Running head: THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

The Effects of Being Raised in a Female-Headed Single-Parent Household on a Male Child: Emphasis on Behavioral, Social, and Educational Trends Mindy Williams Texas Womans University Dr. Armstrong

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

Abstract Research was observed to determine if a female-headed single-parent household has any correlation to a male childs behavior, social interactions, and educational trends. Some studies indicate no significant difference between male children in a single-parent household compared to a two-parent household, while other studies provide evidence of negative effects for the male child within the single-parent household dynamic. Increased risk of negative outcomes included variables such as age, race, socioeconomic status, parenting behavior and interaction, and family conflict or cohesion (Bronstein, 1993). Introduction The family shape in our society is ever changing and with divorce plaguing more than half of all marriages in the U.S. children are being involuntarily thrust into a new family structure(Lee, 2008). Also, mothers who never marry are becoming normative and more socially accepted (Thomas, 1996). The main concern in this research is the well-being of the child within a single-mother household, specifically the male child without a father present in the home. Multiple factors and variables must be examined to determine which conditions favor the best outcomes for these male children and to establish the least risk- inducing aspects of this family structure (Thomas, 1996). Single-parent households are commonly compared with two-parent households to examine risk or protective factors involved with each structure, however, a deeper focus should be shifted to the composition within the single-parent household (Lee, 2008). Simply being a male child raised in single-mother households does not guarantee any protective or risk-inducing factors but additional variables within the family dynamic can shift the risk toward a more negative result (Biblarz, 2010).

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

Research varies on the outcomes of behaviors, education, and social statistics for a male child with the mother being the only parent in the home. While a general finding for most researchers has shown more negative effects on males from single-mother households, others show a large number of inconsistencies depending on other influencing factors (Bronstein, 1993). Optimizing the outcomes for these male children would require an in-depth look at how single-mothers and the protective factors around them are correlating to develop a less riskinduced child (Thomas, 1996). Literature Review Rationale The significance of gender of both the child and the parent is crucial to understanding and exploring the trends associated with single-parent households. For example, divorce and single parenthood often drastically affect the economic situation for women more than it does for men (Bronstein, 1993). Gender-specific parenting is often presumed to produce more positive results when gender of the child and parent are the same (Biblarz, 2010). However, these concepts have not proven to be always true. We will examine the correlations of gender in single-mother families along with other important variables in the research below. Also, we will distinguish difference and similarities of behaviors, educational achievement, and social interactions that may be influenced by this family dynamic. A deeper look into how some male children succeed in these areas while other males show poor results will draw more attention to the outlying factors associated within the single-mother household and not carry a negative stigma in all circumstances. Other important factors will be observed in order to provide more clarity in the outcomes.

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

Statement of Purpose It is hypothesized that children from two-adult households would show high levels of social, psychological, and academic adjustment than children from single-mother households, with boys in single-mother households showing the poorest adjustment (Bronstein, 1993). This research is being conducted to examine if indeed males in single-mother households are negatively impacted and will have poor outcomes. Also, the research will identify other variables which can either increase risk or decrease risk of negative results for the male child. Procedures The research was conducted by gathering 10 peer-reviewed, scholarly articles from the TWU online library. The articles focused on areas of male children and adolescent behaviors as a result of single-mother family structure, their academic success or struggle, and their ability to social interact or engage. The articles were read and data was gathered from each. A review of the content and research was observed as to identify specific correlations for use in our research topic. Findings The family structure alone portrays an inconsistent foundation for significant negative effects, but when partnered with race, gender, family cohesion, parenting style, non-resident father interaction, social economic status, etc. the outcomes are more clearly defined(Bronstein, 1993). With regards to the behaviors of males within a single-mother household, research concludes an increased risk for violent behavior, substance abuse, and overall deviant behavior (Thomas, 1996). This research is comparing males within a single-mother household with males who reside in a two-parent household (Thomas, 1996). Risk-inducing circumstances are not always indicative of negative outcomes; however, other variables will constitute a clearer picture of positive and negative results. With regards to race, behaviors of Puerto Rican adolescents

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

within the single-mother household showed to be at the highest risk for severely violent behavior (Estrada-Martinez, 2011). White males in a single-mother household, when compared with black males in the same situation, showed a more problematic behavior when there was no father involvement (Estrada-Martinez, 2011). The gender of the single-parent showed to reduce risks in substance abuse and reduce rates of delinquency when it was a mother-only family, but males overall tend to be at the highest risk for poor behaviors when compared with females living in single-mother households (Biblarz, 2010). More importantly though than the family formation is the family dynamics and parenting styles within the single-mother family. Authoritative parenting has shown to produce the best outcomes for the child, and family cohesion reduces risk for violence (Bronstein, 1993). In reference to the non-resident father impact, Bronstein found that the longer the father had been absent from the childs life the less negative behavior was shown (Bronstein, 1993). Social development and conformity can be negatively impacted when there is motherchild conflict and less parental monitoring (Breivik, 2009). A large risk factor for antisocial behavior in males living in single-mother households is divorce; however, the largest risk lies within a male child living in a divorced single-father household (Breivik, 2009). Boys antisocial behavior was significantly reduced when parental control was shown by the mother (Vieno, 2009). When the male child is raised in an environment where they feel they can disclose information this predicts that a more healthy social development will result (Vieno, 2009). It is clear that mothers involvement, monitoring, and boundary settings is a huge protective factor for low antisocial behavior for the male child (Vieno, 2009). Research shows that it is highly important for the single-mother to create a vertical authority structure instead of a horizontal structure, however, stress and lack of a second parent to provide support makes it difficult for the

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

mother to maintain this authority which is crucially needed for the male child (Nixon, 2012). There are inconsistent findings with regards to the ability of single-mothers to socialize their sons and it is clear that other variables can either heighten or hinder the success of the development (Thomas, 1996). Although, several theories suggest that overall mothers will have greater difficulty socializing sons than daughters (Thomas, 1996). Finally, education can be impacted by the experiences the male child faces within his family structure. Often, it is presumed that male children will benefit largely with a parent of the same gender, however, this is only a myth and research provides for no clear positive correlation (Lee, 2008). However, male children who are raised in a single-parent household do reflect more negative effects on academics than a male child within an intact, two-parent household (Lee, 2008). The focus must be shifted to other variables which can improve the academic performance for males within a single-mother household. Social economic status is a huge predictor of academic completion and achievement (Lee, 2008). It is clear that mothers education and income are important factors and the higher these factors are the higher the levels of success are for the male child (Lee, 2008). Research confirms that children from singlemother families fair better educationally than children from single-father families (Song, 2012). However, when a mother was divorced or separated there was a large increase in the risk of a child dropping out of school (Lee, 2008). Without the presence of father, the male child will be at a disadvantage developmentally, but research finds that opposite-gender parenting can be positively influencing (Biblarz, 2010). Boys from single-parent households showed lower GPA and less overall classroom behavior than boys from two-parent homes (Bronstein, 1993). Long term, research suggests that males living in single-mother households compared to single-father households will achieve greater academic success and occupational attainment (Biblarz, 2010).

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

Discussion/Implications The correlation of gender and parenting as it relates to behavioral outcomes, social interactions, and educational performance reflects positive opposite-gender impacts, but it is clear that a higher risk is associated with males in a single-mother household than in a two-parent household (Lee, 2008). However, the most important areas to observe are the factors within this family structure which lead us to clearer distinctions of positive and negative outcomes. Singlemothers can indeed provide an environment for the male child to succeed if family dynamic consist of more protective factors than risk inducing factors . Maternal parenting and control is key for boy to show less negative behavior and better social conformity (Vieno, 2009). Educational achievement is more likely to occur for boys raised in minimal conflict situations and the more consistent the family structure is over time will also incur positive results (Song, 2012). Stability is evident for greater success and positive mother-child relationship foster healthy development and outcomes for the male child. The studies conducted provide somewhat inconsistent data as it relates to direct impacts of singlemothers on male children and further examination of additional factors must be included to synthesize negative outcomes. Implications suggest that research should be focused on the more positive correlations of single-mother family structure on male children as a way to assist more families like this to thrive and become as successful as possible regardless of the odds stack against them. Our society will be impacted if there is no assistance given to single-mothers. Our goal as educators, fellow parents, advisors, policy makers, etc. should be advocating for these boys to be given the same opportunities as children within two-parent homes and to make sure that attention and guidance is given as needed for optimal results. The non-resident father must be held responsible for financial support which could allow for struggling mothers to afford more and lessen the financial burden and stress (Bronstein, 1993). The family structure is rapidly changing and we

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

must be sensitive and aware of the challenges that are faced in each situation in order to better assist needs. The best way to create a positive outcome for these male children is to create preventative strategies (Bronstein, 1993). Specific parent and child support groups could be helpful. Educating parents is also important, but most mothers would benefit more from programs created to emphasis their strengths and provide uplifting advice. Conclusion Overall, the evidence suggests male children raised by a single-mother are already at a disadvantage because of their family structure and are usually observed using a deficit model (Lee, 2008). A closer look at the successes of these male children in behaviors, social conformity, and education achievement will provide a counter balance of the negative assumptions and perhaps begin to cause a shift in outcomes. Research identifies mostly negative correlations but more analysis should be done to observe the optimal situations for these male children and help single-mothers utilize their protective factors. In conclusion, it is not simply the family structure that impacts the male childs outcomes but more importantly the family dynamics. The cultural aspects and the support from family members and community can be of great value to the single-mother and somewhat fulfill the role of the father for the male child. While protective factors show benefiting effects it must be noted that not all protective factors can affect all males in the same way so therefore it is important for more research to be done to find common variables that consistently provide positive results.

THE EFFECTS OF BEING RAISED IN A FEMALE-HEADED SINGLE-PARENT HOUSEHOLD

References Biblarz, T. J., & Stacey, J. (2010). How does the gender of parents matter?. Journal Of Marriage & Family, 72(1), 3-22. Breivik, K., Olweus, D., & Endresen, I. (2009). Does the quality of parent-child relationships mediate the increased risk for antisocial behavior and substance use among adolescents in single-mother and single-father families?. Journal Of Divorce & Remarriage, 50(6), 400426. doi:10.1080/10502550902766282 Bronstein, P., Clauson, J., Frankel Stoll, M., & Abrams, C. L. (1993). Parenting behavior and childrens social, psychological, and academic adjustment in diverse family structures. Family Relations, 42(3), 268-276 Crawford, L. A., & Novak, K. B. (2008). Parent--Child relations and peer associations as mediators of the family structure--substance use relationship. Journal Of Family Issues, 29(2), 155-184. Estrada-Martnez, L. M., Padilla, M. B., Caldwell, C., & Schulz, A. (2011). Examining the influence of family environments on youth violence: A comparison of mexican, puerto rican, cuban, non-latino Black, and non-latino white adolescents. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 40(8), 1039-1051. doi:10.1007/s10964-010-9624-4 Lee, S., & Kushner, J. (2008). Single-parent families: the role of parent's and child's gender on academic achievement. Gender & Education, 20(6), 607-621. doi:10.1080/09540250802415132 Nixon, E., Greene, S., & Hogan, D. M. (2012). Negotiating relationships in single-mother households: Perspectives of children and mothers. Family Relations, 61(1), 142-156. Song, C., Benin, M., & Glick, J. (2012). Dropping out of high school: The effects of family structure and family transitions. Journal Of Divorce & Remarriage, 53(1), 18-33. Thomas, G., Farrell, M. P., & Barnes, G. M. (1996). The effects of single-mother families and nonresident fathers on delinquency and substance abuse in black and white adolescents. Journal Of Marriage & Family, 58(4), 884-894. Vieno, A., Nation, M., Pastore, M., & Santinello, M. (2009). Parenting and antisocial behavior: A model of the relationship between adolescent self-disclosure, parental closeness, parental control, and adolescent antisocial behavior. Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1509-1519.