Drilling Fluids (Muds)

Drilling Fluids (Muds) First Principles

Preview
The principal functions carried out by a drilling fluid are discussed, with a brief outline of how these requirements are met. These notes are derived from material originally prepared by Chris Meyjes of MGA Ltd. for courses we used to run. I owe him another good lunch ! J Bisset.

Content Functions of a Mud

Whatever well functions are being carried out, there are approximately ten functions which a mud must perform. This is true regardless of which hole section is being drilling, although the emphasis changes in different hole sections. The ten primary functions are :1. Control formation pressure 2. Prevent the hole from caving in 3. Seal off permeable formations 4. Clean cuttings from the hole 5. Suspend cuttings when circulation stops 6. Release cuttings at surface 7. Cool and lubricate the bit and drillstring 8. Minimise formation damage 9. Allow easy formation evaluation 10.Minimise corrosion of the drillstring Of course the mud also does other things. For example it transfers hydraulic horsepower downhole, to the bit and to downhole motors. MWD uses the mud to transfer data to surface. The mud also helps to support the weight of the drill string. But these things do not really affect the way in which drilling fluid is run.

Functions and Mud Properties

To perform the functions listed above, a mud must possess certain properties. These are as follows :-

Drilling Fluids (Muds)

1. Controlling Formation Pressure

This is done by Mud Density (normally called Mud Weight). The mud weight can be increased in two ways :-

a), by dissolving Salts in the mud. b). by increasing the solids content.
If extra solids are added to raise the mud weight, then the mud must have some viscosity to stop these solids from settling. Enough mud weight is needed to hold back any oil, water or gas in the formation. However too much mud weight may cause formation break and result in lost circulation. Mud weight is typically selected to provide a safe overbalance without adversely affecting drilling.

2. Prevention of Caving
It is desirable to drill the hole as close to gauge as possible. This makes the hole easier to clean, to log, and helps to ensure that the casing is properly cemented in place. If the hole collapses during drilling there is a danger of the pipe becoming stuck. Too low a Mud Weight may allow the walls of the hole to fall in. The hydrostatic pressure from the mud should normally match or exceed the formation pressure. Mud Chemistry is also important. Reactions between the mud and the formation may cause the formation to swell. The additional pressure due to formation swelling may cause caving. Where the formation being drilled can dissolve, as for example salt formations, we have to treat the mud to stop or slow down this from happening. Otherwise large caverns will be formed downhole where the formation has been dissolved away.

3. Sealing off Permeable Formations

Permeable formations are those where the pore spaces are interconnected, allowing fluid to flow to and from the well-bore. To cake off these formations the drilling fluid requires particular filtration properties. As the mud passes into the formation, the solids in the mud are left behind, forming a filter cake. This keeps the hole in a stable condition. It also cuts down the quantities of mud and filtrate entering the formation.

4. Cleaning Cuttings from the Hole

The ease with which cuttings are removed from the hole depends on the size and weight (density) of the cuttings. It also depends on the flow rate, or more correctly on the annular velocity. In terms of mud properties it depends on the Viscosity of the mud. Muds with higher viscosities clean the hole better. The Mud Weight also plays a part. With higher mud weights the buoyancy factor is greater, hence the cuttings have less tendency to fall back down the hole, and are more readily carried to surface.

Drilling Fluids (Muds)

5. Suspending Cuttings
To suspend cuttings when circulation stops, the fluid must possess a Gel Structure. Gels are not the same as Viscosity. They are a property of the static mud. Viscosity is a property of the mud when it is moving. Too strong a gel structure can cause problems with breaking circulation, and with swabbing on trips. Mud Weight is also involved. At higher mud weights there is more buoyancy. (see 4. above).

6. Releasing Cuttings
When the mud is circulated out of the hole, we need to separate the cuttings from the mud. This is normally done by the solids removal equipment, or by settling. All types of solids removal equipment work best with muds with low Viscosity and Gel Strengths. High Gel Strengths also make it difficult to settle the cuttings. Mud Chemistry is also important. If there is reaction between the mud and the cuttings, then they will tend to become smaller and hence more difficult to remove.

7. Cooling and Lubrication

The drillstring and the bit both generate heat through friction. Thus mud lubricity is important. Better lubrication leads to less friction heat being developed. Cooling depends on the Thermal Conductivity of the mud. The mud carries heat away from the bit and drill-string. The mud cools as it passes through the pit system. Offshore, extra cooling occurs as the mud rises from seabed to the rig. Thus other factors such as pit layout and water depth come into play.

8. Formation Damage
With permeable formations, the liquid part of the mud, the filtrate, can flow into the formation. The solids are left behind as a filter cake. Formation damage depends mainly on the Filtration Properties of the mud. The filter cake can permanently affect the permeability of producing formations. The filtrate entering the formation can also cause damage. Reaction between filtrate and formation can make this damage worse. Here, once again, the Mud Chemistry is important.

9. Formation Evaluation
Formations are evaluated in three different ways :-

a) from the cuttings b) from electric logs c) by coring

The cuttings are collected and checked by the Mud Loggers and the Geologist. The condition of these cuttings depends mainly on the Mud Chemistry. The information gained from logs and cores depends on the Filtration Properties of the mud. Thick filter cake can make logging difficult. Filtrate invasion can give misleading results for both logs and cores.

Drilling Fluids (Muds)

10. Corrosion
In water based muds corrosion is controlled by the Mud Chemistry. With oil muds corrosion problems are much reduced.

Drilling Fluid Composition

Drilling Fluid Composition

Preview
This topic introduces the physical phases of muds and the basic chemistry of drilling fluids.

Content Composition of Muds

The first discussion looked at what a mud is required do, and at what type of properties are needed in a mud. The next step is to examine the basic chemistry involved, and to deal with specific mud additives. To get a good grasp of these things, it is important to understand the composition of muds. Muds consist of a mixture of liquids, solids, and in some cases gases. These are normally referred to as the liquid phase, solids phase and gas phase. In most muds at least two phases are present. Exceptions to this are gas alone in air drilling, or liquid alone in a clear brine completion fluid. Where we have two liquids which do not mix (eg, oil and water), the fluid is described as having two liquid phases. Normally when there are two liquid phases present, one liquid is emulsified in the other (eg, in Oil Based Mud water is emulsified in the oil). To distinguish between the liquid phases one is called the continuous phase and the other is called the discontinuous or internal phase,, because it is present only as isolated, emulsified drops. In OBM the continuous phase is the oil, while the discontinuous phase is water. Some examples of the different phases follow:-

1. Gaseous Phase
This can be a continuous phase as in air drilling, or a discontinuous phase, as in foam drilling. Here the gas, normally air, is contained in separate bubbles in the foam.

2. Liquid Phase
As with the gases, the liquid phase can be either continuous or discontinuous. In either case the liquid phase is made up as follows :a) The Base Fluid for example:

Water Crude Oil Diesel

Drilling Fluid Composition

Paraffin Oil Low Toxicity Oil Synthetic Oil

b) Products which dissolve in the Base Fluid These may be Mud Products which have been added to the Base Fluid to modify its properties. Examples are shown below:

Salts for density Salts for inhibition Chemicals for alkalinity Asphalts to alter viscosity

There may also be Soluble Formation Products introduced into the mud from reaction between the mud and the formation, such as:

Salts from salt sections Ions from clay reactions

All solids which dissolve will to some extent change the properties of the Base Fluid.

3. Solid Phase
Unlike the other two phases, the Solid Phase is always discontinuous. It is made up of: a) Mud Products which have been added to the mud. These may be Active Solids which react with the Base Fluid to provide particular mud properties, such as prehydrated Bentonite for viscosity. They may also include Inert Solids which do not react with the fluids, for example Barite added to increase mud density. b) Drill Solids from the formation. As with the Mud Products above. Drill Solids can include both Active and Inert Solids, because some formations react with the mud, and some do not.

Mud Control
It is important to understand the difference between the added products, and those from the formation. Mud Tests are carried out by the Mud Engineer to establish the composition of the mud. Obviously the Mud Engineer has control of any products added to the mud. One purpose of the tests is to establish what additions are necessary. With formation products the ideal situation is that nothing from the formation dissolves in the Base Fluid, and that all Drill Solids are removed from the mud. The mud tests tell the Mud Engineer how close he is to achieving this ideal. At the start of each interval, the mud is made up to the properties specified in the mud programme. As soon as drilling starts, formation solids become mixed with the mud. These solids may dissolve in the Base Fluid, react with components of the mud, or simply remain suspended.

Drilling Fluid Composition

Mud control is directed at preventing reactions between the mud and the formation. The intention is to try to keep the Drill Solids in large, easily removed pieces. This is a major difference between oil-based and waterbased muds. In oil base muds reaction between fluid and drill solids is minimal.

Water Base Muds and Oil Base Muds

Water is cheap and readily available. However it is very good at dissolving things, and allows reactions to take place quickly. Maintenance is directed at making the water a less effective solvent, and at slowing down the reactions that may occur. Oils by contrast are not very reactive. However they are expensive, and they are pollutants. Maintenance is directed at reducing waste. This is both for cost and for environmental reasons.

Drilling Fluids Planning & Programming

Drilling Fluids Planning & Programming

Preview
A basic outline of the initial considerations required when planning and developing a mud programme.

Content Planning a Mud Programme

A Mud Programme is a plan covering what type of mud to run in each hole section. This planning is much more straightforward than many engineers suppose. The first stage is to define what the mud is required to do and review the functions necessary in each section. This then allows definition of the critical mud properties and a range of acceptable values for each property, by section. There are six main mud properties:

Mud Weight (Density) Mud Chemistry Filtration Viscosity Gel Structure Lubricity

Mud Weight and Mud Chemistry are essential properties which require to be defined for each hole section. In order to do this information from the Operating company is required, typically from their Drilling Prognosis or Statement of Requirements. Detail is required on:

the casing programme, the formations in each interval the formation pore pressures and fracture pressures anticipated in each interval.

It is then possible to quantify the properties listed above. The normal sequence is as follows: 1. Decide on Mud Chemistry. This is done by looking at the formations to be drilled. 2. Select additives to provide Viscosity, Gels, and Filtration Control. These must be additives that will work with the selected Mud Chemistry.

Drilling Fluids Planning & Programming

3. Decide on Mud Weight. This is done by looking at the anticipated formation pressures. Planning a mud programme is easy, providing it is broken into logical steps. It is important to state clearly what the critical objectives are for each stage, to make the job of the on-site mud engineer clearer.

Mud and Safety

This initial discussion has been only about the technical requirements for a drilling fluid. There is another aspect of the job which ought to be a top priority, both for the Mud Engineer and for Rig Crew. The technical requirements for the drilling fluid are readily defined. Additionally it must meet these requirements with minimum hazard to the people involved in the operation. Handling chemicals involves some danger. If this is to be done safely, some simple precautions should be taken. With some chemicals it is obvious what the hazard is. With others it is not so obvious. However the biggest single problem on safety is the Macho oilfield image. On some rigs people still do not use the provided safety equipment because it is considered soft. This is ridiculous. The first stage in handling chemicals safely is education. Let us look at the possible hazards. These can be summarised as follows :-

a) Contact with Chemicals

Main hazard areas - sackroom, mixing area This is the most obvious danger. Concentrated chemicals are handled, with the risk of skin and eye contact. It is not always understood that it is also dangerous to inhale dust from a number of additives. The hazards with some chemicals (eg, Caustic) are well known. There are normally health warnings on the sacks. There are established handling procedures. The area for concern is the other, less obviously hazardous, chemicals. On every rig a file should be kept listing safety data on all the chemicals in use. Unfortunately this is often kept in the office. People cannot work safely if they do not know the hazards involved. Outline data should be displayed in the mixing area. There must also be a supply of correct safety equipment available. The rig senior supervisory personnel must encourage a positive safety culture It is easy to persuade people not to burn themselves with Caustic or Calcium Bromide. It is much more difficult to convince people that they are causing themselves long-term damage by inhaling dust from apparently harmless products.

b) Contact with Mud

Main hazard areas - rigfloor, shakers, pitroom Oil Base Mud has made people more aware that it is not smart to walk around covered with mud. The inevitable result is skin problems. At times it is not possible to avoid contact with the mud. Regardless of the mud type in use, personal hygiene is the first step to safe working. When

Drilling Fluids Planning & Programming

people get wet with mud, they should be encouraged to clean off and change work clothes at the first possible opportunity. Again it is easy to convince people that they should avoid dermatitis. However it is better to avoid contact with the mud, especially OBM, whenever possible. Repeated exposure to some of the oils in use can cause increasing skin problems.

c) Vapour Contact
Main hazard areas - shakers, pitroom It is extremely unpleasant to work in badly ventilated areas, especially with OBM. On some rigs personnel are rotated, so that no-one gets too much vapour exposure per tour. This may not be enough in the way of precautions, since there is much that is still uncertain with regard to the long-term effects of inhaling the vapours. It is much better to upgrade the ventilation system. Safety in relation to mud is very much a question of common sense. The first stage is to understand what the risks are. Next this knowledge should be applied to minimise those risks to individuals and to the team as a whole. However by far the most important part of any safety programme is the example set by more senior personnel.