National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

Module 4
Objectives

Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

By the end of this module participants will 1. Understand why targeting is essential in agricultural research. 2. Be able to differentiate between 3 levels of targeting: geographical, social and within a household. 3. Be able to use 3 levels of targeting to set priorities for their own research projects in their respective ones.

Content
!.1 "hy do we need to target !.1.1 #ntroduction !.1.2 $oncepts used in targeting !.1.3 %evels of targeting !.2 &eographical onation !.2.1 'gro(ecological ones !.2.2 )arming systems ones !.2.3 'gro(economic ones !.3 *ocial stratification !.! #ntra(household diversity !.!.1 #ntroduction !.!.2 &ender !.+ *electing an intervention area or target group

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

Module 3 discussed how you can involve stakeholders in agricultural research and how you can assess their research needs. In this odule we will discuss how you can target research to respond to stakeholder needs in di!!erent agro"ecological #ones$ !ar ing syste s$ household categories$ or gender. The resources o! targeting and its use !or research planning will %e ela%orated. &oncepts and de!initions$ as well as levels o! analysis and criteria !or classi!ication are presented. 'e will use so e e(a ples o! research targeting in the )ake *one.

4.1
4.1.1

Why do we need to target

Introduction

,an ania is divided into seven mandate ones for agricultural research. ,he ones cover vast areas, in which a diversity of farmers live. "e need to address -uestions such as .where to conduct on(farm research/ and .for which group of farmers/ and we need to choose to increase the efficiency of research. ,his is also necessary due to dwindling funds for research. 't the same time, all agricultural research conducted in ,an ania should be client(oriented. ,his means that research has to respond to the needs of clients, which are farmers 0primary sta1eholders2 or their representatives 0secondary sta1eholders li1e 3&4s, or farmer unions2. 5owever, while we plan and implement agricultural research we cannot consider farmers to be a homogeneous undifferentiated mass of people. 6very farmer has his or her own particular goal and wor1s under different circumstances from his or her neighbour. ,he ultimate goal of agricultural research is to identify technologies which farmers will implement. 7esearch cannot identify recommendations for every individual farmer. 4n the other hand, research has to avoid developing blan1et recommendations for the whole of ,an ania, or the whole one. "e have to stri1e a balance between these two options to ma1e research efforts as cost(effective and efficient as possible to serve a ma8imum of small(scale farmers with the available research resources. ,argeting is the procedure where we identify and select areas and farmer categories on which research should focus. ,argeting is not a goal in itself. ,argeting is a tool9procedure used to ma1e research more efficient by aiming research efforts at the relevant clients. ,argeting research efforts is therefore as essential as priority setting of researchable issues. ,argeting is done to divide a very heterogeneous farming population into more homogeneous subgroups on the basis of factors that determine the farming systems or livelihood systems. #t is not done for its own sa1e, but in order to identify differences between, and highlight similarities within groups which are significant with regard to the development of agricultural innovations. ,argeting is not a one(time e8ercise conducted at the beginning of the research process, but done throughout on(farm research with various purposes. *ince the concept of target groups is used throughout the research process, the way groups are defined may change according to the tas1 at hand. 5omogeneity must always be determined relative to the purpose of the intervention. ,able !.1, adapted from ,ripp, shows how the concept of targeting farmers is used at different stages in the research process. Table 4.1 esearch stage
:iagnosis of farmer circumstances #dentification of priority problems *election and testing of possible solutions :evelop recommendations

Targeting throughout a research activity !urpose o" targeting

:efine groups with similar circumstances *pecify which farmers have the same production constraints #dentify possible solutions appropriate for specific farmer groups and test them with group members :efine fle8ible recommendations to address needs and circumstances of different farmer groups

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

,argeting helps to: determine in the analysis of demand for innovations whether the significance of the target group justifies the development of an innovation; analyse whether a potential innovation matches with the re-uirements of the target groups during the identification of options; e8(ante analysis of the different target groups will also provide a picture on the degree of adoptability of the technology to be tested; select appropriate farmers belonging to a relevant target group for participation in the farmer research groups or in on(farm research; evaluate whether the developed innovation was adopted by its target group or how it was adapted by the target group to its specific conditions. 4.1.# Concepts used in targeting

,he following terms are fre-uently used in literature on targeting: Recommendation domain: 0$#<<=,2 .' group of roughly homogeneous farmers with similar circumstances for whom we can ma1e more or less the same recommendation. 7ecommendation domains may be defined in terms of both natural factors 0e.g. rainfall2 and economic factors 0e.g. farm si e2. 0Byerlee et al. in <ettric1, 1>>32. ' domain is a group of farmers rather than a geographical area. 5ence it is not be confused with an agro(ecological one. ,he formation of recommendation domains is a gradual and fluid process. ,hey are defined in a preliminary fashion in the early stages of diagnosis and ta1e on their final form when recommendations are ready for dissemination. 0<ettric1, 1>>32 Target group: a rather homogeneous group of farmers or farming households regarding their problems and potentials, considering agro(ecological as well as socio(economic factors. Agro-ecological zone: ones defined by the physical and biological characteristics of geographical area. Farming system zone: a geographical area where a certain farming system is prevailing. ,his system is a result of an interaction between cultural, agro(biological and socio(economic factors and the households priorities and resource endowments. Household category: a group of households that has the same value of a certain characteristic, e.g. resource base of the household gives the categories wealthy, average and poor. 7egarding the se8 of the head of the household we distinguish female headed and male headed households. Household: a group of people living together sharing family or marital ties and sharing the same stove for coo1ing. #ndividual members of a household, depending on their gender, age and relation to the head of the household, differ in access to assets 0tangible such as resources and stores2 and have different capabilities. Intra-household differences: a household is not a homogeneous group of people, but rather a comple8 system in which tas1s, resources and benefits are not e-ually shared among its members. &ender specific constraints and opportunities for male and female members of a household will determine in how far they participate in and share benefits from research. 3

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

Gender: this refers to those aspects of men and women that have been socially determined. #t refers to the roles, responsibilities, characteristics, attitudes and beliefs about9towards women and men. ,hese roles vary within and between cultures. *e8 refers to the biological state of being male or female. #n research we use the term ?se8? only to disaggregate data on the basis of responses from males and females. %evels o" targeting

4.1.$

Before planning interventions 0e.g. research2 the scale of analysis or level of aggregation should be well defined. %ower level scales aggregate or merge into a higher level scale, thus reducing precision but increasing the e8tent. )or e8ample, two farming systems may merge into one agro(ecological one or three household categories can be defined within one farming system. ,he scale of analysis or level of aggregation defines the e8tent of the proposed intervention and depends on goals and availability of data and information. )or e8ample, interventions, such as import subsidies or wages of civil servants are relevant at the national level and not at the international level; blan1et fertiliser recommendations are relevant at the agro(ecological one and not at national level; recommended crop varieties are relevant at the farming system one and not at agro(ecological one level etc. ,raditionally, the )arming *ystems 'pproach has given strong emphasis to targeting of recommendation domains. #n practice this has often led to agro(ecological onation, which is relatively time and development neutral. %ater, during the 1>@As, more emphasis was given to farming system onation, elaboration of farmer typologies, identification of producer groups, and gender differentials. #n general we distinguish three different levels of targeting. ,hese will be discussed in !.2, !.3 and !.!: 1. &eographical onation: #n general geographical onation combines geographic information with either physical, biological or socio(economic data. ' few e8amples are: a. #f the onation uses just physical and biological characteristics, and -ualities of the various natural land units: agro(ecological onation b. #f ones are dynamic units that are uniform with respect to the farming conditions that determine crop and animal production: farming system ones c. #f ones use income distribution patterns, 2. *ocial stratification 3. #ntra(household diversity $riteria to distinguish uniform clusters differ between .targets/ should be defined from case to case, depending on the goals of targeting and the local circumstances. Bo8 B.1 gives an e8ample of the targeting process in the %a1e Cone.

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

&o' 4.1

Targeting process in the %ake (one

#n order to cope with the research demand, as well as to better focus research programmes, research in the %a1e Cone is targeted at different farming systems ones and farmer categories. Conation was necessary in view of the large mandate area 021 rural districts2 and the geographic diversity. ,rying to site research activities in every district would be too daunting a tas1 05eems1er1 and <afuru, 1>>+2. ,hrough onation research results applicable to the intervention area can be e8trapolated to another area with similar conditions in the same one without having to duplicate research effort. )armers were categorised for most )arming *ystem Cones 0Dingma and <afuru, 1>>B and *teenhuijsen Eiters and 3dege, 1>>B2 and the categories are used in research planning. 4ne result of diagnostic studies 0secondary data collection, surveys2 was onation and farmer categorisation of the surveyed areas. Using the $#<<=, approach it was possible to identify cropping systems ones based on main crops in <aswa and <eatu :istrict and rainfall based agro(ecological ones in Bu1oba district 0)*7 1>>A, 1>>12. %ater on surveys in Dwimba district identified farming systems based on dominant soil types in the topose-uence 0Bunyecha et al, 1>>!2. Based on this initial e8perience and on additional secondary data collected, eight 0@2 major farming systems ones 0i.e. agro( ecosystem ones with a particular dominant farming system2 were identified 06nserin1 and Daitaba, 1>>B2 and accepted by both research and e8tension 0Dileo et al, 1>>B2. :ifferent farmer categories can be distinguished at village level in the various farming system ones 0)*Cs2. ,hese farmer categories vary in terms of access to resources such as land and cattle and have differences in availability of labour, which still forms the constraint in many )arming *ystem Cones 0Dingma et al, 1>>B and 3dege et al., 1>>B2 #n the %a1e Cone )armer 7esearch &roups are operational in each of the main )arming *ystem Cones 0presently @ )*Cs and 12 )7&s2, which comprise the various farmer categories with both male and female membership. )7&s form the nucleus groups of a particular )*C in which farmers, e8tension staff and researchers wor1 closely together in order to generate technology suitable for the )arming *ystem Cone and its main farmer categories. *atellite )armer 68tension &roups actively test adoptability of referred technology with little involvement of researchers, but co(ordinated by e8tension. #ntervention villages and corresponding )armer 7esearch &roups were selected in each )*C based on logistics 0to maintain transport costs low2, presence of a -ualified Fillage 68tension "or1er, pro8imity to a research station or testing site and the e8istence of adoption support programmes 0:7:Es, 7egional *upport Erogrammes, 3&4s etc2 and representativeness for the )*C. )armer 7esearch &roups should represent the most important farmer categories as well as both male and female farmers, different subgroups with varying composition can be formed.

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

4.#
4.#.1

)eographical *onation
+gro,ecological *ones

,he overall goal of an efficient research system is to develop location specific recommendations that are socially and economically acceptable to farmers and can be reproduced over a larger target area. ' prere-uisite for this would be some form of focused oning of the target area. 'gro(ecological or indicative oning 0Bagarama, 1>>+; 6nserin1 and Daitaba, 1>>B; *ombroe1 and 6ger, 1>>G2 divides land on the basis of physical and biological characteristics, and -ualities of the various natural land units 0climate, soils, terrain forms, land cover and to a large e8tent its water resources2. 'n agro(ecological onation defines ones which are uniform with respect to physical and biological conditions that determine crop and animal production. 7esearch carried out within the one is relevant to all geographical parts of the one. 68amples of criteria for agro(ecological onation are: $limate 7ainfall 0total annual amount, distribution, duration, incidence of drought2 Earent material *oils 0nutrient supply, te8ture, structure, drainage, slope, depth, salinity2 'ltitude %andscape Fegetation Biology 0pest, disease, weed incidence2 4.#.# -ar.ing syste. *ones

,he objective of farming system onation is to define dynamic units that are uniform with respect to the farming conditions that determine crop and animal production. 7esearch carried out within the farming system is relevant to all farms in this farming system one. 68amples of criteria for farming system onation are: 'gro(ecological features :emographic features 0population density, ethnic composition, mobility2 5ousehold and farm characteristics 0household si e and composition, access to resources, acreage, livestoc1 ownership2 %ivestoc1 herd si e and composition ,ype of cultivation, major food and cash crops, cultivation practices %ivestoc1 management practices 6nergy use and production 4ff(farm activities $onstraints and opportunities

,he identification of these ones needs data from primary and secondary sta1eholders. ,he following steps are usually part of the onation e8ercise: $ompilation of e8isting data )ield visits to major farming systems 4bservations on farming system parameters #nterviews with farmers and other sta1eholders $hec1ing boundaries of farming systems by using a &E* $artography and description of farming systems

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

)or e8ample, the %a1e Cone has been sub(divided into 13 )arming *ystem Cones 0defined as agro(ecological ones with a particular dominant farming system2 06nserin1 and Daitaba, 1>>B2. 4ut of these, eight were given priority for research interventions. 'lthough not perfect yet, oning has helped to reduce research time and other costs e.g. transport, considerably. $lustering of all research in farmer research groups 0)7&*2 has helped to foster closer supervision and better management of trials. #t has also helped strengthen field(level lin1ages with farmers, local e8tension agents and commodity researchers 0see Bo8 !.22. *ee also 'nne8 2 for an e8ample of )*C in the 3orthern Cone and how they are defined. &o' 4.# -ar.ing /yste.s (onation in the %ake (one

,he eight major farming systems ones identified and confirmed by research and e8tension in the C,$, 'pril 1>>B are: 012 022 032 0!2 0+99B2 0G2 0@2 0>2 %useni dominated farming system one 0)*C 12 #togolo dominated farming system one 0)*C 22 <buga dominated farming system one 0)*C 32 #bush dominated farming system 0)*C !2 Di1ungu and 3duhu farming system one 0)*C +9B2 5igh rainfall Bu1oban farming system one 0)*C G2 <edium rainfall Bu1oban farming system one 0)*C @2 <edium rainfall 'n1olean farming system one 0)*C >2

4ther )arming *ystem Cones were given less priority for research: 01A2 0112 0122 0132 %arge scale farming on alluvial soils 0no target group2 ,arime 5ighlands 0sufficiently covered by Denyan 7esearch2 )arming on volcanic soils 0low population density2 %arge scale cattle ranching systems 0no target group2.

*ource: 6nserin1 and Daitaba, 1>>B 4.#.$ +gro,econo.ic *ones

7ural livelihoods are becoming increasingly diversified as far as their economic opportunities are concerned. 'n increasing numbers of members of rural households find jobs outside the agricultural sector; an increasing number of different crops is grown; mar1et oriented cash crop production is increasing with increased mar1eting of traditional food crops; traditional activities such as livestoc1 1eeping are becoming increasingly commercial. ' major obstacle to livelihood development of poor households in developing countries is access to mar1ets for their products and cash. <ar1et opportunities and competitiveness to a large e8tend influence household decision(ma1ing. ,o assist poor rural households in detecting new opportunities a <ar1et 4pportunity 'nalysis 0<4'*2 may be useful 0<eerendon1 et al., 1>>G2. ,his analysis assesses the feasibility of a product or activity for a specific mar1et for a specific producer group. "hat may be attractive to one household or region may be unattractive to another. Using data that the <4'* creates we can create a map of potential economic opportunities for different ones. 7esearch can than assist households in optimising resources used. 68amples of information re-uired for developing such maps are: Eopulation density $onsumption patterns and purchasing power #nfrastructure 'ccess to mar1ets )arm gate prices G

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

<ar1et prices 5ousehold income and e8penditure patterns

6ven though information in ,an ania is available on demography, natural environment, agronomy, etc., household income and e8penditure data are not abundant. #n such conditions research can use estimates or indicators for economic potential as they were used in the %a1e Cone study in 1>>G 0<eerendon1 et al., 1>>G2. ,hese could be: Eopulation density: 'n indicator of agricultural and economic potential of a region as human beings are the producers and consumers of goods and services, conse-uently economic activity will concentrate in those areas where most people are located. Eurchasing power: 'n indicator of a regionHs economic potential due to itHs impact on the mar1etability of products and services as its impact on opportunities for investment and accumulation. ,he resulting agro(economic ones can than be used to target research on specific opportunities that were identified 0see Bo8 !.32. &o' 4.$ +gro,econo.ic *ones in the %ake (one o" Tan*ania

'fter the %a1e Cone institute identified its farming systems it appeared there was a high level of disparity between the various farming system ones based on their economic potential. Eopulation density and purchasing power were then used to identify + agro(economic ones. 'gro( economic ones Cone 1 Cone 2 Cone 3 Cone ! Cone + *urface 1AAA 1m2 1B.A 1A.G 2.1 3.A 1.! Elanted area 1AAA ha 3+! 2>@ +3 !@ +A 7ur.Eop. >1 1AAA pers. 11+3 1A2> 3BG 222 113 Urb.Eop. >1 1AAA pers. 331 1B@ !@ B 1G 7ur.#nc. >1 mil. ,*h. !!>GB !A12> 1!32B @BG2 !3@G Urb.#nc. >1 mil. ,*h. 212AG 1AG!3 3AB> 3!@@ 1AG!

' survey was used to identify opportunities in each of the ones. 68ample: Cone 1 0i.e. parts of )*C 1, 3 and +2: 4pportunities for rice, fruits and tomatoes, groundnuts, mil1, cotton and ginneries, livestoc1, chic1en and eggs, snac1s, brewing, ba1eries, milling, butcheries, tomato products and juices, dairy products, hides and s1ins, cotton seed and production, commodity e8changes. 7is1 analysis of these products showed that especially groundnuts, livestoc1, chic1en and eggs, snac1s, ba1ery products, tomato products, hides and s1ins, cotton seed and production were interesting. Cone + 0i.e. pats of )*C G and @2: 4pportunities for beans, ginger, tomatoes, cabbages and onions, dairy products, banana chips and cassava chips, ba1ery products, tomato products and juices, organic coffee, private sector tea processing, on(farm coffee dehulling and processing, commodity e8changes, fish processing for e8port. 7is1 analysis of these products showed that especially ginger, banana and cassava chips, ba1ery products, organic coffee and private sector tea processing were interesting.

*ource: <eerendon1 et al., 1>>G

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

4.$

/ocial strati"ication

7ural societies are not homogeneous. ,hey are composed of different household categories with specific constraints and contrasting interests. ,argeting is a tool to identify groups of households with similar socio(economic and cultural features. ,he objective of household categorisation is to define household categories that are uniform with respect to the goals and availability of resources that determine crop and animal production. 7esearch carried out with one household category is relevant to all households belonging to that category. #n the %a1e Cone, for e8ample, full(time small(scale farmers are the target group of the institute. ,his implies that absentee landlords in Dagera 7egion 0land(owners who do not live on their land but other people ta1e care of their land2 are not considered a target group for %a1e Cone research 0see Bo8 !.22. *ocial stratification enables research to 0D#, et. al., forthcoming: G12: 'ssess the significance of household categories and select target categories for research and e8tension. :iscuss constraints and potential solutions with farmers who have similar socio( economic and cultural conditions. 'nalyse whether a potential innovation matches with the re-uirements of the target category. :etermine the potential adoptability of an innovation. *elect farmers belonging to relevant target categories for participation in farmer research groups and participatory technology testing. 6valuate test results with farmers of a specific category. Ferify adoption of a recommendation among farmers belonging to a target household category. 5ouseholds adopt technologies depending on their resources, management levels, 1nowledge etc. 4bvious e8amples are cattle ownership and access to fertile land. %ess obvious are the various management levels e.g. soil fertility management. Dnowledge levels e-ually determine to which category a farm household belongs. 68amples of criteria for household categorisation are: 'ge, ethnic origin and religion 5ousehold si e and composition $onsumers and labour force )arm si e and -uality of the land 0soil fertility, irrigation etc.2 %ivestoc1, herd si e 'vailability of animal traction and means of mechanisation %and use intensity 0crops, animals, practices, yields2 $ropping patterns, herd composition 4ff(farm activities Eroduction and income &oals and priorities

,ools that have proven useful in the classification of households are wealth ran1ing 0see <odule G2 and a formal survey. *teps could be as follows: :iscuss criteria for household differentiation with 1ey(informants. *tart with indicators of wealth or living standard and discuss the causes of differences between households. :iscuss and describe the various categories with the 1ey(informants in order to achieve consensus about the number of categories in the community and their designation 0e.g. Ilow(resourceJ and Ihigh(resourceJ households2.

>

National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

'ssess the proportional importance of each category by using a 0complete2 list of households in the village. ,a1e a random sample of households and as1 the 0group of2 1ey(informants to categorise each household. #nterview farmers per category on household composition, means of production, productive activities, productive results and 1ey constraints. Use appropriate interview techni-ues and tools to involve all group members in the discussions, such as matri8 ran1ing and pairwise comparison of constraints 0see <odule G2. :iscuss with farmers potential solutions to their constraints and specific activities, as well as the 1ey(actors, to test or apply these potential solutions.

"hat has not yet been ta1en into account in the above mentioned classifications, is the management aspect: how do farmer manage their resources for agricultural production. ,his aspect is the most difficult to capture, but it is as important as the access to and control over resources. #n the %a1e Cone, during a E7' on integrated soil fertility management, farmers were classified according to the way they managed the fertility of their soils 0Dajiru et al, 1>>B2. #n general, there was a close relation between the access to resources and the degree of management 0the more resources, the better the management of the soil fertility2. 5owever, in one village it was found that a group of resource wealthy farmers were bad managers because of lac1 of education, as was e8plained by the villagers. &o' 4.4 -ar.er categorisation in the %ake (one o" Tan*ania

#n the %a1e Cone the main farmer categories in each one were identified based on resources such as land and cattle ownership as well as se8 of the head of the household 03dege and *teenhuijsen Eiters, 1>>B; Dingma and <afuru, 1>>B2. ' rough summary reads as follows: $otton(based farming system ones 0Dingma and <afuru, 1>>B2: 0i2 %ower stratum9poor farmers 3o cattle, but some small ruminants, little or no ownership of land, limited access to animals benefits and fertile soils, small household si e, sale of labour. <any )55/s. 0ii2 <iddle stratum 6nough land, access to fertile land, few cattle with access to cattle benefits, livestoc1 for food, no use or sale of hired labour 0iii2 Upper stratum9rich farmers %arge number of cattle and o8en, cultivate large areas of fertile land, large 55 si e, use hired labour Banana K based farming, system ones 03dege and *teenhuijsen Eiters, 1>>B2: 0i2 'bsentee landlords 3o client for research 0ii2 *urplus producing households 5ouseholds larger, 55 older, enough resources, banana and coffee surplus. 5ire labour and are involved in trade. 3eed inputs 0iii2 *elf(sufficient households <oderate access to means of production. %ow social status. :ecline of production 0iv2 <arginal households 7esource poor, young 55, part(time farmers, food shortage. <any )55s. 0v2 $areta1er households %andless, only interested in annual crops 0vi2 <igrant farmers 3ot permanently in the village, hire themselves for labour.

1A

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

4.4
4.4.1

Intra,household diversity
Introduction

,he household is a co(residential unit, comprising persons who are usually related by family or marital ties. #t is sometimes referred to as a group of people who share the same coo1ing stove. #t is also a socially recognised unit and a productive unit. 'lthough a household is referred to as a unit, it is by no means a homogeneous unit. "ithin a household individuals have different positions based on gender, age and inter(generational relations which are reflected in e.g. patterns of authority, division and control of labour, and access to and control over resources and benefits. 5ousehold members have shared, as well as different 0and sometimes opposing2 interests. ,he roles of household members other than the male head of the household are fre-uently ignored. 'dult women, junior men and women, and children bring specific s1ills, resources and priorities to farm production. ,o ignore them is to ignore half or more of the system in which decisions about farming are made. "hile doing research it is essential to ta1e these intra(household dynamics into account. "hen addressing the wrong intra(household target group or e8cluding an intra(household target group, this leads to incomplete identification of researchable needs, priority setting, inade-uate training of farmers in new technologies and a bloc1ed dissemination of the innovation. ,here are ample e8amples that illustrate this point: training male heads of households in o8en(weeding whereas normally the wor1 is done by young men 0age criterion2; improving varieties of crops grown by women without involving them in the assessment of preferred characteristics of the varieties 0gender2. *ee also Bo8 !.+. &o' 4.0 In"luence o" gender on adoption o" .ai*e technologies in Mbeya egion

'n adoption study of improved mai e production technologies in <beya 7egion used a logit regression model to analyse gender differentials. 7esults of the study indicated that the adoption of improved mai e seed and fertiliser is biased by gender, where female(headed households adopt the technologies less. ,he number of cattle, e8tension services and years of education had a positive influence on the adoption of improved mai e seed for male(headed households, while the use of organic fertiliser, household si e, district, and radio ownership had a positive influence on the adoption of inorganic fertiliser for male(headed households. ,he number of cattle, years of education, e8tension services, and area under mai e did not affect the adoption of improved mai e seed or fertiliser for female(headed households, mainly due to significantly less access of female heads to these resources or services.

*ource: <wangi et al., 1>>>: B+ ,he major factors that determine one/s position within a household 0and thus one/s interests but also the impact of new technologies for a person2 are gender and age9inter(generational relations. #n many households more than 1 or 2 generations live together: husband9wife, their children and their grandchildren. 4ften, the father9male head is the main decision(ma1er whereas children and grandchildren carry out the wor1. 'n activity profile as used in the 5arvard 'nalytical )ramewor1 0see <odule G2 provides information which household members should be included in on(farm e8perimentation, in diagnostics, in farmers/ assessments etc. :uring a E7' in Dahama :istrict, %a1e Cone, it was found that young men did not want to invest all their money9earnings in the purchase of cattle. ,hey wanted to have cash money throughout the year and therefore were much more interested in investing their money in income(generating activities li1e small shops. ,heir fathers still preferred to invest their income only in cattle 0Dajiru et al., 1>>G2.

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National FSA Training

Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

4.4.#

)ender

,he position and opportunities for women and men in a society is not so much the result of biological differences but of differences that have been socially determined. ,his is what is meant in the word gender. I&enderJ refers to those aspects of women and men that have been socially determined. #t is defined as a socio(cultural construct that refers to the roles, responsibilities, characteristics, attitudes and beliefs about9towards women and men. ,hese roles are defined, supported and reinforced by societal structures and institutions. ,he process of socialisation ta1es place in a specific society, in a specific time and place. 's a result of gender characteristics, women and men have different e8periences in life, different perspectives, priorities and opportunities. I*e8J refers to the biological state of being male or female. ,he socialisation process of girls or boys, men or women, in any society creates specific gender roles. ,his is not the same as se8 roles. 'n e8ample of a se8 role is the capacity of women to give birth. ,his is a biological role that men cannot fill. #n contrast gender roles are roles which society assigns to women or men. )or instance, in some parts of the world, women are given responsibility for tas1s such as coo1ing, preserving food or storing seed. ,hese tas1s are not done by women all around the world. <en, on the other hand, are given social roles such as hunting or ta1ing care of livestoc1 but, again, these gender roles are not universal. 4ur society and biology both have an impact on what we can do or should do as men or women. ,he difference is that biology does not change, society does. ,herefore our se8 roles may remain the same but our gender roles can and do change. &ender roles are learned and vary within and between cultures. &ender roles can change over time due to changes in culture, education, technology, economic conditions or a sudden crisis li1e war or famine. &ender roles define what a society considers to be appropriate for a man or a woman, reflecting a division of labour 0Loldersma and <usyo1i, 1>>>; $$#$ et al., 1>>1; <oser et al., 1>>@2: Eroductive role: "or1 that is done by both men and women for pay in cash or 1ind. ,his includes all agricultural activities such as planting, weeding, harvesting, gra ing animals and cutting grass, trading such as selling cassava ca1es, employment or self(employment, and services. 7eproductive role: "or1 that is re-uired to maintain and reproduce the labour force, i.e. the household. ,his includes child bearing, coo1ing, collecting firewood, collecting water, repairing the house, loo1ing after children or elder people, attending the health clinic. $ommunity roles: Foluntary activities that contribute to the welfare, development or political organisation of the community such as participation in groups, funerals, meetings. ,he above is our basis to improve research targeting within a household. ,o do so we use a concept that is called gender analysis. &ender analysis starts with the recognition that the household is not a homogeneous group of people, but rather a comple8 system in which tas1s, resources and benefits are not e-ually shared among its members. &ender analysis is an organised approach 0-ualitative and -uantitative2 to understand how women and men, female and male household members, relate to each other in terms of roles and responsibilities, access and control over resources and benefits 0see Bo8 !.B for an e8ample2, their needs and priorities. &ender analysis is an instrument to target research and development with the objective to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of research, and to create a more e-ual development of women and men in society.

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&o' 4.1

+ccess to and control over land in Tan*ania

4ften women have access to land but no control over it, while men may have both access and control. #n the case of ,an ania the following holds: I Under ,an anian law, both men and women are guaranteed e-ual rights to dispose of land. #n case of divorce, each partner is entitled to property she9he brought into the household, both before and during the marriage. ,his provision, however, has been interpreted narrowly, since .property/ has not been interpreted to include either the land which the spouses wor1ed together or the fruits of that labour. ,he validity of customary law has been upheld. $ustomary law has been allowed to dictate that land is inherited through the male line. 's a rule, only if a woman has purchased land with her personal funds, is she able to own land in her own right, borrow money using her land as collateral, and grow cash crops on it for her own gain.J

*ource: $ountry &ender Erofile, www.worldban1.org9gender, 1>>> &ender analysis aims to: #dentify the major gender differentials of the target groups in a given community or field of activity 0e.g. agriculture, forestry, water2 #dentify gender specific constraints and opportunities for female and male members of the household or community to participate in and share benefits from research and e8tension activities 0see Bo8 !.G2 #dentify possible strategies or measures to overcome the constraints. 7ecognise different effects or impact of research and e8tension activities on female and male members of the target group. &o' 4.2 3""ect o" gender di""erentials on a""orestation in /hinyanga egion

"hereas almost all respondents 0>BM2, whether men or women, were engaged mainly in crop farming, and in herding as a secondary activity there were major differences in ownership of land and type of animal herded. #n the case of male respondents, land holdings range from A.+ to 2+A hectares, with an average of 12 hectares. 4nly @M of respondents possess the ma8imum land holding: most men owned between A.+ and @ hectares. #n contrast, some GAM of female respondents had no land of their own; they depended entirely on their husbands and relatives. 6ven those with land of their own possessed only between A.+ and + hectares. ,his land was ac-uired through inheritance, either from late husbands or from relatives. %and according to *u1uma culture, is owned by men; women depend entirely on their husband/s relatives. 5owever, an unmarried woman can have a plot allocated to her by the village government or hire one for a period of 2 years. "omen in general cannot therefore ma1e any decision that involves the development of land. ,his affects the e8tent to which they can employ conservation and afforestation technologies, such as planting trees for fuelwood and other products.

*ource: 4tsyina and 7osenberg, 1>>> &ender analysis is relevant in all phases of agricultural research and development, be it planning, e8perimentation, evaluation, dissemination, or adoption9impact assessment. <ajor tools for analysing gender relations such as the 5arvard 'nalytical )ramewor1 and the &ender 'nalysis <atri8 will be discussed in <odule G.

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4.0

/electing an intervention area or target group

#n addition to the criteria given in the previous chapters, there are a number of logistical criteria that should be considered when selecting intervention ones: 1. :istance: the nearest by intervention area should be chosen to reduce transport costs, but the intervention area should still represent the further away areas. 2. 'ccessibility: the roads to the intervention area should be all(weather roads in order to allow scientists to visit the farmers all year round. 'reas not accessible by cars should be avoided. 3. )armer representation: priority should be given to ones where 3&4s or other organisations represent 0groups of2 farmers. ,hese organisations increase the change of adoption and may co(fund research. %in1age with e8tension for day to day monitoring of trials with farmers is essential. Eresence of -ualified e8tension staff is therefore a precondition for selecting an intervention area. !. $luster: research intervention areas should be clustered as much as possible, not only to reduce costs but also to create interdisciplinary. 7esearchers of different disciplines will be wor1ing with the same farmers leading to jointly e8ecuted programmes. 4nce farming systems ones and target groups have been identified in a particular area this should be used to prioritise ones and groups for research interventions. ,here are no objective criteria for assessing the importance of a particular system or a particular group. ,his means that research needs to develop a policy that e8plicitly states criteria for selection of priority farming systems and priority target groups in a given mandate area. ,his policy is related to the objectives of a particular research institute. #f for e8ample the objective is poverty alleviation, sta1eholders and research should agree on the research policy and as a conse-uence at which farming systems and target groups the research efforts should be targeted. )arming systems onation often results in the production of a map. 5owever, research should use this map effectively as a planning tool. 4nce target areas and target groups have been research will then be carried out in a limited number of sites, representing a one, system or group. ,o increase research impact, efforts should be made to diffuse the available results to the relevant population. $riteria for scaling up have to be considered before starting a research activity or intervention 0see also <odule B and <odule 1G2. 4nce ones, systems and groups are identified for research management purposes, research and e8tension become familiar with them through their use and application in planning. #t should be avoided to change the target definitions often. 3evertheless, all systems and groups are dynamic and change over time. $ontinuous data collection is necessary to fine(tune the target definitions and adjust for changes. ,he above described concept of recommendation domains or targeting is useful where technologies are tailored for specific client groups. 5owever, if researchers are developing different technology options and offering a range of potential technologies then the precise definition of the recommendation domain9target group becomes less important. 3onetheless, researchers still have to ensure that the .bas1et of technologies/ which is offered is appropriate to the circumstances of the farmers whom they are trying to reach. 7ecommendation domains are used solely for more efficient research targeting or recommendations. *hort cuts have been developed that do not re-uire a very precise definition of recommendation domains: )armer 7esearch &roups 0by including different farmer 0see <odule +2 )le8ible and conditional formulation of recommendations 0see <odule 1!2

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3'ercises
3'ercise 14 #dentify research topics that are relevant at the following levels of analysis: %evel o" analysis 3ational 'gro(ecological one )arming system one 5ousehold category #ntra(household groups 3'ercise #4 :iscuss criteria for agro(ecological onation of your research one and prepare a preliminary map indicating ones and their boundaries. 3'ercise $4 :iscuss criteria for farming system onation of your research one and prepare a preliminary map indicating farming systems and their boundaries. 3'ercise 44 :o you distinguish different household categories within your one in your own wor1N %ist these household categories for each discipline in your group. 3'ercise 04 1. 'nalyse to what e8tent your latest released technology has influenced the gender roles within the household. "hat are the implications for further research and developmentN 2. 're there specific technologies, or topics of research that are of interest to your research institute which re-uire attention to gender analysisN 3. "hat is the justification for gender analysis in the topics or areas that you have specifiedN !. Based on this analysis are there topics or issues of relatively low or high priority with respect to carrying out gender analysisN 3'ercise 14 $ombine the results of e8ercises 2, 3, ! and +. %in1 these results to the objectives of research in your respective one. "hat are priority ones and groups for research interventionsN elevant research topics

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e"erences
)*7 01>>A2. :iagnostic survey of Bu1oba :istrict. )ormal *urvey. ,an ania93etherlands )arming *ystems 7esearch Eroject, la1e Cone. "or1ing paper no.+. '7# <aru1u, Bu1oba. 7oyal ,ropical #nstitute, 'msterdam, ,he 3etherlands. Loldersma, 7ita and *amule <usyo1i 01>>>2. &ender 'nalysis ,ools: user guide for application in agricultural research and e8tension. :raft. 2G pp. D#,, #67, :7: 0forthcoming2. ' &uide to :emand(:riven 'gricultural 7esearch: the $lient 4riented 7esearch <anagement 'pproach. Eart 1 <eerendon1, L.$.<., L.<. <afuru and L. 31uba 01>>G2. 'gro(economic ones and mar1et opportunities for livelihoods in the %a1e Cone, ,an ania. 7oyal ,ropical #nstitute, 'msterdam, ,he 3etherlands. <ettric1, 5. 01>>32. :evelopment oriented research in agriculture: an #$7' te8tboo1. ,he #nternational $entre for development(oriented 7esearch in 'griculture, "ageningen, ,he 3etherlands. <oser, $aroline 4.3., 'nni1a ,orn-vist and Bernice van Bron1horst 01>>@2. <ainstreaming &ender and :evelopment in the "orld Ban1: progress and recommendations. 6nvironmentally and socially sustainable development series. ,he "orld Ban1, "ashington, U.*.'. 3@ pp. <wangi, "ilfred, 5ugo Fer1uijl and *he1ania Bisanda 01>>>2. &ender differentials in adoption of improved mai e production technologies in <beya 7egion of the southern highlands of ,an ania. #n: 6'**77, Fol. OF, 3o.2, Lune 1>>>: BB(GG. 4tsyina, Loyce '. and :iana 7osenberg 01>>>2. 7ural :evelopment and "omen: "hat are the best approaches to communicating informationN #n: &ender and :evelopment Fol.G, 3o.2, Luly 1>>>: !+(++. 4verholt, $atherine, <ary B. 'nderson, Dathleen $loud and Lames 6. 'ustin 01>@+2. ' $ase Boo1: &ender roles in development projects. Dumarian Eress. *chaap, <irjam 01>>@2. 7eference &uide for &ender 7esponsiveness in Eroject($ycle <anagement, with specific reference to )'4 ,rust )und Erojects. "or1ing Eaper 19>@, )'4 7epresentation 3epal.

-urther reading
:evelopment 'ssistance $ommittee 01>>@2. :'$ *ource Boo1 on $oncepts and 'pproaches lin1ed to &ender 6-uality. 46$:, Earis. @A pp. 46$: :evelopment 'ssistance $ommittee 01>>@2. :'$ *ource Boo1 on $oncepts and 'pproaches %in1ed to &ender 6-uality. 46$:94$:6, Earis. @A pp.

Web resources
B7#:&6 0briefing on development and gender2: www.ids.ac.u19bridge )'4 *ocioeconomic and &ender 'nalysis Erogramme 0*6'&'2: www.fao.org *outhern 'frican :evelopment $ommunity 0*':$2 ( &ender "ebsite: www.sadc.int9gender

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+nne' 14

Case study "ro. 5agera egion and + I, Maruku

*ource: de *teenhuijsen Eiters and 3dege, 1>>B 1. <ore about agro(ecological onation 4ne of the elements of the '7# <aru1u approach is that we try to adapt our research to the specific conditions of production. )or that purpose we need an agro(ecological onation. 'n agro(ecological one is a geographical unit in which the conditions for crop(and livestoc1 production are more or less the same. Farious criteria were used to define agro(ecological ones in Dagera 7egion. ,hese were: parent material and soils, rainfall, landscape and altitude, population density and dominant land use types. "e finally defined the following ones in Dagera 7egion: (one I4 #ntensive banana based farming system, covers most of Bu1oba and <uleba :istricts. #t is a medium to high rainfall one and population densities are high. ,he altitude varies according to the distribution of ridges and plans. ,he cultivated area per household is small 0average 1 ha2. )ishing is an important economic activity besides crop production. ,he one can be divided into three sub( ones. *oils in Cone 1 ' and 1B are formed on Bu1oba sandstone, while those in Cone 1$ are based on the Daragwe('n1olean *ystem. 'nnual rainfall is very high in Cone 1 ' 0above 2AAAmm9year2 and declines to @AAmm in Cone 1$. ,he high rainfall causes very important leaching of soil nutrients in Cone 1', which seriously reduces soil fertility. 5igh soil phosphorus contents and disturbed action(balances are other characteristics of this sub( one, which negatively affect crop production, especially of bananas. (one II4 *emi(intensive banana based farming system covers the ridges in Daragwe and 3gara :istricts. #t is a medium high rainfall one and population densities are moderate. ,he altitude ranges between 1!AA and 2AAAm asl. *oils are formed by the Daragwe('n1olean *ystem and have good physical properties, as well as moderate chemical fertility. ,he one can be divided into two sub( ones. Cone ##' corresponds to Daragwe :istrict where the cultivated area per household is large 0average 2 ha2. ,hese farmers produce a surplus of banana, coffee and beans. Cone ## B corresponds to 3gara :istrict where households cultivate on the average only # ha and are hardly self(sufficient. ,he difference between these two sub( ones is mainly due to cultural and historical factors and cannot be e8plained by bio(physical properties or land availability. (one III: 68tensive annual crop production covers the south(eastern part of 3gara and most parts of Biharamulo :istricts. 'ltitude is low 0average 12AA(masl2. Eopulation densities are low. ,he landscape is undulating and altitude is relatively low. )ishing is of local importance, especially on U1erewe #slands. (one I64 68tensive livestoc1 production covers the eastem part of Daragwe :istrict and the western parts of Bu1oba and <uleba :istricts. 7ainfall is low to medium 0@AAmm9year2 and the altitude is relatively low. Eopulation densities are very low. (one 64 &ame and forest reserves cover important parts of central Dagera 7egion, as well as some spots in northern parts of Daragwe and Bu1oba :istricts. 7ainfall is medium to low. ,he one is mainly limited to low altitude, alluvial planes. 3o economic activities are underta1en besides some hunting and tourism.

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

2. <ore about target groups ' target group is a group of farmers with similar circumstances for whom we can ma1e more or less the recommendation. #t is important to understand the groups from the society because then you 1now better who are you clients. :uring our analysis of target groups in Bu1oba, we used criteria which farmers can use themselves for classification. ,he groups we identified are: 1. 'bsentee land lords %and owners who do not live on their land; %and has the value of investment and e8tra security to them. 4ther people are ta1ing care of their land. 2. *urplus producing households 5ave capital for investment Eroduce in surplus 4wn cattle 5ire labourers 're full time farmers or involved in trade 5ave %i%an+a of about 2 ha 5ave access to services e.g. health, education etc. 3. *elf(sufficient household Eroduce enough food :o not produce agricultural surplus 5ave not enough capital for investment ,i%an+a si e is about # ha 're full time farmers 5ave limited access to services !. 3ot self sufficient households :o not produce enough food Buy food ,i%an+a si e is about A.+ ha 're part time farmers 5ave no access to services +. $are(ta1ers and wage(labourers 're landless, do not own land $are(ta1ers live on the land of landlords :epend on wage(labour &row some annual crop to supplement salary B. )emale headed household 5ouseholds with female head ,hey fall under the above mentioned groups. %andlords cannot be considered to be real farmers. ,he importance of the remaining groups is estimated for Bu1oba: *urplus producing householdsPPP *elf sufficient householdPPPPP 3ot self sufficient householdPPP.. . 1+ 3A +A M M M

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

$are(ta1er householdsPPPPPP

)emale(headed households are very important and are represented in the four groups mentioned above. #n Bu1oba they count for 2+M of all householdsQ ,arget groups and research needs are very much lin1ed: (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( ,arget group 7esearch needs (((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( %andlords no clients of research *urplus producing households coffee and bananas, large livestoc1 *elf sufficient household coffee and bananas, small livestoc1 3ot self sufficient household food crops, small livestoc1, poultry $are(ta1ers and wage labourers annual crops 0mai e, beans, sweet potato2 ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( 3. <ore about producer groups &ender refers to the social relationship in our case of agriculture. #t refers to roles, opportunities, responsibilities and constraints of different members of the household in the act of agricultural production. "omen contribute a lot to agricultural production. ,hey wor1 on the field, produce crops, and ma1e sure that their family can eat, clean the house, fetch water. #n short, they produce and ta1e care of the family. Because women are involved in crop production, we cannot neglect them. #f women grow sweet potato we should not tal1 to men when we want to test new sweet potato varieties. =ou are sure to get wrong information by tal1ing to menQ ,he same is true when it comes to crops of men, li1e coffee. *o choose the right gender group when you address a problem. &ender analysis starts with the recognition that the household is not a homogeneous group of the people. #t is rather a comple8 system itself, in which the division of tas1s, allocation of resources and the distribution of benefits are not e-ually shared among its members. &ender analysis ta1es into account these differences through targeting of research and e8tension. <oreover, negative side effects on other groups of people are understood and, if possible, prevented. )or e8ample, if you introduce new coffee varieties and farmers plant more coffee, women may have to spend more time in harvesting the coffee. ,hat is what we call a negative side(effect, because now women have less time for their own crops. ,he following methods are important for gender analysis: 'ccess and control profile: ,he -uestions are who has access to and control over resources re-uired to underta1e an activity and who benefits from itN 'ctivity profile: ,he basic -uestions here is who does what, when and whereN ,he result is a gender distribution of labour and activities. &ender 'nalysis <atri8: ,his is a tool to determine the impact of technology interventions considering factors such as time, labour, resources and culture.

,he above mentioned methods are useful in all adaptive research and during all stages, from diagnosis, planning and designing, e8perimentation and evaluation of the tasted technologies. !. <ore about )armer 7esearch &roups

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

,his approach aims at a good contact between researchers and farmers. )7&s help researchers understand the needs of the farmers and form a platform of discussion. )7& farmers participate in research activities and help researchers to evaluate the results. 7esearch of '7# <aru1u is concentrated in villages that represent agro(ecological ones. Until now, three villages were selected in Bu1oba :istrict, and three in Daragwe :istrict. #n each village there is a )armer 7esearch &roup formed by farmers who are interested in research. 6ach )7& has a chairman, a secretary and leaders of different trials. Before each season a )7& meeting is called in order to get farmers ideas about the problems which need research. 7esearchers and e8tension staff propose e8periments and farmers choose and volunteer for e8periments they li1e. ,hey select a trial leader and discuss the planning. :uring the trial farmers visit each others fields and evaluate the performance of the crops and treatments. ,his is called .farmer assessment/. #t is the evaluation of the tested technology 0by farmers2 and see if farmers are able and willing to adopt it or not. ,his ma1es farmers to become full partners in the technology development process.

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Module 4: Targeting research to respond to stakeholder needs

+nne' #4

-ar.ing syste. *onation in the 7orthern (one

Maasai steppe pastoralis Ea1 Elains north of <ount <eru and west of 3gorongoro %ongido, <ogitu, 4ldovai PPP..1m2 12AA(1GAA masl. R+AA mm9year <ono(modal Undulating(hilly plains Folcanic ash, granite and acid gneiss <ollic solonet , ferric luvisols, cambisols, cherno em, phaeo em, regosols. 'cacia($ombretum bushy steppe and wooded grassland P.habitants R1A habitants91m2. <aasai transhumance. 12(1+ members9household $ollective land use 1AAM +A(1AA heads9household none pastoralism none none indigenous cattle of diverse genetic bac1ground 0Cebu, 'n1ole, )resian2, goats, sheep, don1eys. none none none none :rought, land tenure rights, tic1(borne diseases, lac1 of e8tension services, low prices of livestoc1 products, mar1eting of mil1. 7anching, water points, land(use rights, botanicals for tic1 control, mar1eting of mil1, leather and other livestoc1 products.

3ame of the farming system: %egend abbreviation: %ocation: ,owns and wards: 6stimated: 'ltitude: ,otal annual rainfall: 7ainfall pattern: %andscape: Earent material: *oils: 3atural vegetation: 6stimated 1>>@ population: Eopulation density: 6thnic groups: Eopulation mobility: 'verage household si e: 'verage farm si e: 5ouseholds with cattle: 'verage cattle herd si e: ,ype of cultivation: ,ype of livestoc1 1eeping: <ajor food crops: <ajor cash crops: <ajor livestoc1: $ommon cropping patterns: #mportant off(farm activities: $ommon cropping patterns: #mportant off(farm activities: &onstraints:

-pportunities:

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3ame of the farming system: %egend abbreviation: %ocation: ,owns and wards: 6stimated area: 'ltitude: ,otal annual rainfall: 7ainfall pattern: %andscape: Earent material: *oils: 3atural vegetation: 6stimated 1>>@ population: Eopulation density: 6thnic groups: Eopulation mobility: 'verage household si e: 'verage farm si e: 5ouseholds with cattle: 'verage cattle herd si e: ,ype of cultivation: ,ype of livestoc1 1eeping: <ajor food crops: <ajor cash crops: <ajor livestoc1: $ommon cropping patterns: #mportant off(farm activities: &onstraints:

Ira.w echanised !ar ing <c1 plains and mountain foot slopes of Daratu and <bulu :istricts Daratu, <bule, Datesh, 7hotia, 6ndasa1, :areda. PP1m2 1BAA(2AAA m asl BAA(@AA mm9year bi(modal rolling(hilly plains volcanic ash, granite roc1, acid gneiss and intermediate metamorphic roc1. ferralsols, nitosols, andosols,phaeo em, lithosols, regosols, luvisols and acrisols wooded grassland, bushland and thic1et P.habitants R+A habitants91m2 #ra-w out(migration +(B members9household B(@ ha9household >AM 2A heads9household mechanised and motorised cultivation of annual crops sedentary, e8tensive free gra ing mai e, beans wheat, barley, sunflower, finger millet, pigeon peas, surplus food crops, coffee 0minor crop2 indigenous cattle, don1eys, goats, sheep, pigs, poultry. sole cropping of wheat, barley, sunflower, pigeon peas, often along contour strips; intercropping of mai e and beans petty business, renting land and machinery, wage(labour, employment soil erosion, soil fertility, unreliable rainfall, lac1 of e8tension services, mar1eting price and availability of inputs, land shortage and land tenure rights 6fficient use of farm(yard manure, mechanisation 0o8(weeding2, intensification of livestoc1 1eeping, fodder production and agro( forestry, contour S boundary crops, new varieties of annual crops, improved dairy cattle

-pportunities:

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