Patri5i %in"s no !ess than si( "i%%erent meanings o% imitation' %our o% 0hich are re!evant to our "iscussion* The secon" one re%ers to "e icting concrete an" vivi" images ?enargeia@4 he "oes not mention that this i"ea! animates the mannerist ma"riga!* 6hen an imitate" action is ut on the stage' the %ourth 3in" o% imitation resu!ts$the "ramatic resentation o% rea! action* Such imitation' o% course' a!so re!ates to o era* As an e(tension o% the %ourth one' Patri5i !ists a %i%th 3in" o% imitation' that %oun" in narrative oetr&* An" this 3in" o% imitation has a ro%oun" in%!uence on various musica! genres that set such te(ts* Fina!!&' musica! imitation itse!% com rises a si(th 3in"4 Patri5i here re%ers to singing narrative oetr& or actua! "rama* 9/ Through the me"ia o% aca"emic "iscussion an" humanist )oo3s' these notions circu!ate 0i"e!& in !earne" an" "i!ettante circ!es* An" 0e must recogni5e the signi%icance o% this situation inso%ar as ear!& o era is encourage" )& this segment o% societ&* Patrons an" amateurs o% music are the ersons 0ho rom t ro%essiona! oets an" musicians to e( eriment 0ith a nove! musico- oetic %orm* An" )& its ver& nature' the dramma per musica a ea!s to the same so histicate" !overs o% mannerist re%inements 0ho revious!& en1o&e" the eccentricities o% the o!& honic ma"riga!* 6e shou!" a!so note that rivate aca"emies !a& an im ortant ro!e in %ostering reviva!s o% the ancient manner o% resenting "rama* For e(am !e' the mem)ers o% the Acca"emia "eg!i A!terati ha" a scho!ar!& interest in music as 0e!! as the %our other !i)era! arts= grammar' rhetoric' "ia!ectic' an" oetr&* The i"ea o% inc!u"ing music in an e( an"e" trivium is not entire!& ne0* +ut the conviction o% this grou that music an" rhetoric imitate an" e( ress the a%%ections has a tangi)!e in%!uence on certain mem)ers o% the aca"em& 0ho 0i!! cham ion mono"& an" o era$+ar"i' Corsi' an" Rinuccini* 97 There can )e no "ou)t that these men trans%er i"eas %rom the aca"em& into their o0n grou s 0here the& are ut into ractice )& ro%essiona! musicians* 6ith res ect to +ar"iCs Camerata' 0e can g!ean its high re utation %rom a "ocument !e%t to us )& his son' Pietro "eC+ar"i* 9< The e!"er +ar"iCs !ist o% accom !ishments is im ressive= he encourage" 8a!i!eiCs stu"ies o% ancient theor& as 0e!! as his %irst so!o er%ormances' CacciniCs mono"ies' as 0e!! as RinucciniCs an" PeriCs %afne* 9> Pietro a!so gives Corsi cre"it %or su orting nove! o eratic st&!e' an" cites ,ontever"i as the greatest !iving com oser o% o era* Research into the e!"er +ar"iCs !i%e has sho0n that he cease" to )e active in F!orentine circ!es a%ter /9B7* Neverthe!ess' Caccini a&s him a su reme tri)ute )& "e"icating to him the u)!ication o% his -uridice. Animate" )& 1ea!ous& )ecause Peri 0as commissione" to com ose RinucciniCs te(t through CorsiCs in%!uence' Caccini 0rote his o0n score an" rushe" it into rint in or"er to c!aim the "istinction o%

)eing the com oser o% the %irst u)!ishe" o era on recor"* Co ies ro!!e" o%% the ress one "a& a%ter the remiere o% PeriCs version* In the "e"ication' Caccini in"icates that the st&!e o% his o era "erives %rom his ear!ier 0or3 on the so!o ma"riga!* Li3e these mono"ies' the voice arts o% his o era are to )e er%orme" 0ith sprezzatura' the no)!e manner o% singing* Caccini cannot re%rain %rom ointing out that his st&!e em)o"ies the im rovise" ractice o% Vittoria Archi!ei' 0ho sang the tit!e ro!e in his riva!Cs o era* 99 Peri su)se#uent!& u)!ishe" his score in /D:/' an" his "e"ication is more in%ormative %or stu"ents o% ear!& o eratic theor&* 9D Peri attri)utes his ins iration to the 3no0!e"ge that c!assica! trage"ies 0ere recite" throughout' in a st&!e that 0as more me!o"ic than !ain s eech an" !ess me!o"ic than song* To arrive at his o0n stile recitativo, Peri #uic3ene" the me!o"ic movement so that it !a& in )et0een the !eisure!& ace o% song an" the s0i%t motion o% s eech* A stu"& o% s eech atterns a!so revea!e" to him an im ortant an" use%u! %eature* Some 0or"s are so intone" that in setting them to music the com oser can )ase a harmon& on them* Others are amena)!e to #uic3 assage on the same harmon& ?com !ete 0ith "issonances@ unti! the com oser reaches another 0or" that can su ort a ne0 consonant harmon&* Using this characteristic as a )asis %or the basso continuo art' the com oser thus arrives at a %!e(i)!e s&stem ara!!e!ing the nature o% the 0or"s* This a!ternation )et0een intone" an" nonintone" 0or"s e%%ective!& re ro"uces the assionate accents o% s eech* It %o!!o0s' there%ore' that i% musica! st&!e re%!ects ver)a! st&!e' it too 0i!! e( ress a%%ective #ua!ities* The roce"ure out!ine" )& Peri a!so avoi"s the %eature o% having the me!o"& "ance to the movement o% the )ass' a "e%ect that Peri notices in CacciniCs recitative* At cheer%u! or ga& moments in the !i)retto' the com oser ma& use ure song st&!e4 )ut grave an" sa" assages must )e set in stile recitativo. Peri conc!u"es that his recitative ma& not )e e#uiva!ent to ancient recitation' )ut it is the on!& one ossi)!e in mo"ern music that sets "ramatic oetr&* Peri is rou" to in"icate that his st&!e has !ease" !earne" gent!emen as 0e!! as ro%essiona! com osers an" eminent singers' such as Vittoria Archi!ei* This comment erha s re resents an o)!i#ue a o!og& %or those !isteners 0ho "is!i3e" the o era* Peri a!so has the generosit& to a"mit that in the er%ormance itse!%' Euri"iceCs so!o airs as 0e!! as a %e0 choruses 0ere rovi"e" )& Caccini* 9E Ho0ever' he "oes 0ish to oint out that his o era 0as com ose" an" er%orme" )e%ore CacciniCs a eare" in rint* +oth PeriCs an" CacciniCs "e"ications "emonstrate the continuing vita!it& o% mannerist aesthetics an" attitu"es* Their 0or3s are the ro"uctions o% musica! genius ins ire" )& humanist notions* +oth ma3e c!aims to ingenious nove!t& )ase" on the i"ea o% reviving an" sur assing ancient effetti meravigliosi. Per%orme" in the rare%ie" atmos here o% one o% the most so histicate" courts o% Euro e' their settings o% RinucciniCs "ramatic astora! re resent the cu!mination o% the cin0uecentoCs craving %or start!ing rhetorica! "evices in music* As 0or3s o% art' their o eras stan" on their o0n intrinsic merits* As cu!tura! "ocuments' the& cannot )e iso!ate" %rom the mainstream o% musica! ,annerism* An" the acri" ersona! riva!r& )et0een the t0o men attests to their acute se!% consciousness an" their "esire to garner riorit& in osterit&Cs historica! hin"sights*

Maniera The term maniera in musica! theor& entai!s a %usion o% technica! an" aesthetic i"eas 0hich in%!uence the evo!ution o% conce ts o% st&!e* One scho!ar correct!& oints out that the histor& o% maniera as a technica! term in music has &et to )e investigate"* / The same ma& )e sai" o% its histor& as an i"ea! o% st&!e* This cha ter )& asses s eci%ic ro)!ems o% inter retation an" concentrates instea" on cases 0here the st&!istic im !ications o% maniera are c!ear* 7 In vie0 o% the interre!ationshi )et0een st&!e conce ts an" to ics such as histor&' artistic va!ues' genius' an" com osition' the rea"er 0i!! notice some "u !ication o% materia! %oun" in revious cha ters* At the same time' these to ics can serve to i!!uminate an" rein%orce a more narro0 %ocus on maniera* The a)so!ute meaning o% maniera$that is' oise' e!egant "e ortment' or st&!e$ revai!s throughout the %i%teenth an" si(teenth centuries* Im !icit in the initia!!& socia! conce t is the i"ea o% re%ine" reciosit& an" arti%icia! eti#uette* An" e(aggeration o% this as ect occurs natura!!& in the so histicate" atmos here o% mannerist !i%e-st&!es* It is signi%icant that in music the term maniera %irst a ears in %i%teenth-centur& "ance manua!s' an" its im ort "erives "irect!& %rom socia! conventions* 2omenico "a Piacen5a !ists %ive a)i!ities that mar3 the goo" "ancer= mesura ?a sense o% musica! rh&thm@' memoria ?memori5e" ste s@' maniera ?%!ui" an" mo"erate )o"i!& motion@' mesura di terreno ? atterne" arrangement on a %!oor s ace@' an" aiere ?a!ternation )et0een movement an" re ose@* < Piacen5aCs i"ea! is one o% genti!it&' cu!tivation' an" e!egant artistr&* His u i!' Antonio Corna5ano' inc!u"es the same re#uirements !us a si(th one' diversit! "i cose ?great variet& o% ste s@' an" there)& hints at the %uture mannerist em hasis on ro!i%ic ornamentation* +ut it is Corna5anoCs inter retation o% maniera that oints to %acets o% this conce t "estine" to )ecome associate" 0ith mannerist st&!e* He "e%ines maniera as the intensive s0a&ing o% the )o"&' )oth %rom si"e to si"e as 0e!! as u an" "o0n* In Corna5anoCs vie0' maniera a""s grace to the "ance* > The most %amous "ancing master o% the time' 8ug!ie!mo E)reo' resents a !ist o% si( a)i!ities simi!ar to that o% Corna5ano* Un"er aiere, E)reo "iscusses !ight an" grace%u! motion o% the )o"& in rising an" %a!!ing ca"ences* Maniera, on the other han"' re%ers to the turning o% the )o"& %rom si"e to si"e* 9 In s ite o% minor "i%%erences' the genera! unanimit& o% the three treatises is ronounce"' an" "emonstrates that %rom the ver& )eginning' maniera "enotes grace%u!!& im rovise" "ecoration %or a %orm o% court!& entertainment* A!though these 0riters ta!3 o% maniera in terms o% a re%ine" a"ornment' an arti%icia! st&!i5ation o% gesture' the ties )et0een maniera in the "ance an" a socia! co"e o% high-c!ass civi!it& remain strong* 6hen the term is resurrecte" in musica! 0ritings o% the si(teenth centur&' a%ter a hiatus o% some si(t& or sevent& &ears' it a ears in a "i%%erent %rame0or3' one in%orme" )& notions o% historica! rogress an" artistic va!ue* 6hereas maniera in the "ance re resents a natura! e(tension o% an i"ea! o% civi!i5e" )ehavior' maniera in the visua! arts arises %rom an inte!!ectua! a"a tation o% its origina! im ort* In this conte(t' it ta3es on other meanings' an" its a)so!ute sense )ecomes a"u!terate" )& the t& ica!!& renaissance vie0 o% cu!tura! histor&* /ella maniera no0 %unctions as an i"ea! %or goo" art' )ase" on the mo"e! o% anti#uit&* +& in%erence' its

o osite !ac3s the rimar& trait o% this i"ea!' grazia, an" %or this reason' it is ca!!e" cattiva maniera* The technica! e!ements that ro"uce bella maniera are the mathematica! ro ortions o% music trans!ate" into geometr&' anatom&' an" ers ective* 6e have note" that c!assica! harmon& has )oth hi!oso hica! an" ractica! re ercussions %or renaissance art* On the ractica! si"e' it %osters the art o% "esign' an" this art a"mits )oth rea!istic imitation an" ec!ectic i"ea!i5ation o% nature* The !atter' o% course' is seen as a t& e o% "ecorative tro e' one that 0i!! )e increasing!& stresse" in the mannerist erio"* Sur assing nature in search o% e!egant an" grace%u! maniera 0i!! change to "istorting nature in search o% nove! an" )i5arre maniera* ,usica! theorists in the Renaissance ta3e %or grante" the secure !ace o% music in the !i)era! arts an" the tra"ition o% master u i! e"ucation* Har3ing )ac3 to c!assica! mo"e!s seems unnecessar& inasmuch as )oth theoretica! an" ractica! si"es o% music remain vita! inheritances %rom the ,i""!e Ages* An" it a!so seems unnecessar& to investigate st&!istic remises in an& "etai! )ecause such matters are re!ative!& sim !e an" are !earne" %rom ractica! e( erience* Furthermore' theorists over!oo3 the %act that s ecu!ative s&stems "o not coinci"e 0ith ractice* As 0e have seen' the most revo!utionar& theories o% this erio" are ut %or0ar" )& +arto!omIo Ramos "e Pare1a* His a0areness o% contem orar& st&!e rom ts his e( osition o% ra"ica! i"eas' i"eas con"emne" )& his conservative co!!eagues* ,ost ertinent to the resent to ic is RamosCs %ormu!ation o% a genera! conce t o% musica! e( ressivit& in terms o% ha & or sa" st&!es* +ecause this conce t ta3es as its oint o% "e arture the te(t )eing set to music' it signa!s the eventua! emergence o% mannerist aesthetics* In summing u this transitiona! hase o% musica! thought' I stress one oint* A %e0 0riters a"um)rate st&!istic conce ts 0hen attem ting to vie0 their contem orar& ractice in some sort o% historica! continuum* +ut these attem ts are s ora"ic at )est' an" the re!ationshi )et0een such notions an" metho"o!ogies o% rescri tive ru!es %or com osition is vague an" uns&stematic* In none o% these 0ritings "oes a c!ear an" "ominating conce t o% st&!e emerge as a centra! %ocus* +et0een /97: an" /9>:' artistic theor& e( eriences a !u!!* In the %ie!" o% !iterar& theor&' on the other han"' three im ortant i"eas come to the %ore' i"eas that 0i!! )e %avorite themes !ater in the centur&* Poetr& an" music are !in3e" as arts 0ith the o0er to in%!uence the assions' an" this i"ea! o% e!o#uence accentuates rhetoric as a common e!ement in )oth arts* 6riters a!so evince an interest in the !&ric genre' 0hose aim is to !ease* To this en"' it shou!" em)o"& grace%u! an" suave st&!e characteri5e" )& s0eet an" e!egant %igures o% s eech* These i"eas as &et !ac3 the em hasis on nove!t& an" e(travagance %oun" in mannerist aesthetics o% !iterature* In com arison 0ith the sister arts' musica! theor& at this time resents man& rogressive an" even ra"ica! i"eas* Pietro Aaron o%%ers a 0e!!-"e%ine" "istinction )et0een !inear counter oint an" integrate" o!& hon&' a "istinction that im !icit!& osits mo"ern

musica! st&!e as a su erior re%inement over o!"er st&!e* Furthermore' his e(am !es %urnish concrete an" ractica! gui"e!ines %or e!egant techni#ues* Thus' contra unta! theor& is trans%orme" into st&!istic criticism* An" man& o% AaronCs other rogressive conce ts can )e ascri)e" to his "esire to )ring theor& more in !ine 0ith contem orar& ractice* +& an" !arge' han")oo3s on musica! ru"iments ten" to e( !icate conservative "octrine* An" &et' 0e can "iscern sma!! hints o% ra"ica! ractice even in this area* For e(am !e' +iagio Rossetti a"mits the ma1or semitone as a s0eet "issonance4 an" his authorit& is mo"ern st&!e* A simi!ar situation o)tains in the 0or3 o% Nico!aus Listenius* Among the rogressive i"eas in this other0ise or"inar& !itt!e )oo3' 0e must count his raise o% the opus perfectum & absolutum$the %irst theoretica! a"mission o% the )ene%its o% rinting* This techno!og&' in e%%ect' a!!o0s com ositiona! st&!es to )e "isseminate" as mo"e!s %or emu!ation )& other musicians* An" this is an im ortant socio!ogica! im etus )ehin" the stereot& ing o% mannerist nove!ties* It a!so un"er!ies the gro0ing cu!tivation o% %ame' )ecause musica! 0or3s remain accurate!& recor"e" %or osterit&* Listenius e(hi)its rogressive vie0s in connecting he(achor"a! ro riet& to harmonic character4 in articu!ar' his a"mission o% a mi(e" categor& o% com osition antici ates the ne0 e!asticit& o% mannerist st&!e* An" the harmonic au"acities o% the !atter are re%igure" in his mutation e(am !e' es ecia!!& its circ!e-o%-%i%ths organi5ation* The most ra"ica! 0riter o% this erio" is 8iovanni S ataro 0hose 0ritings "o much to en!iven the musica! scene* S&m tomatic o% his attitu"e is his s irite" "e%ense o% Ramos* S ataroCs mi!itant vie0s arise %rom an un"erstan"ing not on!& o% contem orar& st&!e' )ut a!so o% coming "eve!o ments* Seate" on the )are!& mar3e" crossroa"s %rom 0hich mannerist st&!e 0i!! move in a "ivergent ath a0a& %rom tra"itiona! ractice' S ataro sees into the %uture 0ith si)&!!ine ta!ent* I re%er to his i"eas a)out tuning as 0e!! as to his aesthetic notions* S ataro insists that art an" grace cannot )e taught )ecause goo" com osers are )orn as are oets4 ins iration moves the com oser to use musica! e!ements that "e%& the ru!es* The im !ications o% this statement %or mannerist aesthetics cannot )e overestimate"* S ataro ma3es a c!ear "istinction )et0een the acce te" an" common !ace ru!es o% science as o ose" to the nove! an" unusua! innovations ins ire" )& in"ivi"ua! genius* The %irst su ort cra%t 0hereas the secon" ermit the unru!& an" instinctive sha ing o% ersona! st&!e* Vin"ication o% S ataroCs osition 0i!! not come unti! the %u!! range o% musica! au"acities is e( !ore" an" e(hauste" )& the mannerist ma"riga!* The converse situation ho!"s true %or theor& in the visua! arts )et0een /9>: an" /9D:* In the 0a3e o% ear!& mannerist 0or3s' theorists )egin to %ormu!ate aesthetic an" technica! rece ts a !ica)!e to the ne0 maniera. Even the tra"itiona! paragone )et0een ainting an" scu! ture revea!s some ne0 arguments that )etra& the in%!uence o% inci ient mannerist virtuosit&* For e(am !e' vio!ent %oreshortening is e(a!te" )ecause %orce" an" straine" oses' corres on"ing !ess 0ith nature an" more 0ith the inte!!ectua! idea, e(u"e a m&sterious #ua!it& o% van#uishe" "i%%icu!t&* +oth si"es o% this "e)ate tout menta! or manua! )ri!!iance' the effetto meraviglioso 0orth& o% a0e" a"miration*

Artistic theor& in this erio" is "ominate" )& 8iorgio VasariCs semina! 0or3' in 0hich he ana!&5es the 0orth o% in"ivi"ua! st&!es in the !ight o% each artistCs historica! osition* Thus' chrono!og& an" artistic va!ue are %use" into a conce t o% cu!tura! histor& seen as causa! rogression to0ar" er%ection* Vasari constructs st&!istic a)stractions se arate" into %our e ocha! maniere. In the thir" o% these' artists have "eve!o e" consummate master& o% techni#ue an" me"ium* Their natura! an" grace%u! "e iction o% nature is so er%ect that nothing can )e a""e" to the arsena! o% scienti%ic 3no0!e"ge an" manua! ca a)i!it&* Vasari is %ace" 0ith the ossi)i!it& o% a "ec!ine %o!!o0ing this acme* In or"er to ro!ong er%ection into a time!ess i"ea!' artists can imitate the s0eet an" gran" manners' as Vasari himse!% suggests4 or e!se the& ma& tr& to sur ass the giants o% the er%ect art )& re%ining' e(aggerating' an" "istorting their aesthetic rinci !es* VasariCs sensitivit& to the mannerist "i!emma is su)stantiate" )oth )& artistic ractice an" )& su)se#uent eva!uation o% this ractice' %or historians critici5e ,annerism as em t& e igona!ism or an h& erre%ine" reciosit& an" )i5arre monumenta!ism* VasariCs "escri tion o% the com onents o% the bella maniera sho0s his rea!i5ation that this st&!e re resents a summa o% its c!assica! heritage an" that' at the same time' its su)t!e ne0 re%inements %orm the )asis %or %uture mannerist tren"s* These t0o as ects are seen in a num)er o% "ua! characteristics that he high!ights= master& o% natura! ro ortions as o ose" to sprezzatura, a #ua!it& o% grace%u! neg!igence an" nove! s ontaneit&4 c!ear "istinctions among various or"ers as o ose" to a)un"ance an" variet& o% "ecoration 4 s3i!! in harmonious measurement as o ose" to a tone o% o!ish an" e!egance that e(cee"s the ru!e o% ro ortion* A)ove a!!' er%ect art ossesses maniera. This %un"amenta! re#uisite o% st&!ishness has reache" an un rece"ente" ea3 o% er%ection* An" %rom this vie0 oint' mo"ern st&!e has e#ua!e" an" sur asse" the g!ories o% ancient art* VasariCs em hasis on maniera )es ea3s his a0areness o% the thrust o% mo"ern ractice* He e( !ains the )asis o% bella maniera as a 3in" o% er%ection arising %rom ec!ectic roce"ures* Ec!ecticism ro"uces a re ertor& o% i"ea!i5e" mo"e!s that in turn ro"uce a homogeneous )ase %or the artistCs ersona! maniera* I ta3e this tenet as a car"ina! one %or ,annerism* Each artist must %in" his o0n inner vision' an" then e(ecute it 0ith origina!it& an" virtuosit& so that eo !e are astoun"e" )& his nove! st&!e* The em hasis no0 !ies on in"ivi"ua!ism an" ins iration' an" accor"ing to Vasari' artists ma& even ta3e as their mo"e! the st&!e o% another artist* No0' Vasari sees a!! this as a natura! outcome o% rogress* His vie0 is not share" )& Lo"ovico 2o!ce 0ho' un"er the in%!uence o% Pietro Aretino' critici5es F!orentine ,annerism* Among the %our necessar& attri)utes o% goo" st&!e' argues 2o!ce' ,iche!ange!o an" his va i" imitators e(ce! on!& in invention an" "esign* Their inte!!ectua! virtuosit&' !ac3ing in rich natura!istic co!or an" emotiona! "e th' has in"ee" ro"uce" a maniera. +ut this maniera, a 3in" o% em t& an" sha!!o0 mannere"ness' has "istorte" the revere" !a0s o% c!assica! st&!e* It is there%ore not a virtue o% the er%ect art' )ut

rather a vice o% cattiva prattica. In 2o!ceCs o inion' Venetian st&!e has success%u!!& sur asse" ancient i"ea!s )& a""ing re%inements that "o not "istur) tra"itiona! rinci !es* The )att!e !ines in the visua! arts are no0 c!ear!& "ra0n* +ecause o% a strong anti#uarian an" scho!ar!& strain' oetic criticism o% this erio" "oes not "emonstrate so !ive!& an interest in contem orar& issues* Ram ant etrarchism' 0hich has a!rea"& reache" its %u!! stri"e' %in"s on!& %aint echoes in theor&* Critics are engrosse" 0ith e( !icating ancient i"eas an" "emonstrating their humanistic ro0ess' as %or e(am !e' in the controvers& over a!!o athic an" homeo athic catharsis* Not #uite as !earne" )ut more to the oint is the "iscussion o% oetr& in terms o% imitating an" moving the a%%ections* This conce t re%!ects an increasing ten"enc& to !in3 oetr& an" rhetoric' an" to c!aim o0er%u! e!o#uence %or e ic an" narrative verse* In this regar"' oetic rhetoric is seen as "irecte" to !easing the %antas& or imagination' an" it there%ore uti!i5es e!evate" "iction* A!though this i"ea is not as &et re!ate" to !&ric oetr&' its em hasis on st&!e oints to a "istinct!& mannerist ro ensit&* Rhetorica! %igures o% s eech are su ose" to ensure vivi" an" rea!istic imitation' or enargeia* +ut the a earance o% criticism against e(travagant imager& a!so suggests that theorists are a0are o% certain ra"ica! tren"s* Some state that )oth maniera ?a%%ecte" st&!i5ation@ an" mimesis ?straight%or0ar" e( ression@ are necessar& e!ements o% imager&* The %ormer ro"uces marve!ous e%%ects an" nove! st&!e* At this oint' oetic theor& starts "o0n the mannerist ath0a&* 6ritings on music )et0een /9>: an" /9D: resent us 0ith a stri3ing a"1unct to ractica! matters$the mar3e" )i%urcation )et0een ra"ica! an" conservative st&!es* The crossroa"s have )een asse"* From this time %or0ar"' conservative tracts %orm a secon"ar& )o"& o% )oo3s that e( oun" tra"itiona! to ics in )!iss%u! ignorance o% the musica! %erment resent in contem orar& ractice* Progressive 0riters %ormu!ate the rece ts o% the er%ect art in such a 0a& as to ma3e this st&!e re!evant to mo"ern music an"' more im ortant' to e!evate musica! er%ection into a time!ess i"ea!* Theirs are the theories that c!ash 0ith a gro0ing num)er o% mi!itant avant-gar"ists 0ho es ouse the cause o% ne0 st&!es that either re%ine an" "istort the er%ect art' or e!se "e art entire!& %rom its sacrosanct ru!es* +ecause o% his critica! orientation ?in itse!% an origina! a roach to music@' Henricus 8!areanus com)ines ana!&sis o% com ositiona! ractice 0ith a historica! vie0 oint* Li3e Vasari' he charts the rise o% mo"ern art an" "ivi"es its "eve!o ment into %our ages* 8!areanusCs historica! out!ine rece"es that o% the eminent art critic )& some e!even &ears* D 6hen one rea!i5es that no rece"ent %or this a roach e(ists in musica! theor&' the origina!it& o% his "e arture %rom esta)!ishe" i"eas seems even more outstan"ing* E#ua!!& rogressive is this theoristCs reoccu ation 0ith musica! st&!e* 8!areanusCs su)t!e too!s o% phrasis' mi(tio' an" commi(tio, re!ate" to his ne0 s&stem o% t0e!ve mo"es' )ecome the %oun"ation %or eva!uating e!egant an" e( ressive com osition* The !atter i"ea! %urnishes' in certain e(ce tiona! cases' an e(cuse %or inventive !icense* +ut 8!areanusCs essentia!!& conservative )ias emerges %rom his criticism o% contem orar& re"i!ection %or vio!ent an" "istorte" music* This ten"enc& hera!"s the "ec!ine o% the er%ect art' in 8!areanusCs vie0' an" the )eginning o% mannerist st&!e' in m& vie0* It is true that 8!areanus "oes not use

an& Latin term that can )e construe" as e#uiva!ent to maniera. Neverthe!ess' his interest in st&!istic ro)!ems re resents the core o% his aesthetic' an" )ecause his aesthetic a""resses e( ressivit& in articu!ar' 0e must assess 8!areanus as a rogressive thin3er* A simi!ar goa! motivates the 0or3 o% A"rianus Petit Coc!ico' 0ho s ea3s o% reviving a !ost er%ection* This theorist' ho0ever' "evises his o0n version o% historica! rogress' one that resents the music o% his o0n generation not as a "ec!ine )ut rather as a %urther re%inement o% er%ection* In or"er to teach the rece ts o% mo"ern music' Coc!ico ro oses a nove! s&stem o% three re!ate" areas= e!egant singing' im rovise" counter oint' an" 0ritten com osition* The techni#ue o% o!& honic "iminution %orms the main to ic in the secon" area* A!ong 0ith a goo" voice an" a natura! grace in "e!iver&' im rovise" em)e!!ishments contri)ute to the oratorica! o0er o% the singer* This conce t ara!!e!s Coc!icoCs rogressive notion that music )e!ongs in the !i)era! arts as a sister o% rhetoric* Yet' his e"estrian ru!es o% counter oint an" com osi tion revea! !itt!e that can )e inter rete" as integra! to e( ressive o!& hon&* The on!& hint o% a"venturous voca)u!ar& a ears in his a"mission o% E in the he(achor" s&stem* This minor oint at !east suggests the 0i"ening sco e o% harmonic !anguage that 0i!! %urnish mannerist com osers 0ith one a%%ective 0ea on* A some0hat simi!ar a roach can )e seen in Hermann Finc3Cs treatise* This theorist too is a0are o% a %un"amenta! "istinction )et0een the st&!es o% an o!"er an" a &ounger grou o% com osers* Finc3 "oes not attri)ute this change to the art o% singing' )ut rather to stylus an" musica poetica$in other 0or"s' to com ositiona! st&!e* Finc3Cs comments in"icate that he %ee!s mo"ern musicians have achieve" a greater measure o% re%inement com are" to the more restraine" rinci !es o% the o!"er er%ect art* In s ite o% their rogressive si"e' the theories o% these t0o men "o not con%ront the most im ortant %eature o% avant-gar"e st&!e o% their time= e( erimentation 0ith ra"ica! harmonies* Ho0ever' 0e can %in" some e( !anations o% mannerist chromaticism in t0o or"inar& han")oo3s* ,atthaeus 8reiter e(ten"s mutation %ar )e&on" tra"itiona! !imits* His co!!eague' 8regor Fa)er' ronounces the mannerist cre"o o% re%ine" nove!t& an" start!ing e%%ects )& suggesting that chromatic e!ements a!!eviate monoton&* From this i"ea' 0e can conc!u"e that even mi!" e( ressivit& 0ithin the canon o% acce te" contra unta! theor& is no0 too common !ace %or the 1a"e" taste o% connoisseurs* Progress in musica! art must ta3e the route o% e( an"ing an" "istorting an& otentia!!& %!e(i)!e s&stem' in this case' he(achor" mutation* S ataro an" Aaron a!so contri)ute ra"ica! theories in this area' theories that re%!ect current st&!e* Even though Aaron "oes not use maniera' the %o!!o0ing i"eas in the 4ucidario in"icate his mannerist !eanings* Su erior com osers re!& on native ta!ent an"' %or this reason' their 0or3s resu!t %rom "ivine ins iration rather than %rom !a)orious stu"&4 the& have mastere" the secret o% satis%&ing the ear 0ith su ernatura! mo"u!ations* It shou!" )e note" at this oint that AaronCs "aring notion rece"es simi!ar i"eas in the sister arts )& some %ort& &ears' an" it %urther im !ies that 0hereas natura! mo"u!ations em)o"& rationa! rinci !es' su ernatura! ones em)o"& ornaments an" re%inements inso%ar as the& "eviate %rom mathematics* Re!&ing on their genius' mo"ern com osers have

trans%orme" the er%ect art into ingenious' arti%icia!' an" 0on"er%u! st&!i5ation* This ertinent "e%inition o% ra"ica! st&!e occurs )ut once in AaronCs 0or3* In Nico!a VicentinoCs mi!itant treatise' this "e%inition )ecomes an artistic rogram* E 6e have seen that his ru!es o% counter oint )e!ong to the rogressive schoo!4 )ut his s&stematic e( !anation o% structura! e!ements in com osition' )orro0e" %rom rhetoric' a""s a ne0 "imension to this tra"ition* For this reason' !ater theorists are a)!e to com)ine VicentinoCs an" Far!inoCs rogressive i"eas into retros ective com en"ia o% er%ect counter oint* From the man& revo!utionar& theories ut %or0ar" )& Vicentino' 0e cite his 1usti%ication o% acci"enta!s 0ithout the he(achor" s&stem' an" his i"ea that trans osition changes the e( ressive character o% the mo"es* The !atter conce t is !in3e" 0ith the most innovative item in the treatise$the three%o!" s&stem o% the ancient genera a"a te" to mo"ern ractice* Vicentino constructs no !ess than seven gamuts on the )asis o% generic in%!ections* The inherent characteristics o% each one ro"uce the e( ressive #ua!ities o% me!o"ic an" harmonic interva!s as 0e!! as the in"ivi"ua! an" mi(e" mo"es* I% the e( ressive use o% rh&thm an" erst0hi!e %or)i""en interva!s are a""e"' 0e arrive at an astonishing arra& o% imitative a%%ective "evices* VicentinoCs a0areness o% st&!istic "i%%erentiations among current genres is %un"amenta! to his aesthetic* I have re%erre" to his a"monition that church music shou!" )e grave an" restraine" in contrast to the greater %ree"om an" start!ing e%%ects reserve" %or secu!ar music' in 0hich minute ictoria!ism re%!ects changing oetica! conceits* Vicentino is a!so a0are' an" "e!ighte"' one sus ects' that his s&stem o% chromatic an" enharmonic music "eviates so ro%oun"!& %rom tra"itiona! rece ts* Caught on the horns o% the mannerist "i!emma' he ri"es himse!% on the esoteric an" e(c!usive nature o% his st&!e' an" at the same time' )etra&s a "esire to instigate a ne0 an" o u!ar %ashion* For the !atter ur ose' he 0rites his treatise on voca! music an" a!so revea!s the secrets o% his archicem)a!o 0hose si( or"ers ermit virtuoso so!o er%ormance in a!! three genera com)ine"* +ecause I have re eate"!& cite" VicentinoCs treatise as the %irst mature resentation o% mannerist aesthetics' an e(amination o% his un"erstan"ing o% the term maniera seems to )e in or"er* His %re#uent use o% )oth maniera an" modo certain!& attests to a reoccu ation 0ith st&!e* A!though Vicentino is not a!0a&s consistent in his "istinction )et0een the conte(ts an" meanings o% the t0o 0or"s' a care%u! rea"ing o% his treatise revea!s that most o%ten' modo re%ers to technica! matters' an" maniera to aesthetic conce ts* To ut it another 0a&' modo means metho" 0hereas maniera means st&!e* A +ut )ecause metho" is inse ara)!e %rom st&!istic consi"erations in VicentinoCs thought' the terms ten" to over!a in some instances* In vie0 o% the inconsistenc& evi"ent in his treatment o% other su)1ects' such as voca! an" instrumenta! tunings' the re!ative c!arit& o% modo an" maniera 0arrants some comment* The technica! signi%icance o% modo can )e a""uce" %rom its re eate" occurrence in cha ter hea"ings ?e*g*' Modo di far, Modo d"accordare, an" Modo di comporre@* B In the te(t' its singu!ar or !ura! %orm a ears re%ace" )& 0or"s such as .%irst'. .secon"'.

.man&'. or .various. to "esignate s eci%ic oints a)out counter oint* /: 6hi!e such cases c!ear!& "emonstrate the use o% modo as metho"' another grou sho0s the in%usion o% aesthetic notions* In these instances' metho" is re%ace" )& .)eauti%u!. or .goo". ?bel modo@* Such hrases occur in e( !anations o% mo"a! %ree"om' canonic arti%ices' im rovise" counter oint' homogeneous te(ture in church music' an" the s3i!! re#uire" %or s0itching or"ers on the archicem)a!o* // These conte(ts in"icate that bel modo sti!! re%ers to technica! metho"s' )ut in this case' ones that em)o"& a certain amount o% aesthetic re%inement or grazia* In short' Vicentino see3s to "istinguish )et0een correct an" st&!ish metho"s o% mani u!ating s eci%ic technica! ingre"ients o% er%ormance or com osition* On the other si"e o% the coin' 0e %in" severa! instances 0here maniera a ears in conte(ts ara!!e! to the usage o% modo. T0o o% these are c!ear-cut cases o% e#uiva!ent meaning4 the& a ear in "iscussions o% metho"s %or instrumenta! tunings' an" s eci%ica!!& %or the archicem)a!o* /7 Another set occurs in VicentinoCs e( !anation o% the ro)!ems inherent in canon* He here insists that the "eman"ing nature o% this 3in" o% arti%icia! counter oint "oes not o)viate the nee" %or ro er an" st&!ish metho"* /< In these cases' maniera is the same as bel modo, an" !i3e it' im !ies aesthetic re%erences* These %e0 cases o% am)iva!ent connotations attache" to maniera are )a!ance" )& a num)er o% assages that resent a 0e!! "e%ine" "istinction )et0een technica! metho" an" musica! st&!e' un"erscore" )& consistent usage o% modo an" maniera res ective!&* As e(am !es' I cite the cha ters "evote" to er%ormance ro)!ems on the archicem)a!o an" in singing* In the %ormer' Vicentino e(to!s the nove!t& an" marve! o% his invention' 0hich %or the %irst time in histor& a!!o0s a !a&er to ro"uce a ne0 st&!e o% s0eet music* /> In the !atter' he em hasi5es that singers must )e e"ucate" to recogni5e "ivergent com ositiona! st&!es so the& can accor"ing!& var& their metho"s o% singing' inc!u"ing tem o' "&namics' voice #ua!it&' an" im rovise" ornaments* /9 These articu!ar assages' )oth in their conte(ts an" their termino!og&' c!ear!& i!!ustrate a s&stematic "i%%erentiation )et0een modo an" maniera* As %ar as com ositiona! i"ea!s are concerne"' I have a!rea"& sho0n VicentinoCs sensitivit& to matters o% st&!e* An" it is signi%icant that maniera %igures rominent!& in these 3e& assages* For e(am !e' he com ares the com oser to the architect4 )oth re!& on goo" techni#ue ?bel modo@ to ensure that their structures rest on soun" su ort' in other 0or"s' on goo" "esign* ,usica! "esign' in VicentinoCs terms' "e en"s on the structura! interva!s o% the chosen mo"e* Ho0ever' he goes on to suggest that correctness is not enough 0hen he notes that ainters o%ten "e!ight the vie0er 0ith o tica! i!!usions' /D an" that architects accom an& their )asic "esign 0ith diverse maniere. In s ite o% their "iversit&' these st&!es ma& )e com)ine" in an or"er!& variet& o% ornaments' 1ust as an or"er!& variet& o% soun"s ornaments the )asic mo"e o% a musica! com osition* +ut musica! variet& must con%orm to the re#uirements o% "i%%erent genres* In secu!ar music' great variet& is ermitte" %or the sa3e o% "e icting the te(t in contra"istinction to sacre" music' 0here gravit& shou!" )e o)serve"* /E These o)servations in"icate that Vicentino 3no0s' either %rom %irsthan" or secon"han" sources' a)out certain t& ica!!& mannerist

i"eas in the sister arts' the most im ortant o% 0hich is the connection o% ec!ecticism 0ith re%ine" maniera* E!se0here in the treatise' Vicentino returns to the to ic o% co!oring musicCs )asic "esign* This com onent o% maniera can on!& attain its %u!! otentia! in secu!ar music* First o% a!!' Vicentino a"vises the com oser to ta3e great care 0ith the modo della pronuntia, the technica! e!ement o% roso"&* At the same time' the com oser must not %orget that the accents o% im assione" s eech corres on" to the e( ressive #ua!ities o% musica! e!ements other than rh&thm* He oints to generica!!& in%!ecte" interva!s in articu!ar* Vicentino conc!u"es that a!! e( ressive materia! must imitate the se#uence o% a%%ections an" concrete conceits em)o"ie" in the 0or"s* The resu!tant musica! st&!e 0i!! not on!& ensure a variet& o% harmonies an" rh&thms )ut a!so an i!!usion o% rhetorica! e!o#uence* Hence his ear!ier ara!!e! 0ith o tica! i!!usions in ainting* 6hat is more im ortant' )& emu!ating the accents an" in%!ections o% the moo"s o% s eci%ic !anguages' the com oser creates a musica!!& vivi" ana!ogue' or em)o"iment' as Vicentino 0ou!" erha s re%er' o% a st&!e o% s ea3ing* This t0o%o!" o0er o% music re!ies on 0hat 0e have ca!!e" the mannerist com)ination o% inte!!ectua! an" emotiona! imitation' the effetto meraviglioso. Com osition that ta3es as its remise this 3in" o% rhetorica! e!o#uence is consi"ere" )& Vicentino to )e una bella maniera di comporre* /A This 3in" o% bella maniera, )& its ver& nature' a ea!s to a se!ect grou o% connoisseurs* It is there%ore "i%%erent %rom an" su erior to musica communa, or or"inar& an" rather "u!! aca"emic cra%t* To sum u ' Vicentino "istinguishes' %or the most art' )et0een mo"o' un"erstoo" as technica! metho"' an" maniera, un"erstoo" as st&!istic aesthetics* It is even signi%icant %or his genera! out!oo3 that the vast ma1orit& o% a earances o% )oth terms occurs in +oo3 IV' the )oo3 that concentrates on a com !ete theor& o% com osition ?musica poetica@* At !east ha!% o% the other occurrences o% maniera in other )oo3s a!so re!ate "irect!& to matters o% st&!e* For these reasons' I consi"er it an accurate ro osition to state that VicentinoCs thought is "ominate" )& st&!istic consi"erations' an" in articu!ar' those that contri)ute to the marve!ous e%%ects o% nove! an" stunning rhetorica! o0er* In revious cha ters' note 0as ma"e o% various o!emics an" antagonistic vie0s engen"ere" )& VicentinoCs treatise* At this oint' the rea"er nee" on!& )e remin"e" o% 8hise!in 2anc3ertCs statement to the e%%ect that the mo"erns "e)ase goo" counter oint )& emu!ating the maniera o% A"rian 6i!!aert' a st&!e that the& consi"er to )e ne0* This gi)e more than a"e#uate!& "emonstrates current recognition o% a nuova maniera, a ne0 st&!i5ation in musica! com osition cham ione" )& a grou o% iconoc!asts* 2anc3erts a!so ronounces his "isa rova! o% those 0ho . reten" to com ose alla musica maniera*. /B A!though Mau%mannCs inter retation o% the !atter 0or"s as .0ithout 3no0!e"ge. is not incorrect' I suggest that' in the !ight o% VicentinoCs theor& o% bella maniera an" o% 2anc3ertCs com !ete hrase' a more ertinent rea"ing 0ou!" )e .a%%ecte" or st&!i5e" musica! manner*.

A simi!ar conservative a raisa!' ut in more !earne" terms' a ears in Far!inoCs im ortant treatise* It 0i!! )e remem)ere" that this theorist s ea3s #uite o en!& a)out t0o maniere, the ancient an" the mo"ern' an" in Far!inoCs o inion' the t0o are entire!& incom ati)!e* +ecause the chromatic an" enharmonic genera are a!ien to mo"ern counter oint )ase" on soun" technica! roce"ures' ra"ica! com osers have not revive" ancient ractice* Instea"' the& have invente" a ne0 st&!e$to )e more recise' a )a" st&!e* Their aesthetic mani%esto' 0hich romu!gates the notion that the& com ose o!& hon& 0ith marve!ous e%%ects !i3e those o% ancient music' ignores other im ortant %acts as 0e!!* So!o singing in anti#uit& cou!" aint concrete a%%ections an" e(trinsic conceits )ecause it 0as "ramatic recitation )ase" on %our in"is ensa)!e ingre"ients= harmon&' meter' narration' an" su)1ect* ,o"ern o!& hon&' on the other han"' re!ies so!e!& on the %irst t0o o% these an" there%ore cannot match the rhetorica! e!o#uence o% ancient song* O% course' Far!ino maintains that his !imitation is more than com ensate" %or )& the greater er%ection o% harmon& characteristic o% si(teenth-centur& o!& hon&* The re!ationshi )et0een maniera an" Far!inoCs i"ea! o% o!& hon& is a com !e( one' as is the more mun"ane matter o% termino!og&* 7: A art %rom the re%erence to ancient an" mo"ern st&!es' 7/ a re%erence that %orms incontroverti)!e evi"ence %or his a0areness o% st&!e conce ts' maniera %igures rominent!& in t0o other sections o% Far!inoCs 0riting* In the %irst o% these' he traces the "eve!o ment o% me!o"ic st&!es in rimitive an" ancient cu!tures* In his 0or"s' men soon "iscovere" una maniera di compo sitione ca!!e" the h&mn' among man& other maniere inc!u"ing the heroic' tragic' comic' an" "ith&ram)ic* A%ter the "e)asement o% these anti#ue musica! st&!es' accor"ing to Far!ino' 6i!!aert has sho0n a reasona)!e metho" o% com osing con elegante maniera* 77 There can )e no "ou)t that here Far!ino re%ers to e!egant st&!e' )ut one "is !a&ing rationa! or"er as 0e!!* The other section 0here maniera a ears in the une#uivoca! sense o% st&!e com rises the intro"uctor& materia! to Far!inoCs stu"& o% the mo"es* A!together' I have %oun" t0ent&-nine instances o% maniera or maniere connecte" to the e(egesis o% ancient an" mo"ern oetic st&!es as 0e!! as the me!o"ic %ormu!as associate" 0ith them* 7< Even in this conte(t' Far!ino cannot re%rain %rom critici5ing mo"ern ra"ica!s &et again* He sa&s that the rea"er shou!" marve! at those 0ho thin3 the& can use the chromatic an" enharmonic genera' 0hose rinci !es have !ong )een %orgotten an" o% 0hose maniera ?musica! st&!e@ there remains not a sing!e tangi)!e trace* 7> It seems reasona)!e enough to assume that Far!inoCs use o% maniera is motivate" art!& )& the termCs current o u!arit& in theories o% the visua! arts* 79 +ut %rom assages re%erring o)!i#ue!& to Vicentino' as 0e!! as those resenting more "irect ara hrases' 7D it ma& a!so )e assume" that Far!ino uses maniera in conscious o osition to VicentinoCs "e%inition* At an& rate' )oth these inter retations in"icate that Far!inoCs un"erstan"ing o% maniera invo!ves something more than a genera! meaning o% t& e or 3in"* 7E Li3e Vicentino' Far!ino is not a hi!oso her an" 0e shou!" not )e sur rise"' there%ore' to %in" a su)stantia! num)er o% cases 0here )oth modo an" maniera "o have such a neutra! im ort' not to mention instances 0here )oth 0or"s re%er to technica! metho"s* +ut this o)servation "oes not 0ea3en the case ma"e %or inter reting the meaning o% maniera as one o% st&!e in the assages "iscusse" in this cha ter*

+ecause Far!inoCs main aim is not to e( !icate an aesthetic or hi!oso hica! "octrine' his st&!istic i"ea!s must )e e(tra o!ate" %rom the various technica! oints he ma3es in the treatise* To this en"' 0e no0 revie0 the aesthetic im !ications o% the soggetto. +ecause music imitates nature' as "o art an" !iterature' it "erives %rom nature three )asic su)1ects or mo"e!s= soun"ing num)er' 0or"s' an" theme* The aim o% the com oser is to "iscover the innate #ua!ities o% these mo"e!s an" to %u!%i!! them in a natura! manner* The !a0s o% soun"ing num)er re!ate to the ortra&a! o% the inner rinci !es o% nature* This i"ea! "ictates a!! as ects o% the act o% com osing* Voca! music must a!so o)e& the !a0s o% imitazione delle parole, in Far!inoCs case un"erstoo" as correct "ec!amation an" not as the imitation o% conceits an" assions* The thir" soggetto' the musica! theme' suggests the in%!uence o% nonmusica! aesthetics on a to ic that 0as' tra"itiona!!&' a sim !e matter o% cra%t* C!ose!& re!ate" to Far!inoCs i"ea o% theme as the carrier o% musica! character is his conce t o% mo"a! forma. In this case' mo"a! "ecorum invo!ves more than o)serving the correct %ina!s* The interva!s ecu!iar to s eci%ic mo"es' their forma, in%!uence the st&!e o% counter oint* Thus' the com oser' !i3e the artist an" oet' 0or3s out the ossi)i!ities o% his themes )& creating the %inishe" art0or3* In the !ight o% the su)t!e remises o% the soggetto, Far!inoCs "iscussion o% the aesthetic va!ue o% "i%%erent contra unta! st&!es no0 assumes a "ee er signi%icance* As 0e have seen' com !ete master& o% com osition "eman"s )eaut&' e!egance' an" o!ish* These #ua!ities are to )e %oun" in fuga an" imitatione, the structura! categories that im art to music a st&!ishness transcen"ing mere ru!es o% correctness* An" Far!ino %avors imitatione )ecause it a%%or"s the most %!e(i)!e sco e %or %ine st&!e* Furthermore' he chooses a o u!ar name %or this 3in" o% su erior counter oint to em hasi5e the %act that' in his o inion' imitatione em)o"ies the most %e!icitous imitation o% nature ossi)!e in a musica! i"iom* A!though Far!ino con"emns ra"ica! st&!e' he "oes recogni5e that harmon& an" num)er ossess a%%ective #ua!ities o% a genera! 3in"* A!! his e(am !es are ta3en %rom the 0or3s o% 6i!!aert' the aragon o% elegante maniera. Emotiona! characters must )e arrange" accor"ing to the overa!! tone o% the te(t an" not 0ith a vie0 to icturing minute "etai!s* At the same time' this 3in" o% moo" evocation must not inter%ere 0ith the ro er imitation o% nature* Far!ino 0ishes to )e as )roa"-min"e" as ossi)!e* He there%ore ac3no0!e"ges that mo"ern so!o recitation re%!ects the marve!ous e%%ects o% ancient st&!e* An" he even goes so %ar as to ermit some )rea3ing o% the ru!es in the case o% ver& unusua! a%%ective "eman"s ma"e )& certain te(ts* ,& thesis is that Far!inoCs theor&' com rehen"e" in its entiret&' revea!s a concern 0ith )oth cra%tsman!i3e e( ertise an" e!egant st&!i5ation* Maniera, %or Far!ino' "oes not "esignate organic constructivism' 7A a!though se!%-su%%icient musica! !ogic remains a %un"amenta! re#uisite o% goo" counter oint* Maniera rather %uses mathematics' a)stract rece ts' an" concrete st&!istic niceties into a er%ect!& )a!ance" i"ea! o% voca! music* An" Far!inoCs use o% maniera in some 3e& assages in"icates that he is ta!3ing a)out st&!e* I "o not )e!ieve that it is correct to attri)ute his conce t o% maniera to an& one

source' )ut i% one 0ere to choose a main source' that source 0ou!" sure!& have to )e Vicentino* The conte(t o% Far!inoCs arguments suggests ver& strong!& that he a"o te" the term in or"er to ro%i!e the "i%%erence )et0een VicentinoCs an" his o0n vie0s* +ut this is a"mitte"!& a h& othesis' )ase" on ama!gamating various remar3s ma"e in the course o% a !ength&' com !icate"' an" rather su)"ue" treatise* I conc!u"e the "iscussion o% Far!inoCs treatise 0ith t0o genera! )ut im ortant oints* First o% a!!' the i"ea that music imitates nature has never )een so stresse" )& a theorist concerne" 0ith tra"itiona! o!& hon&* ,mitazione della natura an" imitazione delle parole are mottoes o% mannerist theor& an" ractice* Far!inoCs es ousa! o% this aesthetic sho0s his a0areness o% ra"ica! i"eas as 0e!! as o% humanist notions a)out the !i)era! arts* Ancient arts' es ecia!!& music' 0ere )ase" on the imitation o% nature* Far!ino 0ishes to "emonstrate that o!& hon& has evo!ve" natura!!& to a cu!mination$a er%ect st&!e imitating nature in a "i%%erent an" su erior manner to ancient st&!e* 7B One might sa& that the revere"' )ut rather a)stract' ru!es o% conservative counter oint have )een im)ue" 0ith re%ine" st&!ishness* 8!areanusCs ars perfecta has )ecome the elegante maniera, 0hich Far!ino see3s to co"i%& into an immuta)!e i"ea!* The secon" oint to )e ma"e concerns historica! conte(t' inasmuch as the s !it in musica! ractice e(em !i%ie" )& VicentinoCs an" Far!inoCs conce ts o% maniera is uni#ue %or its time* One must not )e mis!e" )ecause elegante maniera in this stu"& is ca!!e" conservative or tra"itiona!* For Far!ino' elegante maniera is mo"ern' )ut in a s ecia! 0a&* It em)o"ies the u!timate stage in the er%ection o% unchanging i"ea!s$music as a mirror o% the har monious cosmos* O% course' Far!ino "oes not )roach the ro)!em o% the %utureCs re!ation to the resent state o% er%ection* ,& thesis maintains that his elegante maniera a ears conservative %rom the vie0 oint o% VicentinoCs bella maniera. The mannerist #uest %or stri3ing rhetorica! o0er re!egates 5ar!inian i"ea!s to the rea!m o% aca"emic cra%t* Thus' his mo"ern art )ecomes the %irst ractice 0hen the %ruits o% the secon" ractice ri en* The causes o% this uncom !imentar& "eve!o ment are )oth the ra"ica! thrust o% mannerist rogress an" the conservative thrust o% stationar& er%ection* +oth tren"s are mannerist inso%ar as the& entai! se!%-conscious i"ea!s* +ut in contrast to the visua! arts' musica! ,annerism o% a revo!utionar& cast has &et to attain its %u!! con#uests* As art )ecomes increasing!& aca"emic' music )ecomes increasing!& a"venturesome' an" its innovations continue into )aro#ue ractice* ,usica! controvers& )et0een /9D: an" /9A: a)ates to a !u!! )e%ore the storm* 2e)ates over "i%%erent st&!es e(ist in the sister arts' )ut the& resent a some0hat "i%%erent icture o% inte!!ectua! %erment* In the visua! arts' the )att!e continues )et0een Venetian an" F!orentine st&!es* Literar& criticism e( oses t0o ne0 themes* One o% these concerns the mannerist "istortion o% a c!assica! conce t* Rea!istic imitation o% )e!ieva)!e character an" reasona)!e assion ?enargeia@ has ce"e" to %antastic imitation o% su ernatura! ersons an" grotes#ue!& vio!ent assion ?meraviglia@* An" the great o u!arit& o% !&ric verse initiates controvers& over its re!ative merits com are" to the e ic*

The &ears )et0een /9A: an" /D<: 0itness the ri ening o% mannerist theor& in oetr& an" art* Arti%icia! an" virtuoso ro ortions change the i!!usionistic otentia! o% renaissance "esign into a vehic!e %or secret an" )i5arre effetti meravigliosi. An" the vio!ent e!ements o% mannerist "esign re ute"!& create vivi" a%%ectiveness* A sma!! grou o% antimannerists critici5e this maniera as e(travagant an" va i" arti%icia!it&* +ut unrea!it&' an" its o0er to astonish' 0in the "a&* %ipingere di natura an" dipingere di maniera )ecome common !ace "istinctions o% st&!e* +& im !ication' rea!istic natura!ism a"heres to an o!"er tra"ition 0hereas arti%icia! st&!i5ation )e!ongs to mo"ern ra"ica!ism* This "istinction has a!rea"& )een ma"e in musica! theor&* In oetic theor&' conservative "enia! o% imitative o0er %or &ric oetr& is engu!%e" )& over0he!ming su ort %or the i"ea that the !&ric imitates articu!ar!& 0e!! the e!ements o% character' thought' an"' o% course' the assions an" a%%ections* The oet is the ma3er o% the .marve!ous*. This mannerist vie0 is echoe" in the numerous treatises "0e!!ing on furor poeticus, the irrationa! source o% m&stica! ins iration* A!! these notions in"icate that grace an" e!egance are no !onger su%%icient va!ues %or maniera4 reciosit&' e(treme arti%icia!it&' an" monumenta! gran"eur no0 enter the canon o% nove! mo"ern st&!e* It is there%ore %itting that the %irst 0or3s raising concettism shou!" ma3e their a earance at this time* Nove! concetti are ta3en as roo% o% the oetCs su)!imit&' an" the more h& er)o!ic the conceit' the more su)!ime the oet* 6hen assionate !&ric moments are strung together in a se#uence' the oet creates a favola pastorale, the mannerist genre that attem ts to monumenta!i5e the amorous conceits o% !&ric oetr&* From these o)servations' 0e can conc!u"e that as %ar as musicCs sister arts are concerne"' the )a!ance has s0ung %ina!!& to0ar" recognition o% ra"ica! maniera, in )oth its technica! an" aesthetic as ects* That this situation is even more ronounce" in the musica! c!imate o% these "eca"es can )e attri)ute" to t0o %actors= %irst' the ear!ier a earance o% revo!utionar& thought an" o!emics' an" secon"' the a arent success o% ractica! innovations* At this articu!ar 1uncture 0e 0itness the shar "ivision )et0een tra"itiona! an" mo"ern ractices' a "ivision shar ene" )& eva!uations o% ra"ica! o!& hon& an"' es ecia!!&' o% mono"&* Ta3ing the case o% o!& hon& %irst' 0e no0 notice an e(aggerate" sense o% ra"ica! rogress in st&!e4 this sense ushes Far!inoCs %ormer!& rogressive i"ea! %urther )ac3 into the 0or!" o% reca!citrant conservatism* I have note" Agostino ,iche!eCs remar3s on the vast!& "i%%erent maniere characteristic o% three successive generations o% ma"riga!ists in the si(teenth centur&' as 0e!! as Vincen5o 8a!i!eiCs vie0s o% mo"ern counter oint* A!though the !atter commen"s the technica! si"e o% this st&!e$its nove! an" ingenious use o% "issonances$he a!so %in"s that the ne0 musica! !anguage serves a chi!"ish aesthetic aim$0or" ainting* 8a!i!ei there%ore ca!!s this ma"riga!ian a roach una ridicola maniera. Nor is he the on!& 0riter o% this erio" to #uestion the reva!ent st&!e o% mo"ern counter oint* <: A conte(tua! un"erstan"ing o% the va!ues "iscusse" )& 8a!i!ei' Tasso' an" others can he! us c!ari%& contem orar& issues* These 0riters "o not "ismiss entire!& the nove!ties an" ra"ica! innovations o% mo"ern music' )ut the& "o in"icate some uneasiness a)out mo"ern

musicCs e(travagance an" %rivo!it&$in other 0or"s' its some0hat su er%icia! st&!i5ation* Their criticism "oes much to e( !ain the %u!! im ort o% severa! a o!ogies ma"e )& rominent com osers o% the time* The %irst one 0e 0i!! "iscuss is o% s ecia! interest %or severa! reasons* To scho!ars o% the si(teenth-centur& ma"riga!' Luca ,aren5io is %amous' i% not notorious' %or his re"i!ection %or 0or" ainting o% a!! 3in"s* The a o!og& in #uestion here a ears in a u)!ication "e"icate" to Count ,ario +evi!ac#ua' the atron o% an i!!ustrious rivate ridotto in Verona* ,aren5io states that the 0or3s in this co!!ection are com ose" .in a st&!e #uite "i%%erent %rom that o% his ear!ier one. ?con maniera assai differente dalla passata@* Their ne0 manner em)o"ies a #ua!it& o% .serious gravit&. ?mesta gravit!@ arising )oth %rom consi"erations o% imitating the 0or"s an" o)serving st&!istic ro riet&* </ The secon" a o!og& a!so comes %rom the en o% a note" com oser' Lu55asco Lu55aschi' a 0e!!-3no0n ractitioner o% man& avant-gar"e techni#ues* Lu55aschiCs "e"ication resents a more genera! 1usti%ication o% the )asic aesthetic remise )ehin" ma"riga!ian ,annerism* His 0or"s remin" us o% man& accusations !eve!e" against ra"ica! nove!t& )& his contem oraries as 0e!! as )& 0riters )e%ore his time' an" 0e must consi"er it signi%icant that the 0or" .st&!e. ?maniera an" stile@ occurs severa! times in the course o% his )rie% remar3s* First' Lu55aschi re eats the rhetorica! i"ea! o% mo"ern music )& ointing out that the st&!es o% oetr& an" music are interre!ate"* He states' %urthermore' that a ne0' ver& nove!' an" er%ect st&!e in the ma"riga! has "eve!o e" a!ongsi"e a ne0 st&!e in mo"ern oetr&' %eaturing brevit!' acutezza' leggiadria' nobilt!' an" o% course' dolcezza. Lu55aschi conc!u"es 0ith these mi!itant an" ertinent remar3s= .GAn"H this commen"a)!e st&!e ?sti!e@' our musicians' too' have attem te" to "iscover' imitating ne0 techni#ues ?nuovi modi@ an" ne0 inventions s0eeter than usua! ones* Out o% these' the& have %ashione" una nuova maniera' 0hich can !ease an" 0in the 0or!"Cs a !ause not on!& )ecause o% its nove!t&' )ut a!so )ecause o% its e(#uisiteness o% arti%ice*. The thir" "ocument em)races simi!ar i"eas an" i"ea!s' )ut in the conte(t o% mono"& an" virtuoso er%ormance )& %ame" so!oists* Sigismon"o "CIn"ia here ro"uces' as evi"ence %or his su erior ersona! achievements' a testimon& %rom Vittoria Archi!ei' .most e(ce!!ent a)ove a!! other 0omen singers' 0ho' as the most inte!!igent in this ro%ession' urge" me to ursue this m& o0n st&!e ?0uesta mia maniera@' sa&ing she has not hear" a st&!e ?stile@ that has so much %orce an" at the same time "is !a&s the concetto 0ith such a "iversit& o% chor"s' variet& o% harmon&' an" 0ith such a ne0 st&!e ?or manner@ o% ornamentation ?con si nova maniera di passeggiare@*. Ear!ier in this re%ace' "CIn"ia stresses the nove!t& o% 0hat he consi"ers to )e the vera maniera o% com osing in contra"istinction to common !ace' or"inar& music' 0hich a!0a&s a"heres to the same st&!e ?medesimo stile@* The "etai!e" oints he mentions in connection 0ith his achievement are unusua! interva!s' nove! rogressions )et0een consonances accor"ing to the variet& o% the sense o% the 0or"s' as 0e!! as ne0 mo"u!ations an" ornaments* A!! these techni#ues' in his o inion' contri)ute to a musica! st&!e 0ith greater a%%ective o0er an" greater %orce in moving the a%%ections than the more customar& ractice* << In this instance' "CIn"iaCs "enigrating comments a)out or"inar&' unremar3a)!e st&!e re%er not to o!& hon& ?o!" or ne0@ )ut rather to so!o songs characteri5e" )& )!an" !&ricism an" trite tunes*

+e%ore continuing 0ith our "iscussion' I "igress )rie%!& to in%orm the rea"er that in a""ition to treatises' a !arge )o"& o% evi"ence %or the signi%icance o% st&!e conce ts in music e(ists in the %orm o% re%aces' "e"ications' or !etters attache" to u)!ications o% ma"riga!s' mono"ies' an" music %or the theater* These musica! sources are not on!& more numerous' )ut a!so more rovocative' than simi!ar sources in art an" !iterature* Pre!iminar& investigation )rings together some thirt&-%ive "ocuments o% this 3in" 0ritten )et0een i 9A: an" /D<:' an" in these 0e %in" an&0here %rom one to seventeen a earances each o% maniera or stile in the sense o% musica! st&!e* <> A!though an e(haustive com arative stu"& o% these sources cannot )e un"erta3en in this cha ter' a re resentative sam !ing is o%%ere"* To the t0o sources re!ate" to o!& honic ma"riga!s' the re%aces )& ,aren5io an" Lu55aschi' 0e no0 a"" a %e0 others* The "e"ication to a co!!ection com ose" )& Ruggiero 8iovane!!i re%ers' as "oes Lu55aschiCs re%ace' to the ara!!e! )et0een oetr& an" music* In this instance' the 0riter remar3s on the charming conceits o% Sanna5aroCs stile a ro riate!& set to music )& 8iovane!!i con dolce & dilettevol maniera* <9 This s0eet an" "e!ight%u! st&!e is so much in vogue in Ita!&' an" evi"ent!& re resents nove!t& o% some 3in"' that Fi!i o "i ,onte' in his "e"ication to his atron' Ru"o! h II' a"mits that he has attem te" to change his stile in or"er to !ease those 0ho "o not a rove o% his other com ositions* <D The in%erence here is that ,onteCs customar& st&!e a ears o!"-%ashione"* Three other re%aces %rom the ear!& seventeenth centur& re%er' in a more concrete 0a&' to the %eatures that ma3e this st&!e so %ascinating* ,ariano Tantucci' himse!% a com oser' raises the ma"riga!s o% Tomaso Pecci an" cites s eci%ica!!& the ne0 sentiments evi"ent in the artificiosa maniera del compor moderno* <E A simi!ar re%erence to mo"ern st&!e occurs in the "e"ication to a u)!ication )& A!essan"ro Scia!!a* The 0riter recommen"s these ma"riga!s' 0hich are immune %rom criticism )ecause o% la novit!' & vaghezze dello stil moderno* <A In the !ast source ertinent to o!& honic ma"riga!s' the com oser' ,arsi!io Casentini' e( oun"s on the "e!ights o% mo"ern st&!e in a suggestive an" humorous 0a&* A%ter a re%erence to the o u!arit& o% 8uariniCs ,l pastor fido, Casentini notes that man& eo !e a !au" le licenze del moderno comporre )ecause o% the "e!ight the& "erive da 0uesta maniera. He then goes on to ersoni%& ,etho"ica! Ru!es as venera)!e matrons in "igni%ie" c!othing an" 0ith materna! %ee!ings* ,o"ern Licenses' on the other han"' a ear in the guise o% gracious &oung "amse!s' !ascivious!& "resse" an" 0ith a thousan" charms* Rather than "is !ease either grou o% !a"ies' Casentini ga!!ant!& tries to steer a mi""!e roa" an" conc!u"es his re%ace 0ith a t& ica!!& mannerist un to the e%%ect that he there%ore set out )!in"!& to com ose this )oo3 o% ma"riga!s* <B 6hereas the a)ove "ocuments a""ress matters o% com ositiona! st&!e' our sources ertaining to so!o an" theatrica! music cover a )roa"er range o% to ics* A!though the re!ationshi )et0een ear!& o era an" the humanistic conce tion o% ancient "rama is universa!!& recogni5e" to"a&' the in%!uence o% mannerist aesthetics on these coro!!aries has )een over!oo3e"* The o ening statement

in the "e"ication 0ritten %or Emi!io "eCCava!ieriCs Rappresentatione di anima et di corpo announces the resentation o% this com oserCs ne0 an" singu!ar 0or3' com ose" in that st&!e ?0uello stile@ 0ith 0hich the ancient 8ree3s an" Romans use" to move the a%%ections o% the s ectators in their theaters* >: The oint that nee"s to )e stresse" here is that these remar3s can )e ta3en as i!!ustrative o% the aesthetic remises )ehin" the %irst essa&s in the opera in musica. An" these remises' )ase" as the& are on humanist i"eas' have t0o e!ements in common 0ith the mannerist vie0 oint evi"ent in other 0ritings' regar"!ess o% the "i%%erent musica! ractices that the& e( !ain* The common e!ements are %irst' a %ascination 0ith st&!e as such' an" secon"' an em hasis on the rhetorica! o0er o% a st&!e* Even though the rea"er sure!& rea!i5es that the ractica! outcome o% this aesthetic in a o!& honic ma"riga!' a so!o song' or an o era can )e #uite "i%%erent$)ecause o% the "iverse technica! ingre"ients re#uire" )& each genre$I suggest that the hi!oso h& em)o"ie" in these i"eas is one an" the same' an" %urthermore' that it is s&m tomatic o% mannerist va!ues* >/ These va!ues are tacit!& resume" in one remar3 %oun" in ,arco "a 8ag!ianoCs re%ace to his 4a %afne$to 0it' his re%erence to the "iscussions a)out the maniera use" )& the ancients in their trage"ies' "iscussions !ea"ing u to the com osition o% the .!i)retto. )& Ottavio Rinuccini* Later in the re%ace' 8ag!iano surve&s the e!ements o% rappresentazioni in musica, an" his !ist gives us an e(ce!!ent i"ea o% the interre!ationshi )et0een ear!& o era an" the mannerist interme"io= invention' "is osition o% the favola, s&m)o!ism ?sentenza@' s0eetness o% rh&me' musica! art' concerti o% voices an" instruments' e(#uisiteness o% singing' the charm o% )a!!et an" gestures' an" the visua! as ect o% scener& an" costumes* >7 +ecause mono"ic com osition re#uires e(traor"inari!& %ine voices an" virtuoso techni#ue' re%erences to the high #ua!it& o% singing a)oun" in "ocuments ertinent to mono"ies an" theatrica! music o% a!! 3in"s* In a""ition to 8ag!ianoCs comments' I cite here those ma"e )& Cristo%ano ,a!ve55i a)out the interme"ios %or 4a &ellegrina, resente" at the 0e""ing o% Fer"inan"o "eC,e"ici an" Christine o% Lorraine ?/9AB@= the soun"s o% various instruments' the s0eetness o% the voices' an" the charming st&!e ?vaga maniera@ o% the singing* >< In a""ition to genera! comments on the e(ce!!ence o% singing' 0e a!so %in" remar3s on s eci%ic st&!es o% mono"&' st&!es that have )oth a com ositiona! an" a er%ormance )asis* For e(am !e' 8ag!iano' having set the same te(t as ;aco o Peri' raises the !atter as the inventor o% 0uella artifiziosa maniera di recitar cantando, a st&!e a"mire" throughout Ita!&* >> An" in the re%ace to a co!!ection o% mono"ies' Severo +onini sing!es out 8iu!io Caccini as the ,nventore di 0uesta nobilissima maniera* >9 These comments c!ear!& sho0 that the 0riters have a ronounce" conce t o% in"ivi"ua! st&!es' an" in the case o% Peri an" Caccini' the conce t is )orne out )& their music* +& 0a& o% a conc!usion' I note that the re on"erant )ias o% these sources oints to a re%erence %or ne0 or mo"ern st&!e 0ith connotations o% re%inement' arti%icia!it&' ersona! ingenuit&' an" o% course' marve!ous e%%ects* Even though Vincen5o 8a!i!ei cham ions the cause o% mono"&' he neverthe!ess ta3es ains to construct a theor& %or the nove! use o% "issonance in o!& hon&* His rece ts re resent a tacit recognition o% t0o "istinct ractices' tra"itiona! an" mo"ern

counter oint* In this conte(t' a"herents o% 5ar!inian rinci !es )ecome regressive rather than rogressive* Thomas ,or!e&Cs an" Lo"ovico FacconiCs comments on various st&!es 0ou!" have ensure" them a !ace in the rogressive grou t0ent& &ears ago* +ut their attem ts to retain a common %oun"ation %or o!"er an" ne0er st&!es no0 re!egate them to the !aci" )ac30aters o% anti#uarian theor&* The one ra"ica! e!ement in FacconiCs treatise is his em hasis on singers 0ho are masters o% gratiose maniere, or im rovise" ornaments* The "ecorative gesture o% the "ance has no0 )ecome the rhetorica! gesture o% song* An& vie0 o% music that maintains a)stract an" se!%-su%%icient ru!es' ho0ever %!e(i)!e' succum)s to the ons!aught o% the so!o song an" the cu!t o% the ne0 virtuoso singer* The attitu"e o% the F!orentine Camerata re%!ects this situation* In their vie0' on!& mono"& is ca a)!e o% reviving the effetti meravigliosi o% ancient st&!e* An& c!aims to e( ressivit& ma"e on )eha!% o% tra"itiona!' an" even mo"ern' counter oint are summari!& "ismisse"* A!though maniera as such "oes not a ear in the 0ritings emanating %rom this circ!e' conce ts o% st&!e' o%ten couche" in re!ate" voca)u!ar&' are %un"amenta! to their i"ea!s* The s o3esmen o% the Camerata' a art %rom Caccini' have !itt!e to sa& a)out the current cra5e %or %!ori" "iminution* This ractice en1o&s scant authorit& %rom c!assica! sources* +ut there is no "ou)t that mannerist ractitioners an" their au"ience %in" man& marve!ous e%%ects an" a%%ective #ua!ities in accenti, fioretti, an" gorgie. +oth the e(u)erance an" conventiona!it& o% such ornaments attest to the ra i" in%i!tration o% mannerist i"ea!s into this area o% er%ormance* The singer is seen as a musica! orator 0ho em)e!!ishes "iscourse 0ith a "a55!ing arra& o% a%%ective ornaments* An" 0ith these means' he mani u!ates the %ee!ings o% his !isteners much in the same 0a& as the s3i!!e" orator* An" 1ust as an orator can im rove an a arent!& un romising te(t' so a singer can heighten the e%%ect o% an or"inar& iece o% music* Their art there%ore arouses 0on"er an" a"miration* ,annerist e(cesses in the %ie!" o% ornamentation eventua!!& "0in"!e to a sta !e "iet o% reasona)!e %!ourishes4 )ut the a)uses o% the co!oratura singer remain !egen"ar&* It is a!so 0orth noting that man& mannerist ornaments are ta3en over an" s&stemati5e" in )aro#ue ractice* One scho!ar oints out that the %re#uent use )& si(teenth-centur& theorists o% terms such as maniera di far passaggi !ea"s to the seventeenth centur& technica! term' Manieren* >D In this case' o% course' maniera an" its "erivative are not centra!!& connecte" to conce ts o% st&!e* ,an& as ects o% maniera "uring this erio" signa! the trans%ormation o% ,annerism into the +aro#ue* In the visua! arts' maniera is co"i%ie" as an acce ta)!e aca"emic ractice* The success o% aca"emies o% "esign romu!gates mannerist st&!e at the e( ense o% natura! imitation* Ha" Vasari )een a!ive' he ro)a)!& 0ou!" have recogni5e" t0o se arate maniere= an o!"er natura!ist one )ase" on scienti%ic ru!es an" a ne0er mannerist one )ase" on ersona! an" origina! invention* Poetic theor& at this time vin"icates the favola pastorale as 0e!! as a !&ric st&!e that is com !ete!& "ominate" )& start!ing concetti* An" !iterar& critics o% the +aro#ue ascri)e concettism to si(teenth-centur& mannerist st&!e in Ita!ian oetr&*

The same inter retation can )e "ra0n %rom some i"eas es ouse" )& rogressive an" ra"ica! theorists o% music* The ,ontever"i )rothers re !& to 8iovanni ,aria ArtusiCs attac3 on mo"ern music 0ith the ce!e)rate" "ivision o% contem orar& ractice into t0o st&!es= an o!"er o!& honic one that "e en"s on the er%ection o% harmon& an" on the su)or"ination o% the te(t as o ose" to a ne0er o!& honic one that "e en"s on the er%ection o% me!o"& an" on the su)or"ination o% musica! !a0s* The& "o not use the term maniera, )ut the& neverthe!ess stress st&!istic remises* An" their "istinction )et0een conservative an" ra"ica! ractices must )e un"erstoo" as the cu!mination o% man& "eca"es o% reoccu ation 0ith maniera. Their vie0 is a!so %oun" in A"riano +anchieri' a mi!" rogressive' 0hen he "i%%erentiates )et0een contrapunto osservato an" contrapunto commune, the !atter )eing mo"ern counter oint con gratiosa maniera* >E An" the notion o% these t0o maniere survives into )aro#ue theories o% st&!e* Chromaticism an" e!o#uence continue to %unction as )asic e!ements 0ithin mo"ern ractice* Thus' Erco!e +ottrigari revie0s the Vicentino-Lusitano "e)ate' an" si"es 0ith Vicentino* He a!so comments on the greater %ree"om an" com !e(it& o% mo"ern counter oint' commen"a)!e characteristics arising %rom the a"venturous otentia! o% musica mista. As roo% o% this eva!uation' +ottrigari rints his o0n setting o% PetrarchCs *os7 mi sveglio, com ose" accor"ing to the ractice an" st&!e o% the mo"erns ?secondo l"uso & lo stile de"Moderni@4 +ottrigari %urther remar3s that this ma"riga! "emonstrates )oth il vero modo, & la vera maniera o% the chromatic genus* >A An" !i3e ,ontever"i' he cites Ci riano "e Rore as the initiator an" rime e( onent o% the ma"riga!ian st&!e* >B Theor& o% ne0 music at this time contri)utes one more im ortant notion to the arsena! o% )aro#ue conce ts' the musica poetica o% +urmeister* On the )asis o% the no0 common !ace i"ea that music is an e( ressive art' +urmeister "ivi"es musica! roce"ure into %our st&!es an" i!!ustrates them 0ith some t0ent&-si( rhetorica! %igures* His mo"e! is Or!an"o "i Lasso* A more signi%icant )ri"ge )eteen si(teenth- an" seventeenth-centur& i"eas cannot )e %oun"* An" regar"!ess o% the actua! term em !o&e" )& an& o% these 0riters' 0hether maniera, prattica, stile, modo, or stylus, the conte(t o% their usage im !ies consistent reoccu ation 0ith .st&!i5ation*. The mannerist "e!ight in ro%use ornamentation can )e a""uce" %rom instruction )oo3s on "iminution* 6e have seen that Vicen5o 8iustiniani rovi"es music !overs 0ith an astute surve& o% the "eve!o ment o% mo"ern com osition an" er%ormance rac tice* He states that in his "a& a com osition 0ins %avor i% it is com ose" accor"ing to the ru!es an" at the same time em)o"ies rare an" unusua! "i%%icu!ties* 9: He a!so charts the rise o% the virtuoso singer' 0hose e(#uisite voice ro"uction an" magni%icent techni#ue ins ire a ne0 st&!e o% music* The o u!arit& o% im rovise" em)e!!ishment is such that com osers no0 incor orate %!ori" passaggi an" a%%ective accenti in 0ritten counter oint' there)& intro"ucing the unru!& "issonances that so anger conservative theorists* 8iustiniani attri)utes the !atest re%inement in so!o singing to Caccini' .the inventor o% a ne0 manner in singing*. 9/

The im ortance o% st&!ishness an" st&!i5ation in CacciniCs out!oo3 can )e gauge" )& the %re#uenc& o% the 0or" maniera in the re%ace to his Le nuove musiche* 97 It shou!" )e note" that seventeen o% the t0ent&-eight su)stantive cases o% maniera im !& st&!istic criteria4 the remain"er a ear in conte(ts suggesting .metho". or .0a&'. an" thus are e#uiva!ent to the 0or"s arte an" modo, 0hich Caccini a!so uses in the !atter sense* ,ost o% the st&!istic uses re%er to singing' a!though buona maniera a ears once in connection 0ith com osition* The 0or" stile a ears three times in re!ation to i"eas o% st&!e* It seems c!ear' then' that )ecause CacciniCs rece ts o% er%ormance an" com osition have nothing to "o 0ith the tra"itiona! science o% counter oint' the& are e( !aine" )& him in terms o% st&!e ?nobile maniera, nobilissima maniera, buona maniera, affetuosa maniera, an" nuovo stile@* CacciniCs estimation o% his ne0' no)!e' an" goo" st&!e im !ies that revious mono"ic conventions are in%erior )ecause the !atter are too c!ose!& re"icate" on certain %eatures o% the o!& honic ma"riga!* +ut other musicians assess nove! st&!e in the so!o song %rom the o osite oint o% vie0 inasmuch as the& )e!ieve that iconoc!astic "evices trans%erre" %rom ma"riga!ian conventions im art "ignit&' a%%ectivit&' an" e!o#uence to mono"&* Such is the case 0ith "CIn"iaCs avo0e" search %or vera maniera. ;ust as Far!ino an" Vicentino use maniera to re%er to their "i%%erent i"ea!s o% goo" counter oint' so Caccini an" "CIn"ia "o the same concerning their i"ea!s o% goo" song* Nove!t& is a!so c!aime" )& )oth Caccini an" Peri in their riva!r& over rece"ence in the com osition o% o era* Peri stresses this ne0 genreCs un rece"ente" rhetorica! o0er* In other 0or"s' o eratic mono"& has %u!%i!!e" 8a!i!eiCs recommen"ation to imitate histrionic st&!e* This conce t is c!ear!& set %orth )& 8iovanni +attista 2oni 0hen he "escri)es the "i%%erences among narrative' recitationa!' an" e( ressive recitative* An" he a!so "istinguishes not on!& the various st&!es o% mono"&' )ut a!so se arates them %rom me!o"ic 0riting in the maniera madrigalesca* 9< On a genera! !eve! "irecte" to a!! the arts' it is im ortant to rea!i5e that the conce t o% a c!assica! Renaissance is itse!% a mannerist construct' an" that at the ver& moment o% its %ormu!ation' a se!%-consciousness a)out st&!e sets in* Perha s )ecause such historica!!& oriente" i"eas )ecome rominent in the si(teenth centur&' ,annerism "eve!o s 0ith such a "ominant im act on a!! the arts* This is certain!& the situation 0ith musica! i"eas* Avant-gar"e com osers are a0are not on!& o% the nove!t& o% their roce"ures' )ut a!so o% the high!& arti%icia!' ersona!' an" e(travagant as ects o% their e( eriments* The& are creators o% the .marve!ous'. "istorting tra"itiona! an" c!assica! rinci !es* The& have mastere" the art o% the i!!usion o% musica! "rama* As 2oni states' counter oint is a cra%t to )e stu"ie" )& the ru!es' )ut "ramatic music is )orn o% natura! ta!ent an" irrationa! genius* ,o"ern music' 0hether it )e ma"riga!ian au"acit& or mono"ic )o!"ness' cannot )e eva!uate" )& mathematica! rece ts' no matter ho0 c!ose to nature the& ma& )e* On the contrar&' the e(ce!!ence o% mo"ern music must )e 1u"ge" )& su)1ective stan"ar"s o% sensi)i!it& that res on" to origina!it&' rhetorica! %orce' an" "ramatic o0er* These %orm the %un"amenta! aesthetic remises o% e%%ective an" a%%ective maniera' 0hose success%u! em)o"iment in music re resents %or mannerist musicians the vin"ication o% ancient i"ea!s*

Mannerism in Transition, 1600-16'0 The &ears )et0een /D:: an" /D7: are "ominate" )& t0o com osers' Car!o 8esua!"o an" C!au"io ,ontever"i' an" their res ective a roaches to the o!& honic ma"riga! rovi"e insights into the "ua! nature o% !ate ,annerism* An a!most atho!ogica! morbidezza / ermeates 8esua!"oCs 0or3s' 0or3s that thrive on grotes#ue an" strange!& o0er%u! e%%ects* In )ringing chromaticism to its %ina! e%%!orescence' 8esua!"o attains the most e(aggerate" mani%estation o% mannerist st&!i5ation* ,ontever"i too %o!!o0s a ersona! ins iration in his #uest %or ra"ica! re%inements* +ut his mannerist st&!i5ation &ie!"s more %ruit%u! avenues %or )aro#ue st&!e* In ,ontever"iCs music 0e o)serve a transition %rom o!& hon& to concerte" music* An" ever& as ect o% this trans%ormation' 0hether su)t!e or )!atant' is han"!e" 0ith the sure han" o% a master cra%tsman* +ecause o% the im act o% these t0o maniere, the ec!ectic mi(ture o% 0or" ainting an" "escri tive-"ramatic rea!ism )ecomes out"ate"* A!though it continues to )e o u!ar a%ter /D:: %rom a historica! oint o% vie0' it must )e consi"ere" to )e a %ashiona)!e stereot& e* The com osers 0ho cu!tivate this convention are man&* I cite here the e(am !e o% ,arco "a 8ag!iano' a F!orentine 3no0n %or his mono"ies an" "ramatic music* In his o!& honic ma"riga!s' 8ag!iano %avors astora! oetr& o% a !ight!& sentimenta! cast' an" his musica! settings are characteri5e"' a ro riate!& enough' )& e!egance an" genti!it&* 8enera!!&' 8ag!ianoCs st&!e consists o% counter oint )ase" on "ec!amator& motives 0ith occasiona! instances o% chromaticism an" minute 0or" ainting* E(ce tions can )e %oun" in a %e0 assionate 0or3s' such as # )onno a8 ?/D:74 "e!!a Casa@' a ma"riga! %eaturing sus en"e" "issonances an" thir" re!ate" tria"s* At!hough e%%ective' 8ag!ianoCs techni#ue is neither ne0 nor articu!ar!& ra"ica! %or the time* An" &et' it comes un"er %ire in a treatise )& ,u5io E%%rem' 0ho censures the !i)erties evi"ent in 8ag!ianoCs counter oint* His tract' o% course' re resents another iece o% evi"ence %or the musica! turmoi! engen"ere" )& the secon" ractice* 7 The "egree to 0hich the maniera madrigalesca no0 constitutes a se!%-conscious tra"ition is %urther "emonstrate" )& a stu"ent u)!ication o% Heinrich SchNt5' 0ho stu"ie" in Venice )et0een ID:B an" /D/7* This ta!ente" &oung man !earne" his st&!istic !essons 0e!!4 an" the )oo3 o% ma"riga!s in #uestion ?/D//@ revea!s SchNt5Cs un"erstan"ing )oth o% Venetian an" o% court!& ma"riga!ian st&!es* From the Venetians an" ,ontever"i' SchNt5 ac#uire" the mo"ern art o% %irm tona! organi5ation on 0hich ictoria! e%%ects can )e mounte" 0ithout "istur)ing organic unit&* From ,ontever"i' he a!so "eve!o e" his master& o% "ec!amator& motives as 0e!! as a%%ective harmonies an" me!o"ic contours' as is sho0n in %un0ue addio care selve a8 ?8uarini' ,l pastor fido@* +ut SchNt5Cs "istinct re"i!ection %or %igura! 0or" ainting' o%ten invo!ving virtuoso e!ements' comes %rom the o!"er tra"ition o% mosaic ma"riga!ism* This tra"ition reaches manneristic' 0e might even sa& mannere"' e(travagance in +uggi o mio core a8 ?8uarini@' a stu"& in musica! .%!&ing*. )elve beate a8 ?8uarini' ,l pastor fido@ contains man& such remar3a)!e assages* The eighth-note runs on frondi, 0ith their com !e( ermutations' entai! sca!ar

motion )et0een tritones as 0e!! as tritone !ea s' thus re resenting 0ritten versions o% the most e(aggerate" assaggi recommen"e" in treatises on voca! ornamentation* The en"ing resents a note0orth& fioritura ?E(am !e KKI-I@* Here' ridente is "e icte" )& a %igure that ever& voice stu"ent recogni5es as a stereot& e" voca!ise* ,annerist !a&%u!ness' i% not su er%icia!it&' is a"mira)!& "emonstrate" )& this effetto meraviglioso. The over!a ing o% o!"er an" ne0er ra"ica!ism can )e seen c!ear!& i% 0e turn no0 to ,ontever"iCs %amous %i%th )oo3 o% ma"riga!s ?/D:9@' a )oo3 that re resents )oth the en" o% the unaccom anie" ma"riga! an" the )eginning o% the concerte" ma"riga!* It is a remar3a)!e u)!ication on man& counts* The re%ace' !ater g!osse" )& his )rother' soun"s the trum et o% attac3 on )eha!% o% cham ions o% the secon" ractice* An" ,ontever"i "e!i)erate!& inc!u"es %our 0or3s critici5e" )& 8iovanni ,aria Artusi* < O% the nineteen ieces ?the !ast si( 0ith o)!igator& continuo@' si(teen are set oems )& 8uarini' > an" e!even o% these are %rom ,l pastor fido. Inasmuch as man& o% the 8uarini te(ts a!so a ear in Luca ,aren5ioCs +oo3 VII a8 ?/9B9@' Einstein suggests that ,ontever"i 0ishes to com ete 0ith his i!!ustrious re"ecessor* 9 At the same time' there e(ists the ossi)i!it& that ,ontever"iCs choice is motivate" )& an aesthetic i"ea!' %or he %ocuses on e!egant concettism 0hose s0eet !amenting accents hi"e the otentia! %or !&ric an" "ramatic assion* 8uariniCs maniera is eminent!& 0e!! suite" to ,ontever"iCs nove! conce t o% o!& hon& as the er%ection o% me!o"&* 6ith this oetr&' he e( !ores the nove!t& o% recitar cantando D in mo"ern counter oint* As is 0e!! 3no0n' %ive o% the ieces %orm a c&c!e' -cco )ilvio a8' setting the "ia!ogue )et0een Si!vio an" 2orin"a %rom the %ourth act o% ,l pastor fido. This set o% ma"riga!s retains ,ontever"iCs ear!ier "ec!amator& st&!e characteri5e"' on the one han"' )& mo"erate or even ra i" ar!an"o me!o"ies' an" on the other han"' )& o!& honic moments 0ith e( ressive "issonances* In other 0or"s' its harmonic !anguage an" st&!istic rinci !es "erive %rom a roaches that ,ontever"i ha" revious!& esta)!ishe"* ,o"ern scho!ars cite it as a %orerunner o% his %uture essa&s in the concerte" ma"riga! an" the cham)er cantata* E An" &et' %or a!! its inherent mo"ernism' it !ac3s "ramatic sha e an" articu!ation* An" it "oes not commeasure 0ith the ra"ica! e!ements o% concertato st&!e evi"ent in other 0or3s in this )oo3' or %or that matter' e#ua!!& innovative ones in revious )oo3s* ,ontever"iCs setting o% 8uariniCs 5on pi9 guerra: ?/D:<@ i!!ustrates this oint* He gives the te(t' a "ramatic !&ric much !i3e the mono!ogues o% ,l pastor fido, his t& ica! treatment consisting o% "ec!amator& motives in imitative te(tures* Homo hon& an" !inear sus ension each a ear once %or the sa3e o% shar ictoria!ism* The st&!e o% this ma"riga!' agitate" an" humorous!& vivi"' ten"s to )e much c!oser to the stile concitato than -cco )ilvio ?E(am !e KKI-7@* The o ening e(c!amations have t0o "istinct' rh&thmica!!& concise motives that are com)ine" 0ith the secon" an" thir" !ines o% the oem* 2uring this section' each voice stan"s out as a so!oistic com)atant' an" thus' the o ening re ro"uces the unusua! an" art%u!!& mannere" contrapposto o% 8uariniCs conceit* The re etition o% the %irst !ine contri)utes to the evocation o% an agitate" moo"4 it a!so hints at the musica! an" e( ressive signi%icance o% the t0o motives that com rise it' %or the entire

ma"riga! is )ase" on con%igurations o% them* Their rh&thmic contours &ie!" various ermutations %or su)se#uent motives that a ear in )ri!!iant imitation an" 3a!ei"osco ic com)ination* Thus "oes ,ontever"i e( !oit e!ements o% simi!arit& an" contrast to !in3 an" ro%i!e the t0o )asic concetti o% the oem$0ar an" eace* The su)t!et& o% his rh&thmic techni#ue is incre"i)!e* The atterns o% 5on pi9 guerra: an" trionfanti share the same 0ar!i3e rh&thms* The more !aci" rh&thm o% &ietate: is echoe" )& #cchi miei belli. The )e!!icose rh&thm rea ears on $ che v"armate; $ncidete i rubelli an" on $ncidete chi, a truncate" !ine* *ontr"un cor che gi! a ro riate!& re%!ects the )e!ove"Cs animosit& )& var&ing the 0ar!i3e attern* The remain"er o% this !ine' pres"e vi si rende, %eatures the %irst occurrence o% s&nco ate" sus ensions' .)in"ings. that again mirror the 0or"s* )"arm"e si difende is re!ate" rh&thmica!!& an" conce tua!!& to *ontr"un cor' an" there%ore' the hrase contains an im !icit re%erence to $ncidete chi<0hich is actua!!& the %irst art o% the !ine* U to this oint' these motives are %ree!& com)ine"' "ovetai!e"' an" varie" to create a sona! i!!usion o% inimica! agitation* The . oint. o% the !overCs rotest comes 0ith the 0or"s' 5on chi vinto v"adora. Here' ,ontever"i intro"uces his %irst ne0 %igure in a sensuous an" s0eet trio %or high voices* The e%%ect in conte(t is ver& stri3ing' an" inc!u"es the on!& gent!e me!isma in the entire iece* There %o!!o0s imme"iate!& a assage o% "ec!amator& homo hon& %or !o0 voices on =olete voi ch"io mora; An" the !overCs ha & ac#uiescence to this 0ish is )rought out )& rh&thms reca!!ing the %act that he is a!rea"& con#uere" an" a"oring* The me!ancho!& re etitions o% e del morir resent #uieter versions o% 5on pi9 guerra: an" harsh sus en"e" "issonances aint the anguish o% "eath* ,ontever"i achieves roun"e" unit& an" 0itt& e( ressivit& )& setting the . oint'. ma sar! vostr"il danno, in a rh&thmic attern mo"e!e" a%ter the 0ar!i3e %igure o% the o ening* No0' this a)stract ana!&sis cannot "o 1ustice to the instinctive com ositiona! rocess )& 0hich ,ontever"i arrive" at this magni%icent setting4 as 8iovanni +attista 2oni 0ou!" insist' the ma"riga! is a resu!t o% natura! ta!ent* This 3in" o% "ramatic genius cannot )e conve&e" )& rosaic "escri tions' %or it arises %rom ins ire" furor poeticus* ,ontever"i genera!!& avoi"s e(treme chromaticism in his mature 0or3s* One e(ce tion can )e %oun" in &iagne e sospira a8 ?/D:<4 Tasso' .erusalemme con0uistata@' A a ma"riga! )ui!t on semitona! me!o"ies an" thir"-re!ate" harmonies o)vious!& ins ire" )& the athetic tone o% the verse* In com arison 0ith that o% ,ontever"i' 8esua!"oCs st&!e' in his %i%th an" si(th )oo3s ?/D//@' e(em !i%ies the u!timate in chromaticism* In the sec!usion o% his Nea o!itan a!ace' 8esua!"o no0 concentrates on short oems characteri5e" )& vio!ent an" high!& mannere" me!ancho!&* The torments o% !ove an" "eath "escri)e" in this "oggere! verse certain!& %it the e(treme contortions o% his musica! maniera* 3u m"uccidi o crudele ?+oo3 v' /D//@ serves as a %ine i!!ustration o% 8esua!"oCs techni#ues an" their resu!tant effetti meravigliosi. Unusua! harmonies a ear in s&!!a)ic sections 0hose re!ative!& s!o0 ace contrasts shar !& 0ith t0o "istinct sections o% animate" counter oint un"erscore" )& c!ear-cut "iatonic voca)u

!ar&4 the o!& honic sections set one 0or"' amando. In s ite o% this sur%ace "ichotom&' 8esua!"oCs chromaticism an" "issonance treatment are sti!! !inear in orientation* The o ening o% the ma"riga! constitutes a mo"e! o% harmonic am)iguit&* Its sur rising e%%ect arises %rom consecutive an" mu!ti !e "issonances ?0ith an" 0ithout sus ensions@' tria"s 0hose roots are re!ate" )& thir"s an" semitones' %re#uent tritones' unortho"o( seventhchor"s' an" 1u(ta osition o% %!at an" shar acci"enta!s* The setting o% the 0or"s' *h"io moro' state" t0ice' is ver& strange an" 0arrants %urther comment ?E(am !e KKI-<@* At the en" o% the %irst statement' 0e %in" an A minor seventh-chor" ?the seventh )eing a sus ension@ an" an FJ ma1or chor"4 this thir"-re!ation invo!ves three !inear semitones* The secon" time' an F ma1or seventh-chor" moves to an E ma1or one via %our !inear semitones' a!! c!ear!& sho0n in 8esua!"oCs voice !ea"ing* B To sum u ' the main characteristics o% the chromatic e iso"es resi"e in a ver& %!e(i)!e mani u!ation o% chor"s in various ositions' ecu!iar root movements' unusua! s&nco ations an" sus ensions' an" )i5arre %a!se re!ations* The %o! !o0ing remar3s ma"e )& Einstein a !& to this 0or3' even though the& are ma"e 0ith re%erence to another e#ua!!& eccentric ma"riga! in the %i%th )oo3= .The Ce( ressionC in this sort o% iece is astonishing' )ut it 0ou!" )e "i%%icu!t to "etermine e(act!& 0here sincerit& o% %ee!ing en"s an" mannerism )egins*. /: The e!ongate" "escen"ing motives at the start o% 4anguisco al fin a8 ?+oo3 v' /D//@ have "ra0n the attention o% severa! scho!ars' one o% 0hom i"enti%ies this %igure 0ith the inganno, a motive that a ears !ater in 3e&)oar" music ?e*g*' in the 0or3s o% 8iovanni ,aria Tra)aci an" 8iro!amo Fresco)a!"i@* // In 8esua!"oCs ma"riga!' the inganno )ears a stri3ing resem)!ance to Nico!a VicentinoCs reconstruction o% ancient tetrachor"s' an" this %act intimates the in%!uence o% Ferrarese e( eriments* A!though the attern "oes not occur so rominent!& in other ma"riga!s )& 8esua!"o' it "oes cro u %rom time to time* /7 I mention it here )ecause this henomenon suggests one tanta!i5ing !in3 )et0een chromaticism in 0or3s o% the mi""!e an" !ate mannerist erio"s an" those o% the ear!& )aro#ue erio"* /< +oo3 VI ?/D//@ contains man& outstan"ing an" e( ressive 0or3s* Among them' Moro lasso is "eserve"!& %amous )ecause it manages to %use e(treme st&!i5ation an" a%%ective conviction* A cursor& g!ance at the music sho0s that 8esua!"o organi5es its structure )& a!ternating sections o% %air!& s!o0 chromaticism 0ith sections o% %aster counter oint* The t0o t& es corres on" nice!& 0ith the ver)a! images that 8esua!"o re eats at 0i!! in or"er to create harmonic contrasts* 6ithin these !arger sections' there e(ist unit corres on"ences that a!so re%!ect verse re etitions* The t0o o!& honic sections' on the 0or"s - chi mi pu> dar vita, are )ui!t on the )ris3 imitative inter !a& o% a sing!e motive that resents a characteristic aura! %igure on vita. In the %irst o% these sections' a care%u!!& !anne" harmonic c!ima( receives su ort %rom the contra unta! arrangement o% the voices* A!though the secon" section ara!!e!s the %irst 0ith regar" to its t0o sets o% imitative oints' its harmonic an" motivic !an is rearrange" to create ma(imum tension* It is im ortant to rea!i5e that occasiona! semitona! in%!ections

"o a ear' in s ite o% the re"ominant!& "iatonic character o% these o!& honic sections* In"ee"' the !atter create a "iatonic %ee!ing )& virtue o% the e(treme chromaticism o% the other a!ternating segments o% the ma"riga!* The "iatonic sections are a!so c!ose!& re!ate" inasmuch as the %irst one gravitates to C ma1or an" the secon" to F ma1or* +& 0a& o% contrast' the chromatic sections range %ar a%ie!" %rom this sta)!e re!ationshi * 8esua!"o esta)!ishes an eccentric tone in the ver& %irst short chromatic section' a com en"ium o% ra"ica! ,annerism ?E(am !e KKI->a@* Lo0 voices' s!o0 motion' an" s!ithering semitona! me!o"ies create a !ugu)rious atmos here4 an" tria"ic %!oating atona!it& )egins in the outrI region o% CJ ma1or an" s!i"es through thir" re!ations to 8 ma1or* 6hen this or"inar& harmon& is reache"' acer)it& a ears )& means o% ecu!iar "issonances an" !ea s* The %irst an" !ast chor"s o% this section %orm thir"-re!ations ?CJ ma1or an" E ma1or@' as "oes the en"ing o% the chromatic art 0ith the en"ing o% the ensuing o!& honic section ?E ma1or an" C ma1or@* 6hereas the %irst chromatic ortion gives the i!!usion o% homo hon&' the secon" is )ui!t on the strangest ossi)!e oints o% imitation ?E(am !e KKI->)@* The voice entries are )est "escri)e" as unru!& an" eccentric in the e(treme* Sure!& Far!ino never envisione" such unortho"o( re!ationshi s even in his most casua! imitatione. This imitative oint not on!& "ramati5es in a vivi" 0a& the 0or" $hi: )ut a!so s&m)o!i5es 8esua!"oCs enchant %or grotes#ue st&!i5ation o% tra"itiona! roce"ures* Furthermore' this 0eir" 3in" o% counter oint ro"uces %ive thir"-re!ate" chor"s in succession' ranging %rom C minor to CJ ma1or* A%ter conc!u"ing this chromatic section 0ith a homo honic assage' 8esua!"o then re eats the %irst three !ines o% the oem together 0ith their a!ternation o% chromatic' "iatonic' an" chromatic sections* The %irst t0o no0 a ear on a sonorous !ane a %ourth a)ove the origina! statements* +ut )ecause o% the mo"u!ator& scheme o% the "iatonic section' the outrageous setting o% $hi: che m"ancide is itche" a tone )e!o0 its counter art* Its homo honic c!osing ortion )egins as it "i" the %irst time' )ut 8esua!"o su""en!& 1um s u an octave so that the rest soun"s a ninth a)ove the origina!* The e%%ect is e!ectri%&ing* +ut the most e(traor"inar& e%%ects come at the en" o% the iece ?E(am !e KKI->c@* # dolorosa sorte )egins 0ith a s!o0' 0ai!ing imitation that increases the num)er o% mu!ti !e "issonances 0ith each voice entr&* +eneath them !ies a "iatonic su ort* On the !ast + ma1or chor"' 8esua!"o erverse!& re eats the note' A' in the a!to ?%rom the rece"ing F ma1or seventh-chor"@' creating a harsh + 2FA massing that !ea"s "irect!& to an E ma1or chor"* The harmonic com onents o% these t0o vertica! sonorities' inc!u"ing root notes' are a tritone a art4 %urthermore' the& re!& on three !inear semitones* 6hat can one sa& a)out this tota!!& grotes#ue rogressionL Nothing a roaching its au"acit& has )een seen in the anna!s o% mannerist ra"ica!ism* 8esua!"o re eats this assage' com !ete 0ith the .tritone-re!ate". chor"s' on a harmonic !ane a %i%th a)ove the origina!* Then' a short' %air!& "iatonic section intro"uces the %ina! staggering setting o% ahi: mi da morte. T0o over!a ing imitative sections' )ase" on a most ecu!iar chromatic motive' /> ro"uce a net0or3 o% intricate "issonances' "iminishe" tria"s' an" ."ominant seventh. chor"s* Scarce!& one vertica! sonorit& goes )& 0ithout i#uant "issonances* A cata!oging o% the

!atter cannot re ro"uce the )itter %!avor create" )& their unre!enting a earance* 8esua!"o mani u!ates secon"s' sevenths' an" tritones in a most eccentric manner* Si( such cases o% assing sing!e "issonances on strong an" 0ea3 su)"ivisions o% the u!se are over sha"o0e" )& nine cases 0here these "istur)ing interva!s occu & entire metric units o% the tactus* I have a!rea"& in"icate" that 8esua!"oCs chromaticism an" "issonance treatment arise %rom !inear consi"erations* At the same time' certain thir"-re!ations seem to arise %rom vertica! consi"erations* 8esua!"oCs care%u!!& !anne" re etitions' %eaturing "i%%erent harmonic !anes' a!so attest to an a0areness o% sonorous va!ues an" )!oc3s o% co!or* The common !ace i"ea that 8esua!"o reserves chromaticism %or homo honic sections an" counter oint %or "iatonic ones is some0hat mis!ea"ing* His chromatic sections seem homo honic sim !& on the )asis o% a com arison 0ith the o!& honic ones* +& the same to3en' the "iatonicism o% the contra unta! sections seems )!an" on!& in com arison 0ith the chromatic e(cesses o% the so-ca!!e" homo honic sections* In rea!it&' 8esua!"oCs st&!e "e arts %rom !inear voice !ea"ing' 0ith the e(ce tions note" a)ove* 8esua!"o in"ee" unites tra"itiona! o!& honic roce"ures 0ith avant-gar"e tren"s' /9 )ut in a ver& s ecia! 0a&* A art %rom a genera! consensus on the matter o% 8esua!"oCs harmonic e(travagances$ characteri5e" as .musica! seasic3ness'. .e(treme )ut sti!!)orn %antasies'. or ro"ucts o% a . s&cho ath. an" a . atho!ogica! case. /D $there e(ists consi"era)!e "isagreement as to the e(act technica!ities that constitute his maniera* Severa! scho!ars stress the nove!t& o% 8esua!"oCs shar contrasts )et0een s!o0 homo hon& an" ra i" counter oint* /E +ut I have suggeste" that his )asic vie0 oint is a!0a&s contra unta!* Ho0ever' rh&thmic nove!t& is evi"ent in his characteristic %ree"om in "ea!ing 0ith imitative oints4 entries are s ace" at irregu!ar interva!s' an" the con%igurations varie" to o)tain agitate" e%%ects* Another rominent e!ement o% avant-gar"ism hitherto unnotice" is 8esua!"oCs ten"enc& to use ver& irregu!ar vertica! interva!s as oints o% entr& %or imitative voices* His ra"ica! a roach o%ten %eatures e(treme registers an" start!ing "issonances* The tota! e%%ect is one o% com !ete "istortion o% homogeneous o!& hon&* There are moments in 8esua!"oCs te(ture 0hen the !istener e( eriences the ecu!iar sensation that one more ste ' either higher or !o0er' 0i!! cause the tenuous structure to co!!a se$a re!ative i!!usion' o% course' )ut sti!! a ver& te!!ing one* 6ith regar" to "issonance treatment' 8esua!"oCs use o% "i minishe" tria"s an" seventh-chor"s is har"!& nove!' consi"ering the a earance o% such sonorities in the 0or3s o% ,aren5io' 6ert' an" ,ontever"i* Inso%ar as these conste!!ations resu!t %rom !inear e!ements' ho0ever eccentric' 8esua!"oCs usage is much c!oser to that o% ,aren5io than to that o% ,ontever"i* This com arison' o% course' omits %actors such as the num)er an" congregation o% chromatic e!ements* ,ontever"iCs nove! treatment o% such chor"s' chor"s that %urnish one im ortant )asis %or the ne0 maniera' ma3es him the %irst archmo"ernist* +ut 0ith ,ontever"i' unortho"o( chor"a! entities )ecome the norm o% a ne0 st&!e4 the& are ositive %actors in the seconda prattica. In

8esua!"oCs maniera, unortho"o( treatment o% nonharmonic com onents remains a "e!i)erate "eviation %rom the ars perfecta in this sense' it %unctions as a negative %actor in an e(treme st&!i5ation o% ast tra"ition* An" %rom this oint o% vie0' 8esua!"o emerges as an archmannerist 0hose au"acities resume an ingraine" res onse to norma! roce"ures* 8esua!"o uses his tric3s to shoc3 an" sur rise* ,ontever"i too see3s effetti meravigliosi, )ut in his han"s the regressive as ects o% mannerist st&!i5ation are trans%orme" into rogressive ingre"ients o% )aro#ue st&!e* As %ar as chromaticism is concerne"' scho!ars agree that 8esua!"oCs ersona! au"acities stem %rom the iso!ation an" ne0 %unction o% semitona! re!ationshi s )et0een vertica! rogressions* /A For e(am !e' 8-8 can ro"uce E ma1or an" E ma1or tria"s* This s eci%ic instance is im ortant inasmuch as the roots are a semitone a art' an" motion %rom one to the other entai!s three !inear semitones* There is no "ou)t that such cases a)oun" in 8esua!"oCs harmon&' an" the& constitute one o% the most outrageous vertica!!inear re!ationshi s ossi)!e in chromatic st&!e' )arring the intro"uction o% "issonances* One 0a& o% e(aggerating the shoc3 va!ue o% chromatic sonorities is to com oun" the semitona! connections %rom three to %our* Another metho" is to connect a %our-note chor" an" a tria" 0hose roots are a tritone a art* The !atter t& e o% rogression ro"uces three !inear semitones an" three !inear tritones at the same time* An" 8esua!"o uses )oth metho"s 0henever he strives %or articu!ar!& stri3ing e%%ects* C!ose e(amination o% his au"acious voca)u!ar& revea!s certain interesting %eatures* 8esua!"oCs sma!!-sca!e chromaticism$that is' %rom chor" to chor" $ten"s to re!& on rogressions that invo!ve t0o or three !inear semitones* Thus' it is correct to conc!u"e that semitona! motion' the theoretica! )asis o% VicentinoCs chromatic genus' %in"s its a otheosis in 8esua!"oCs maniera. 6hen 8esua!"o "esires es ecia!!& sur rising e%%ects' he then moves on to e(treme %orms o% chromaticism hereto%ore un3no0n= tri !e an" #ua"ru !e semitone connections' )i5arre acci"enta!s such as + an" E' an"Oor semitone an" tritone root movements* The eccentricit& o% these rogressions can )e e(acer)ate" )& shar "issonances an" angu!ar voice !ea"ing* Sim !er chromatic re!ations ?those characteristic o% ear!ier mannerist e( eriments@ no0 occur in contra unta! sections' or )et0een the )eginnings an" en"ings o% !arger hrases an" sections* The oint to )e stresse" here is that chromatic e!ements that 0ere revious!& consi"ere" high!& vo!ati!e )ecome' %or 8esua!"o' re!ative!& sta)!e* A!! these techni#ues ro"uce a st&!e 0hose vio!ent contortions have )een note" %re#uent!& )& historians* 8esua!"oCs maniera has occasione" com arisons 0ith E! 8reco' Pontormo' Parmigianino' Tasso' ,arino' an" 8raciPn* 6ithout su)scri)ing to concrete ana!ogies )et0een "i%%erent me"ia or )et0een creative artists %rom "i%%erent generations' 0e can agree that 8esua!"o re resents the mannerist !ove o% e(cessive "istortion an" st&!i5ation in an unmista3a)!e 0a&* 6ith re%erence to musica! ,annerism' his ersona! maniera is a "ea" en"' not on!& )ecause o% its high!& in"ivi"ua! avant-gar"ism' )ut a!so )ecause this com oser "eve!o s one as ect o% mannerist st&!i5ation to its u!timate !imits* A%ter 8esua!"o' there is virtua!!& nothing ne0 to )e "one 0ith chromaticism un"erstoo" as a se!%-conscious' "e!i)erate "eviation %rom tra"ition* One ma& emu!ate )ut one cannot "eve!o this a roach an& %urther* +ut %rom the vie0 oint o% chromaticism seen as a

vehic!e %or strong a%%ective e( ression' 8esua!"o 1oins the ran3s o% mannerists 0ho )ui!" u an aesthetic ta3en over )& )aro#ue com osers* His st&!e is 3no0n an" a reciate" )& severa! e( onents o% the secon" ractice* Thus' on the one si"e' 8esua!"oCs st&!e re resents a .minor current. /B inasmuch as its techni#ue is the en" an" not the )eginning o% a musica! tren"* On the other si"e' ho0ever' his st&!e )e!ongs to a ma1or current inasmuch as its aesthetic remise is the start an" not the en" o% %uture "eve!o ments* 7: In 8esua!"oCs case' it is c!ear that maniera has a s ecia! an" rovocative meaning* In m& vie0' the nove! use o% "issonances' a!!ie" 0ith the mannerist cree" o% imitazione delle parole, rovi"es the rea! !in3 )et0een ,annerism an" the +aro#ue* The rea"er 0i!! reca!! that a num)er o% ma"riga!s u)!ishe" )et0een /9A: an" /D:: %eature successive an" simu!taneous "issonances that occur in !inear sus ension* +ene"etto Pa!!avicinoCs *ruda $marilli ?/D::4 8uarini' ,l pastor fido@ a"heres to this rinci !e ?E(am !e KKI-9@* The o ening' the on!& section 0here !inear counter oint revai!s' contains a series o% sus en"e" sing!e "issonances' t0o cases o% "ou)!e "issonances' an" t0o cases o% irregu!ar!& reso!ve" tritones* Such rogressions are certain!& . ungent'. 7/ an" the& aint a vivi" icture o% crue! Amari!!i* Ho0ever' the& are not in themse!ves nove!' %or 0e have seen simi!ar instances in ear!ier 0or3s )& ,aren5io an" ,ontever"i* Nonethe!ess' this articu!ar com osition is im ortant in that it %urnishe" a mo"e! %or settings )& a num)er o% eminent com osers' inc!u"ing Sigismon"o "CIn"ia ?/D:E@ an" ,ontever"i ?/D:9@* An" ,ontever"iCs 0or3 is sing!e" out )& Artusi as an e(em !ar o% unru!& mo"ernism* The %irst %e0 measures o% ,ontever"iCs ma"riga! su%%ice to in"icate the connections )et0een the t0o ,antuan com osers ?E(am !e KKI-D@* A!though ,ontever"iCs version is !ess "issonant than Pa!!avicinoCs' it has a "istinct!& mo"ern tone !ac3ing in the !atter 0or3* ,ontever"i re eats the %irst hrase on t0o c!ose!& re!ate" tona!ities' an" the "issonances' re eate" ver)atim' act as harmonic ro e!!ents 0ithin vertica!!& conceive" ca"entia! atterns* There %o!!o0s a assage o% animate" homo hon& ?inc!u"ing a "iminishe" tria"@ that "isso!ves into 0ritten ornamentation on ahi. The !ast art o% this assage is torn a art )& Artusi* ,ontever"i commits the car"ina! sin o% intro"ucing a "issonance a%ter a rest in the so rano' an" then o% reso!ving it )& a !ea to another "issonance* O% course' accor"ing to the rece ts o% mo"ern counter oint' this secon" ."issonance. is an integra! consonance )e!onging to a "ominant seventh chor"* At the same time' the "issonances 1ust "escri)e" a!so serve as a%%ective "e ictions o% the 0or"s* The same ho!"s true %or the other e(cer ts se!ecte" )& Artusi' 0ho neg!ects "(AMP)" ((I-5' continued

the rimac& o% the te(t as 0e!! as the tona! !ogic that regu!ates "issonance treatment* Com are" 0ith ,ontever"iCs 0or3' the "issonances in Pa!!avicinoCs ma"riga! sti!! retain o)vious ties 0ith o!"er si(teenth-centur& counter oint*

This "i%%erence is even more evi"ent in ,ontever"iCs #him? se tanto amate ?/D:<4 8uarini@' a 0itt& re%!ection o% the tongue-in chee3 concetti o% the amorous oem* Severa! signi%icant assages can sho0 ,ontever"iCs consummate han"!ing o% mo"ern "issonances* The o ening )egins 0ith a ver& rhetorica! an" "ramatic ren"ition o% the e(c!amation* +oth entries o% the so rano "uet high a)ove the )ass invo!ve irregu!ar "issonances* 77 +esi"es )eing a start!ing effetto meraviglioso, the assage %orms evi"ence that ,ontever"i is thin3ing in terms o% trio te(ture* These "ra0n-out 0ai!s are %o!!o0e" )& ra i" homo honic ar!an"o s ice" u )& occasiona! "issonances* On!& one o% the !atter 0ou!" ass muster as a assing nonharmonic note4 the rest re resent 0i!!%u! ornaments o% the t& e "isa!!o0e" )& tra"itiona! theorists* ,ontever"i "e icts dolorosa 0ith some o% the most unortho"o( voice !ea"ings in the com osition= a num)er o% sing!e an" "ou)!e "issonances cu!minate in a "escen"ing !ea o% a seventh %rom a consonance to a "issonance* Ha" Artusi seen this ma"riga!' he certain!& 0ou!" have accor"e" it a !ace o% honor in his "iatri)e* The conc!u"ing section resents another as ect o% ,ontever"iCs inventiveness in "evising &et another origina! i"ea %or the common !ace conceit' 2avrete mille mille dolc"ohim?* He un"erscores the 0or"s 0ith a se#uence o% inter!oc3ing %au()our"on chor"s' a series that ro"uces a )itters0eet set o% %a!se re!ations* The assage gravitates %rom + ma1or to 8 ma1or ?thir"-re!ations@* An" the enu!timate tria" in this se#uence e(em !i%ies ,ontever"iCs mo"ern musica! 0it* Its com onents ma3e it out to )e a + minor tria" in %irst inversion 4 as such it )e!ongs to the %au()our"on se#uence* +ut ,ontever"i seems to rea!i5e that the ear hears it "i%%erent!&' es ecia!!& a%ter it .reso!ves. to 8* It soun"s rather !i3e a 2 ma1or tria" 0hose consonant A has )een re !ace" )& a "issonant +' inasmuch as the V-I movement o% the )ass voice is ver& strong* This am)iguit& )ecomes e( !icit at the en" o% the iece ?E(am !e KKI-E@* A!! in a!!' this charming 0or3 em)o"ies the ear!ier tra"ition o% mosaic %ragmentation in 0hich ever& "etai! o% the oetr& %in"s its a ro riate musica! image* From this vie0 oint' the ma"riga! .remains manneristic an" e( erimenta!*. 7< Another 0or3 %rom the %ourth )oo3' $h dolente partita ?/D:<4 8uarini' ,l pastor fido@' e(hi)its more mo"ern o!& honic techni#ues simi!ar to those e( !ore" )& 6ert* 6e can "iscern his in%!uence in the "ec!amator& motives that %urnish the )asis %or te(tura! roce"ure* 7> +ut 0e can a!so iso!ate severa! %eatures that must )e ascri)e" to ,ontever"iCs ersona! i"eas* One o% these is a ver& vivi" musica! contrapposto' agitate" ar!an"o "ec!amation %or @n vivace morire com)ine" 0ith a s!o0 me!o"& %or &er far che moia. The other instance concerns his use o% "issonance in the )eginning an" c!osing sections o% the iece ?E(am !e KKI-A@* The o ening "uet resents a rather nove! "e !o&ment o% harsh an" a%%ective interva!s in a t0o-voice i"iom* Unisons' secon"s' an" thir"s out!ine a tortuous contour that unites musica! an" emotiona! tension* This "ua! techni#ue 0i!! )ecome an integra! e!ement in ,ontever"iCs concerte" "uets* The en"ing )rings out ,ontever"iCs vertica! conce tion in terms o% %un"amenta! )ass versus concertato u er arts in an even more a! a)!e 0a& than e(am !es revious!& given %or this a roach*

It is not acci"enta! that ,ontever"iCs essa&s in o!& honic "ec!amation center on s eeches %rom ,l pastor fido* 79 The inherent im etus to0ar" musica! "ramati5ation is intimate!& connecte" 0ith 8uariniCs attem t to "ramati5e !&ric assion* Aristocratic au"iences 3no0 0e!! this )e!ove" astora!' an" even sing!e ma"riga!es#ue settings can re!& on the tacit narrative )ac3groun"* Furthermore' the #uasi-"ramatic st&!e given to 8uariniCs oem is so 0e!! un"erstoo" )& ever&one that it can )e easi!& trans%erre" to in"e en"ent !&ric oems* A!! assionate!& amorous out)ursts thus )ecome otentia! e(cer ts %rom imagine" astora! romances* A%ter a!!' the themes are common !ace' an" man& sing!e !&rics )& Tasso' 8uarini' an" other oets cou!" 1ust as 0e!! )e inserte" into ,l pastor fido. +& in%erence' a high!& se!%-conscious an" st&!i5e" in%erence' anon&mous !&ric sentiments )ecome intense!& ersona!i5e" as unname" ,irti!!os' Si!vios' Amari!!is' an" 2orin"as s ea3 0ithin the con%ines o% o!& honic "ramati5ation* Such is the case 0ith ,ontever"iCs ce!e)rate" setting o% Ottavio RinucciniCs )fogava con le stelle a8 ?/D:<@* Here ,ontever"i "evises rea! chora! recitative* It seems reasona)!e to assume that !earne" connoisseurs 0ou!" imme"iate!& get the oint o% ,ontever"iCs a!!usion to the %act that in ancient "rama the chora! res onses 0ere chante" in recitative st&!e* Through a genia! st&!i5ation' ,ontever"i has "ramati5e" the "rama* T0o other ma"riga!s in +oo3 IV a!ternate homo honic or o!& honic "ec!amation 0ith virtuoso so!oistic assages reminiscent o% 6ertCs %!ori" st&!e* In Auel augellin che canta a8 ?/D:<4 8uarini' ,l pastor fido@' 7D 0or"s such as canta' vola, l"albetta' faggio' mirto, ardo, an" vago rom t e(ten"e" rou!a"es* ,ost o% these %igures' 0hich %eature a great "ea! o% #uasi-instrumenta! se#uences' a ear in the t0o so rano voices 0hich are "e !o&e" either in ara!!e! thir"s or in imitation* To this e(tent' the& share the characteristics o% Lu55asco Lu55aschiCs concerte" ma"riga!s* +ut ,ontever"i a!so varies the %!ori" te(ture )& using simi!ar "iminutions %or other com)inations as 0e!!* +& %ar the most virtuoso ma"riga! is $ un giro sol ?/D:<4 8uarini@ ?E(am !e KKI-B@* Its %irst art is )ui!t out o% %our co!oratura %igures that corres on" to the oetCs !ive!& meta hors= $ un giro sol' Ride l"aria d"intorno, -"l mar s"ac0uesta, an" e i venti. A more charming an" vivi" "e iction o% 8uariniCs conceits can har"!& )e imagine"* 7E It is a!so true that the reciosit& o% the verse %in"s e#ua!!& recious echoes in the music* 8a& an" animate" homo hon& "escri)es the e%%ects o% the )e!ove"Cs e&es* An" a su""en turn to strange harmonies an" sus en"e" "issonances gives the !ast %our !ines their ro er contrasting e( ression= the !overCs e&es are sa" an" %u!! o% tears* One scho!ar suggests that ,ontever"i uses sur rise as a 0ea on in this ma"riga! in or"er to start!e the !istener into shar a0areness o% the concettistic o osition em)o"ie" in the oem* 7A At an& rate' 8uariniCs st&!i5e" maniera seems to ins ire some o% ,ontever"iCs most )ri!!iant' &et most contrive"' musica! e%%ects* As ever&one 3no0s' ,ontever"i ta3es the ste to accom anie" ensem)!es in the !ast si( ma"riga!s o% +oo3 v ?/D:9@* He is not the %irst com oser to thin3 o% a""ing a 3e&)oar" su ort to secu!ar o!& honic 0or3s* 7B Ho0ever' his notion as to the ro!e o% this su ort "i%%ers %un"amenta!!& %rom that o% his re"ecessors* In RossiCs an" SignorucciCs u)!ications' the 3e&)oar" is a basso seguente, 0hereas in Lu55aschiCs music %or the Ferrarese !a"ies' it is com !ete!& 0ritten out an" em)o"ies a re"uction o% %ive-voice"

counter oint* ,ontever"iCs continuo com rises an un%igure" )ass4 in o!& honic sections it acts as a seguente art' )ut in so!oistic sections it )ecomes a rea! %un"amenta! art* The si( 0or3s in #uestion "o not )e!ong to the categor& o% mono"ic recitative or aria as ractice" )& F!orentine com osers* Passages %or so!o voice e(ist an" some o% them are in recitative st&!e* +ut %or the most art' ,ontever"i concentrates on ensem)!es an" through them e( !ores concertato st&!e* - cos7 a poco a poco aB ?8uarini@ e(hi)its the !oosest structure o% the si( concerte" ieces* The reason resi"es in the non"ramatic nature o% the oem* In this case' ,ontever"iCs a!ternative te(tures mere!& rovi"e an e!ement o% variet&* +ut in 3roppo ben pu> a8' 8uariniCs "ivision )et0een narrative ortions an" "irect s eech %orms the )asis %or ,ontever"iCs more "ramatic sectiona!i5ation* Yet' ,ontever"i "oes not %orget to high!ight in"ivi"ua! 0or"s an" conceits )& means o% various te(tures' rh&thms' an" %!ori" "iminutions* The !ast three !ines o% the oem ara!!e! the %ourth through si(th !ines in their structura! arrangement' an" the& contain the 0itt& . oint. o% the )asic conceit* For this reason' ontever"i re eats the genera! characteristics o% his setting o% the ear!ier !ines at the en"* This .rather manneristic. <: ma"riga!' in s ite o% its arti%icia! moments' has a c!ear structure' a structure 0ith )oth a)so!ute an" "ramatic im ort* 6hereas ,ontever"i stic3s c!ose!& to the oetic structure in 3roppo ben pu>' in 3"amo mia vita a8 ?8uarini@' he ta3es more !i)erties 0ith the te(t* These !i)erties re%!ect ,ontever"iCs "esire to construct a sma!!-sca!e !&rica! "rama' </ a cham)er cantata* 2uring the !overCs so!i!o#u&' the 0or"s' 3"amo mia vita, occur t0ice$at the start o% the %irst !ine an" at the start o% the !ast !ine* ,ontever"i e(tra o!ates these 0or"s %rom their conte(t to trans%orm them into a musica! resentation o% the )e!ove" s ea3ing to her !over* Each time the& a ear' the 0or"s are sung )& a so!o so rano' o%ten to the same music* Thus' the& %orm a .ritorne!!o. %rame0or3 0ithin 0hich the 0or"s o% the !over a ear %or three !o0 voices in homo honic "ec!amation* <7 The high!ight o% the concerte" ma"riga!s' $hi come a un vago sol a8 ?8uarini@' is a master iece in "ramatic an" musica! structure* In this case' c!ear sectiona! organi5ation an" ron"o!i3e %orm oint to0ar" ,ontever"iCs !ater cham)er cantatas* << The ma"riga! is com rise" o% sections %or t0o so!o tenors a!ternating 0ith a chora! re%rain %or a var&ing num)er o% voices* The re%rain' $h che piaga d"amor non sana mai, corres on"s to the tenth !ine o% the oem* Again' it is the com oser 0ho trans%orms this !ine into a re%rain* The "uet sections revea! some note0orth& %eatures in their arrangement* Each time' the num)er o% !ines "ecreases )& t0o4 this means that the "uet sections get rogressive!& shorter* At the same time' ,ontever"i augments the tem ora! re"uction )& changing the musica! st&!e* The %irst an" !ongest "uet is a!so the most e!a)orate one' %eaturing ornate ornamenta! %iguration )oth in ara!!e! motion an" in animate" concertato imitation* The secon" one a!ternates segments in assionate "ec!amation 0ith segments o% arioso!i3e em)e!!ishment* In the thir" "uet' on!& one )rie% me!ismatic ortion "isru ts the "ec!amator& st&!e* An" the %ina! one consists so!e!& o% "ec!amation* This organi5ation' o% course' )rings the re%rain sections c!oser an" c!oser together* An" in this 0a&' ,ontever"i

achieves a hitherto unriva!e" intensit& as the music a roaches its %ina! c!ima(* At the same time' the voca! ritorne!!os %o!!o0 a care%u!!& !anne" scheme o% their o0n* The !onger' more %!ori" "uets a!ternate 0ith re!ative!& short re%rains* 6hen the "uets reach their "ec!amator& stage an" )ecome #uite cursor& in !ength )ut intense in st&!e' the re%rains get rogressive!& !onger* This o osing )ut com !ementar& arrangement in section !engths is )a!ance" )& the overa!! tona! organi5ation* The %irst "uet an" re%rain esta)!ish the 3e& o% 2 ma1or* The ensuing airs o% "uets an" re%rains revo!ve aroun" the "ominant' a 3e& the& a%%irm 0ith ca"ences in re!ate" areas* An" the %ina! "uet an" re%rain return once more to the sta)!e area o% 2 ma1or* Not on!& the e( ressive )ut a!so the musica! structure o% this magni%icent 0or3 resages )aro#ue ractice' an" the structure carries 0ith it the mannerist "evices o% ornamentation' contra unta! "ec!amation' an" a%%ective harmon&* 6ithout such genia! trans%ormation' these si(teenth centur& techni#ues might not have survive"* ,ontever"i c!oses the %i%th )oo3 0ith the most gran"iose o% the concerte" ma"riga!s' Auesti vaghi concenti aC ?8uarini@* The voca! music re#uires t0o se arate choirs' one o% %ive an" one o% %our voices' arrange" in anti hona! %ashion a%ter the mo"e! o% "ia!ogue ma"riga!s* Occasiona!!&' so!oistic hrases 0ith basso continuo interru t the choruses' an" these sections corres on" to the more im assione" moments o% the oetr&* The 0or3 is intro"uce" )& a %ive-voice" instrumenta! sin%onia that rea ears in an a))reviate" %orm a)out mi"0a& through the ma"riga!* ,ore than an& other iece in this )oo3' Auesti vaghi concenti oints to0ar" the cantata* +ut sti!!' its )asic ins iration )e!ongs to the mannerist tra"ition inso%ar as the com)ination o% "ou)!e-chorus techni#ue' so!o assages' an" instruments creates a vivi" em)!em %or 8uariniCs concetto, Auesti vaghi concenti. In man& 0a&s' the ma"riga!s containe" in +oo3 v "emonstrate ,ontever"iCs instinctive move a0a& %rom mannerist arti%icia!it& an" st&!i5e" a%%ectivit& to the overt!& theatrica! an" rhetorica! st&!e usua!!& associate" 0ith the +aro#ue* <> Ho0ever' e!ements o% the maniera madrigalesca are sti!! resent$in"ivi"ua! 0or" ainting' ver& recious an" virtuoso ornamentation' an" e(travagant "ramati5ation o% !&ric oetr&* <9 His art remains one that a ea!s to the aristocratic tastes o% his "a&* +oth restraine" an" e(aggerate" effetti meravigliosi sti!! animate the %un"amenta! aesthetic remise )ehin" his st&!e* As Arno!" suggests' ,ontever"i is the greatest o% the mannerist com osers 0ho ractice their art in northern Ita!ian courts* <D Historians 0ho se arate ,ontever"i$a!ong 0ith A"rian 6i!!aert' Ci riano "e Rore' an" Car!o 8esua!"o$%rom the mannerist stream an" insist that the& are re)aro#ue com osers' <E )ase their vie0 on the i"ea that mannerist an" )aro#ue st&!es are mutua!!& contra"ictor&* I ro ose' on the other han"' that )aro#ue voca! ractice is inconceiva)!e 0ithout the me"iation o% mannerist e!ements* An" ,ontever"iCs 0or3s a"mira)!& i!!ustrate this st&!istic henomenon' %or in the ma"riga!s "iscusse" in this cha ter' 0e can "iscern the coe(istence o% the t0o maniere' 0ith "i%%erent "egrees o% em hasis on one or the other* +e%ore !eaving this erio"' mention must )e ma"e o% A"riano +anchieriCs master%u! ma"riga!-come"ies* ,l zabaione musicale a8 ?/D:<@ is e(act!& 0hat the tit!e suggests$a

%roth& concoction ma"e u o% conventiona!i5e" astora! scenes* <A +anchieri usua!!& mi(es serious ma"riga!s 0ith %anci%u! capricci* T& ica! o% the !atter t& e' at 0hich +anchieri e(ce!s' is a iece in the /arca di =enetia per &adova a8 ?/D:9@ in 0hich he "e icts a singing master )& means o% e(travagant so!%eggio e(ercises* +ut the cro0ning g!or& o% this genre is 0ithout a "ou)t his +estino a8 ?/D:A@' a 0or3 consisting o% t0ent& musica! num)ers rece"e" an" com !ete" )& narrative materia!* +anchieriCs %or0ar" is a s eech )& ,o"ern 2e!ight 0ho recounts ho0 he 0as accoste" )& a moth-eaten %igure' Ancient Rigor' on the stairs as he came u to the eveningCs entertainment* This e"antic ro%essor o% tra"itiona! counter oint 0arns ,o"ern 2e!ight against !istening to 0or3s )& com osers 0ho %!agrant!& "iso)e& the sacre" ru!es o% true music* ,o"ern 2e!ight re !ies that he has no atience 0ith aca"emic so histr&' a %ai!ing that causes one to over!oo3 the .great taste in their mo"ern inventions*. Ancient Rigor 0ishe" to ursue the argument' )ut ,o"ern 2e!ight !e%t him 0ith the he! %u! suggestion that he e""!e his manuscri ts among the %ishmongers %or use as 0ra ing a er* Then ,o"ern 2e!ight 0arns his au"ience that the& 0i!! not hear an& !earne" "is#uisitions this evening* The serious theorists o% the grou are )us& sett!ing an argument in the 3itchen* The coo3 an" the mai" are "iscussing the matter o% ho0 one shou!" categori5e the soun" o% a )ra&ing ass* .The coo3' arguing !atonica!!&' maintains that it is a )astar" soun"' 0hereas the mai"' using a o!&crates#ue "emonstration' sa&s that it is a mi(e" consonance*. A%ter this )roa"si"e aime" at aca"emic controvers&' ,o"ern 2e!ight )i"s the guests to sim !& en1o& singing his music )e%ore "inner* The 0ho!e oint o% the ma"riga!-come"& is that the various characters an" situations are re resente" 0ithin the con%ines o% %ive-voice" secu!ar st&!e* This genre !ac3s acting' costumes' or scener&' an" ever&thing is "e icte" )& means o% the music* It is evi"ent that the art%u!!& contrive" com ositions o% the +estino' in their o0n humorous 0a&' re%!ect the mannerist conce t o% imitazione delle parole. +anchieriCs ma"riga!-come"&' %u!! o% !ighthearte" s irit' "ra0s us a gra hic icture o% aristocratic an" aca"emic entertainment* It is a hea!th& sign that mannerists are a)!e to !augh at themse!ves an" to o3e goo"nature" %un at the )asic retensions o% maniera*