The Building of the Ark; the Flood (v. 21-32; cf. Gen. vi. 13-viii. 19). 21.

And He co !nded "o!h to !ke hi !n !rk# th!t he ight $!ve hi $elf fro the %!ter$ of the flood. 2 22. And "o!h !de the !rk in !ll re$&ect$ !$ He co !nded hi # in the t%ent'-$eventh (u)ilee 13*+ A.,. of 'e!r$# in the fifth %eek in the fifth 'e!r (on the ne% oon of the fir$t onth). 23. And he entered in the $i-th ('e!r) thereof# in the $econd onth# on 13*. A.,. the ne% oon of the $econd onth# till the $i-teenth; !nd he entered# !nd !ll th!t %e )rought to hi # into the !rk# !nd the /ord clo$ed 3 it fro %ithout on the $eventeenth 0 evening. 20. And the /ord o&ened $even flood-g!te$ 1 of he!ven# And the outh$ of the fount!in$ of the gre!t dee&# $even outh$ in nu )er.

21. And the flood-g!te$ )eg!n to &our do%n %!ter fro the he!ven fort' d!'$ !nd fort' night$# And the fount!in$ of the dee& !l$o $ent u& %!ter$# until the %hole %orld %!$ full of %!ter. 22. And the %!ter$ incre!$ed u&on the e!rth Fifteen cu)it$ did the %!ter$ ri$e !)ove !ll the high And the !rk %!$ lift u& !)ove the e!rth# And it oved u&on the f!ce of the %!ter$. 1 ount!in$# &. 2*

2+. And the %!ter &rev!iled on the f!ce of the e!rth five onth$-one hundred !nd fift' d!'$. 2 2.. And the !rk %ent !nd re$ted on the to& of /3)4r# one of the ount!in$ of Ar!r!t. 3 29. And (on the ne% oon) in the fourth onth the fount!in$ of the gre!t dee& %ere clo$ed !nd the flood-g!te$ of he!ven %ere re$tr!ined; !nd on the ne% oon of the $eventh onth !ll the outh$ of the !)'$$e$ of the e!rth %ere o&ened# !nd the %!ter )eg!n to de$cend into the dee& 13*9 A.,. )elo%. 0 3*. And on the ne% oon of the tenth onth the to&$ of the ount!in$ %ere $een# !nd on the ne% oon of the fir$t onth the e!rth )ec! e vi$i)le. 1 31. And the %!ter$ di$!&&e!red fro !)ove the e!rth in the fifth %eek in the $eventh 'e!r thereof# !nd on the $eventeenth 2 d!' in the $econd onth the e!rth %!$ dr'. 32. And on the t%ent'-$eventh thereof he o&ened the !rk# !nd $ent forth fro it )e!$t$# !nd c!ttle# !nd )ird$# !nd ever' oving thing. + Tod!'# it i$ kno%n th!t the %orld5$ !t o$&here con$i$t$ of different l!'er$ th!t lie on to& of e!ch other.19 B!$ed on the criteri! of che ic!l content$ or !ir te &er!ture# the definition$ !de h!ve deter ined the !t o$&here of the e!rth !$ $even l!'er$.2* According to the 6/i ited Fine ,e$h ,odel (/F,,77)#6 ! odel of !t o$&here u$ed to e$ti !te %e!ther condition$ for 0. hour$# the !t o$&here i$ !l$o + l!'er$. According to the odern geologic!l definition$ the $even l!'er$ of !t o$&here !re !$ follo%$8 1. Tro&o$&here 2. 9tr!to$&here 3. ,e$o$&here 0. Ther o$&here 1. :-o$&here 2. 7ono$&here +. ,!gneto$&here

At o$&here of :!rth Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! (<edirected fro :!rth5$ !t o$&here) 6Air6 redirect$ here. For other u$e$# $ee Air (di$! )igu!tion). 6=u!litie$ of !ir6 redirect$ here. 7t i$ not to )e confu$ed %ith Air >u!lit'. Thi$ !ni !tion $ho%$ the )uildu& of tro&o$&heric ?@2 in the "orthern He i$&here %ith ! !-i u !round ,!'. The !-i u in the veget!tion c'cle follo%$# occurring in the l!te $u er. Follo%ing the &e!k in veget!tion# the dr!%do%n of !t o$&heric ?@2 due to &hoto$'nthe$i$ i$ !&&!rent# &!rticul!rl' over the Bore!l Fore$t$. Blue light i$ $c!ttered ore th!n other %!velength$ )' the g!$e$ in the !t o$&here# giving the :!rth ! )lue h!lo %hen $een fro $&!ce. /i ) vie%# of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here. ?olour$ roughl' denote the l!'er$ of the !t o$&here. Thi$ i !ge $ho%$ the oon !t centre# %ith the li ) of :!rth ne!r the )otto tr!n$itioning into the or!ngecoloured tro&o$&here# the lo%e$t !nd o$t den$e &ortion of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here. The tro&o$&here end$ !)ru&tl' !t the tro&o&!u$e# %hich !&&e!r$ in the i !ge !$ the $h!r& )ound!r' )et%een the or!nge- !nd )luecoloured !t o$&here. The $ilver'-)lue noctilucent cloud$ e-tend f!r !)ove the :!rth5$ tro&o$&here. 9&!ce 9huttle :nde!vour !&&e!r$ to $tr!ddle the $tr!to$&here !nd e$o$&here in thi$ &hoto. 6The or!nge l!'er i$ the tro&o$&here# %here !ll of the %e!ther !nd cloud$ %hich %e t'&ic!ll' %!tch !nd e-&erience !re gener!ted !nd cont!ined. Thi$ or!nge l!'er give$ %!' to the %hiti$h 9tr!to$&here !nd then into the ,e$o$&here.6A1B The !t o$&here of :!rth i$ ! l!'er of g!$e$ $urrounding the &l!net :!rth th!t i$ ret!ined )' :!rth5$ gr!vit'. The !t o$&here &rotect$ life on :!rth )' !)$or)ing ultr!violet $ol!r r!di!tion# %!r ing the $urf!ce through he!t retention (greenhou$e effect)# !nd reducing te &er!ture e-tre e$ )et%een d!' !nd night (the diurn!l te &er!ture v!ri!tion). At o$&heric $tr!tific!tion de$cri)e$ the $tructure of the !t o$&here# dividing it into di$tinct l!'er$# e!ch %ith $&ecific ch!r!cteri$tic$ $uch !$ te &er!ture or co &o$ition. The !t o$&here h!$ ! !$$ of !)out 1C1*1. kg# three >u!rter$ of %hich i$ %ithin !)out 11 k (2.. i; 32#*** ft) of the $urf!ce. The !t o$&here )eco e$ thinner !nd thinner %ith incre!$ing !ltitude# %ith no definite )ound!r' )et%een the !t o$&here !nd outer $&!ce. An !ltitude of 12* k (+1 i) i$ %here !t o$&heric effect$ )eco e notice!)le during !t o$&heric reentr' of $&!cecr!ft. The DEr En line# !t 1** k (22 i)# !l$o i$ often reg!rded !$ the )ound!r' )et%een !t o$&here !nd outer $&!ce. Air i$ the n! e given to the !t o$&here u$ed in )re!thing !nd &hoto$'nthe$i$. Fr' !ir cont!in$ roughl' ()' volu e) +..*9G nitrogen# 2*.91G o-'gen# *.93G !rgon# *.*39G c!r)on dio-ide# !nd $ !ll ! ount$ of other g!$e$. Air !l$o cont!in$ ! v!ri!)le ! ount of %!ter v!&or# on !ver!ge !round 1G. ;hile !ir content !nd !t o$&heric &re$$ure v!r' !t different l!'er$# !ir $uit!)le for the $urviv!l of terre$tri!l &l!nt$ !nd terre$tri!l !ni !l$ i$ currentl' onl' kno%n to )e found in :!rth5$ tro&o$&here !nd !rtifici!l !t o$&here$.

?ontent$ AhideB 1 ?o &o$ition 2 9tructure of the !t o$&here 2.1 Hrinci&!l l!'er$ 2.1.1 :-o$&here 2.1.2 Ther o$&here 2.1.3 ,e$o$&here 2.1.0 9tr!to$&here 2.1.1 Tro&o$&here 2.2 @ther l!'er$ 3 Hh'$ic!l &ro&ertie$ 3.1 Hre$$ure !nd thickne$$ 3.2 Te &er!ture !nd $&eed of $ound 3.3 Fen$it' !nd !$$ 0 @&tic!l &ro&ertie$ 0.1 9c!ttering 0.2 A)$or&tion 0.3 : i$$ion 0.0 <efr!ctive inde1 ?ircul!tion 2 :volution of :!rth5$ !t o$&here 2.1 :!rlie$t !t o$&here 2.2 9econd !t o$&here 2.3 Third !t o$&here 2.0 Air &ollution + 9ee !l$o . <eference$ 9 :-tern!l link$ ?o &o$ition ,!in !rticle8 At o$&heric che i$tr' ?o &o$ition of :!rth5$ !t o$&here. The lo%er &ie re&re$ent$ the tr!ce g!$e$ %hich together co &o$e *.*39G of the !t o$&here. I!lue$ nor !liJed for illu$tr!tion. The nu )er$ !re fro ! v!riet' of 'e!r$ ( !inl' 19.+# %ith ?@2 !nd eth!ne fro 2**9) !nd do not re&re$ent !n' $ingle $ource. ,e!n !t o$&heric %!ter v!&or Air i$ !inl' co &o$ed of nitrogen# o-'gen# !nd !rgon# %hich together con$titute the !(or g!$e$ of the !t o$&here. The re !ining g!$e$ !re often referred to !$ tr!ce g!$e$#A2B ! ong %hich !re the greenhou$e g!$e$ $uch !$ %!ter v!&or# c!r)on dio-ide# eth!ne# nitrou$ o-ide# !nd oJone. Filtered !ir include$ tr!ce ! ount$ of !n' other che ic!l co &ound$. ,!n' n!tur!l $u)$t!nce$ !' )e &re$ent in tin' ! ount$ in !n unfiltered !ir $! &le# including du$t# &ollen !nd $&ore$# $e! $&r!'# !nd volc!nic !$h. I!riou$ indu$tri!l &ollut!nt$ !l$o !' )e &re$ent# $uch !$ chlorine (ele ent!r' or in co &ound$)# fluorine co &ound$# ele ent!l ercur'# !nd $ulfur co &ound$ $uch !$ $ulfur dio-ide A9@2B. ?o &o$ition of dr' !t o$&here# )' volu eA3B && v8 &!rt$ &er illion )' volu e (note8 volu e fr!ction i$ e>u!l to ole fr!ction for ide!l g!$ onl'# $ee volu e (ther od'n! ic$)) G!$ Iolu e "itrogen ("2) +.*#.0* && v (+..*.0G) @-'gen (@2) 2*9#02* && v (2*.902G) Argon (Ar) 9#30* && v (*.930*G) ?!r)on dio-ide (?@2) 390.01 && v (*.*39001G) "eon ("e) 1..1. && v (*.**1.1.G) Heliu (He) 1.20 && v (*.***120G) ,eth!ne (?H0) 1.+9 && v (*.***1+9G) Dr'&ton (Dr) 1.10 && v (*.***110G) H'drogen (H2) *.11 && v (*.****11G) "itrou$ o-ide ("2@) *.321 && v (*.****321G) ?!r)on ono-ide (?@) *.1 && v (*.****1G)

Kenon (Ke) *.*9 && v (9C1*L2G) (*.*****9G) @Jone (@3) *.* to *.*+ && v (* to +C1*L2G) "itrogen dio-ide ("@2) *.*2 && v (2C1*L2G) (*.*****2G) 7odine (72) *.*1 && v (1C1*L2G) (*.*****1G) A oni! ("H3) tr!ce "ot included in !)ove dr' !t o$&here8 ;!ter v!&or (H2@) M*.0*G over full !t o$&here# t'&ic!ll' 1GN0G !t $urf!ce 9tructure of the !t o$&here Hrinci&!l l!'er$ /!'er$ of the !t o$&here (not to $c!le) 7n gener!l# !ir &re$$ure !nd den$it' decre!$e in the !t o$&here !$ height incre!$e$. Ho%ever# te &er!ture h!$ ! ore co &lic!ted &rofile %ith !ltitude# !nd !' re !in rel!tivel' con$t!nt or even incre!$e %ith !ltitude in $o e region$ ($ee the te &er!ture $ection# )elo%). Bec!u$e the gener!l &!ttern of the te &er!tureO!ltitude &rofile i$ con$t!nt !nd recogniJ!)le through e!n$ $uch !$ )!lloon $ounding$# the te &er!ture )eh!vior &rovide$ ! u$eful etric to di$tingui$h )et%een !t o$&heric l!'er$. 7n thi$ %!'# :!rth5$ !t o$&here c!n )e divided (c!lled !t o$&heric $tr!tific!tion) into five !in l!'er$. Fro highe$t to lo%e$t# the$e l!'er$ !re8 :-o$&here ,!in !rticle8 :-o$&here The outer o$t l!'er of :!rth5$ !t o$&here e-tend$ fro the e-o)!$e u&%!rd. 7t i$ !inl' co &o$ed of h'drogen !nd heliu . The &!rticle$ !re $o f!r !&!rt th!t the' c!n tr!vel hundred$ of kilo eter$ %ithout colliding %ith one !nother. 9ince the &!rticle$ r!rel' collide# the !t o$&here no longer )eh!ve$ like ! fluid. The$e free- oving &!rticle$ follo% )!lli$tic tr!(ectorie$ !nd !' igr!te into !nd out of the !gneto$&here or the $ol!r %ind. Ther o$&here ,!in !rticle8 Ther o$&here Te &er!ture incre!$e$ %ith height in the ther o$&here fro the e$o&!u$e u& to the ther o&!u$e# then i$ con$t!nt %ith height. Pnlike in the $tr!to$&here# %here the inver$ion i$ c!u$ed )' !)$or&tion of r!di!tion )' oJone# in the ther o$&here the inver$ion i$ ! re$ult of the e-tre el' lo% den$it' of olecule$. The te &er!ture of thi$ l!'er c!n ri$e to 1#1** Q? (2#+** QF)# though the g!$ olecule$ !re $o f!r !&!rt th!t te &er!ture in the u$u!l $en$e i$ not %ell defined. The !ir i$ $o r!refied th!t !n individu!l olecule (of o-'gen# for e-! &le) tr!vel$ !n !ver!ge of 1 kilo eter )et%een colli$ion$ %ith other olecule$.A0B The 7ntern!tion!l 9&!ce 9t!tion or)it$ in thi$ l!'er# )et%een 32* !nd 3.* k (2** !nd 20* i). Bec!u$e of the rel!tive infre>uenc' of olecul!r colli$ion$# !ir !)ove the e$o&!u$e i$ &oorl' i-ed co &!red %ith !ir )elo%. ;hile the co &o$ition fro the tro&o$&here to the e$o$&here i$ f!irl' con$t!nt# !)ove ! cert!in &oint# !ir i$ &oorl' i-ed !nd )eco e$ co &o$ition!ll' $tr!tified. The &oint dividing the$e t%o region$ i$ kno%n !$ the tur)o&!u$e. The region )elo% i$ the ho o$&here# !nd the region !)ove i$ the hetero$&here. The to& of the ther o$&here i$ the )otto of the e-o$&here# c!lled the e-o)!$e. 7t$ height v!rie$ %ith $ol!r !ctivit' !nd r!nge$ fro !)out 31*N.** k (22*N1** i; 1#1**#***N2#2**#*** ft).Acit!tion neededB ,e$o$&here ,!in !rticle8 ,e$o$&here The e$o$&here e-tend$ fro the $tr!to&!u$e to .*N.1 k (1*N13 i; 22*#***N2.*#*** ft). 7t i$ the l!'er %here o$t eteor$ )urn u& u&on entering the !t o$&here. Te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith height in the e$o$&here. The e$o&!u$e# the te &er!ture ini u th!t !rk$ the to& of the e$o$&here# i$ the colde$t &l!ce on :!rth !nd h!$ !n !ver!ge te &er!ture !round L.1 Q? (L12* QF; 19* D).A1B At the e$o&!u$e# te &er!ture$ !' dro& to L1** Q? (L11* QF; 1+* D).A2B Fue to the cold te &er!ture of the e$o$&here# %!ter v!&or i$ froJen# for ing ice cloud$ (or "octilucent cloud$). A t'&e of lightning referred to !$ either $&rite$ or :/I:9# for !n' ile$ !)ove thundercloud$ in the tro&o$&here. 9tr!to$&here ,!in !rticle8 9tr!to$&here The $tr!to$&here e-tend$ fro the tro&o&!u$e to !)out 11 k (32 i; 1+*#*** ft). Te &er!ture incre!$e$ %ith height due to incre!$ed !)$or&tion of ultr!violet r!di!tion )' the oJone l!'er# %hich re$trict$ tur)ulence !nd i-ing. ;hile the te &er!ture !' )e L2* Q? (L+2 QF; 21* D) !t the tro&o&!u$e# the to& of the $tr!to$&here i$ uch %!r er# !nd !' )e ne!r freeJingAcit!tion neededB. The $tr!to&!u$e# %hich i$ the )ound!r' )et%een the $tr!to$&here !nd e$o$&here# t'&ic!ll' i$ !t 1* to 11 k (31 to 30 i; 12*#*** to 1.*#*** ft). The &re$$ure here i$ 1O1*** $e! level. Tro&o$&here ,!in !rticle8 Tro&o$&here The tro&o$&here )egin$ !t the $urf!ce !nd e-tend$ to )et%een 9 k (3*#*** ft) !t the &ole$ !nd 1+ k (12#*** ft) !t the e>u!tor#A+B %ith $o e v!ri!tion due to %e!ther. The tro&o$&here i$ o$tl' he!ted )' tr!n$fer of energ'

fro the $urf!ce# $o on !ver!ge the lo%e$t &!rt of the tro&o$&here i$ %!r e$t !nd te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith !ltitude. Thi$ &ro ote$ vertic!l i-ing (hence the origin of it$ n! e in the Greek %ord 6RSTUV6# tro&e# e!ning turn or overturn). The tro&o$&here cont!in$ roughl' .*G of the !$$ of the !t o$&here.A.B The tro&o&!u$e i$ the )ound!r' )et%een the tro&o$&here !nd $tr!to$&here. @ther l!'er$ ;ithin the five &rinci&!l l!'er$ deter ined )' te &er!ture !re $ever!l l!'er$ deter ined )' other &ro&ertie$8 The oJone l!'er i$ cont!ined %ithin the $tr!to$&here. 7n thi$ l!'er oJone concentr!tion$ !re !)out 2 to . &!rt$ &er illion# %hich i$ uch higher th!n in the lo%er !t o$&here )ut $till ver' $ !ll co &!red to the !in co &onent$ of the !t o$&here. 7t i$ !inl' loc!ted in the lo%er &ortion of the $tr!to$&here fro !)out 11N31 k (9.3N22 i; 09#***N11*#*** ft)# though the thickne$$ v!rie$ $e!$on!ll' !nd geogr!&hic!ll'. A)out 9*G of the oJone in our !t o$&here i$ cont!ined in the $tr!to$&here. The iono$&here# the &!rt of the !t o$&here th!t i$ ioniJed )' $ol!r r!di!tion# $tretche$ fro 1* to 1#*** k (31 to 22* i; 12*#*** to 3#3**#*** ft) !nd t'&ic!ll' overl!&$ )oth the e-o$&here !nd the ther o$&here. 7t for $ the inner edge of the !gneto$&here. 7t h!$ &r!ctic!l i &ort!nce )ec!u$e it influence$# for e-! &le# r!dio &ro&!g!tion on the :!rth. 7t i$ re$&on$i)le for !uror!$. The ho o$&here !nd hetero$&here !re defined )' %hether the !t o$&heric g!$e$ !re %ell i-ed. 7n the ho o$&here the che ic!l co &o$ition of the !t o$&here doe$ not de&end on olecul!r %eight )ec!u$e the g!$e$ !re i-ed )' tur)ulence.A9B The ho o$&here include$ the tro&o$&here# $tr!to$&here# !nd e$o$&here. A)ove the tur)o&!u$e !t !)out 1** k (22 i; 33*#*** ft) (e$$enti!ll' corre$&onding to the e$o&!u$e)# the co &o$ition v!rie$ %ith !ltitude. Thi$ i$ )ec!u$e the di$t!nce th!t &!rticle$ c!n ove %ithout colliding %ith one !nother i$ l!rge co &!red %ith the $iJe of otion$ th!t c!u$e i-ing. Thi$ !llo%$ the g!$e$ to $tr!tif' )' olecul!r %eight# %ith the he!vier one$ $uch !$ o-'gen !nd nitrogen &re$ent onl' ne!r the )otto of the hetero$&here. The u&&er &!rt of the hetero$&here i$ co &o$ed !l o$t co &letel' of h'drogen# the lighte$t ele ent. The &l!net!r' )ound!r' l!'er i$ the &!rt of the tro&o$&here th!t i$ ne!re$t the :!rth5$ $urf!ce !nd i$ directl' !ffected )' it# !inl' through tur)ulent diffu$ion. Furing the d!' the &l!net!r' )ound!r' l!'er u$u!ll' i$ %elli-ed# %hile !t night it )eco e$ $t!)l' $tr!tified %ith %e!k or inter ittent i-ing. The de&th of the &l!net!r' )ound!r' l!'er r!nge$ fro !$ little !$ !)out 1** on cle!r# c!l night$ to 3*** or ore during the !fternoon in dr' region$. The !ver!ge te &er!ture of the !t o$&here !t the $urf!ce of :!rth i$ 10 Q? (1+ QF; 2.+ D)A1*B or 11 Q? (19 QF; 2.. D)#A11B de&ending on the reference.A12BA13BA10B Hh'$ic!l &ro&ertie$

?o &!ri$on of the 1922 P9 9t!nd!rd At o$&here gr!&h of geo etric !ltitude !g!in$t !ir den$it'# &re$$ure# the $&eed of $ound !nd te &er!ture %ith !&&ro-i !te !ltitude$ of v!riou$ o)(ect$.A11B Hre$$ure !nd thickne$$ ,!in !rticle8 At o$&heric &re$$ure The !ver!ge !t o$&heric &re$$ure !t $e! level i$ !)out 1 !t o$&here (!t )W1*1.3 kH! (kilo&!$c!l$)W10.+ &$i (&ound$ &er $>u!re inch)W+2* torrW29.92 inche$ of ercur' ($' )ol Hg). Tot!l !t o$&heric !$$ i$ 1.10.*C1*1. kg (1.131C1*19 l))#A12B !)out 2.1G le$$ th!n %ould )e inferred fro the !ver!ge $e! level &re$$ure !nd the :!rth5$ !re! of 11**+.2 eg!hect!re$# thi$ &ortion )eing di$&l!ced )' the :!rth5$ ount!inou$ terr!in. At o$&heric &re$$ure i$ the tot!l %eight of the !ir !)ove unit !re! !t the &oint %here the &re$$ure i$ e!$ured. Thu$ !ir &re$$ure v!rie$ %ith loc!tion !nd %e!ther. 7f the !t o$&here h!d ! unifor den$it'# it %ould ter in!te !)ru&tl' !t !n !ltitude of ..1* k (2+#9** ft). 7t !ctu!ll' decre!$e$ e-&onenti!ll' %ith !ltitude# dro&&ing )' h!lf ever' 1.2 k (1.#*** ft) or )' ! f!ctor of 1Oe ever' +.20 k (21#1** ft)# the !ver!ge $c!le height of the !t o$&here )elo% +* k (03 i; 23*#*** ft). Ho%ever# the !t o$&here i$ ore !ccur!tel' odeled %ith ! cu$to iJed e>u!tion for e!ch l!'er th!t t!ke$ gr!dient$ of te &er!ture# olecul!r co &o$ition# $ol!r r!di!tion !nd gr!vit' into !ccount. 7n $u !r'# the !$$ of the e!rth5$ !t o$&here i$ di$tri)uted !&&ro-i !tel' !$ follo%$8A1+B 1*G i$ )elo% 1.2 k (1.#*** ft). 9*G i$ )elo% 12 k (12#*** ft). 99.9999+G i$ )elo% 1** k (22 i; 33*#*** ft)# the DEr En line. B' intern!tion!l convention# thi$ !rk$ the )eginning of $&!ce %here hu !n tr!veler$ !re con$idered !$tron!ut$. B' co &!ri$on# the $u it of ,t. :vere$t i$ !t .#.0. (29#*29 ft); co erci!l !irliner$ t'&ic!ll' crui$e )et%een 1* k (33#*** ft) !nd 13 k (03#*** ft) %here the thinner !ir i &rove$ fuel econo '; %e!ther )!lloon$ re!ch 3*.0 k (1**#*** ft) !nd !)ove; !nd the highe$t K-11 flight in 1923 re!ched 1*..* k (310#3** ft). :ven !)ove the DEr En line# $ignific!nt !t o$&heric effect$ $uch !$ !uror!$ $till occur. ,eteor$ )egin to glo% in thi$ region though the l!rger one$ !' not )urn u& until the' &enetr!te ore dee&l'. The v!riou$ l!'er$ of the e!rth5$ iono$&here# i &ort!nt to HF r!dio &ro&!g!tion# )egin )elo% 1** k !nd e-tend )e'ond 1** k . B' co &!ri$on# the 7ntern!tion!l 9&!ce 9t!tion !nd 9&!ce 9huttle t'&ic!ll' or)it !t 31*N0** k # %ithin the F-l!'er

of the iono$&here %here the' encounter enough !t o$&heric dr!g to re>uire re)oo$t$ ever' fe% onth$. Fe&ending on $ol!r !ctivit'# $!tellite$ c!n $till e-&erience notice!)le !t o$&heric dr!g !t !ltitude$ !$ high !$ +**N.** k . Te &er!ture !nd $&eed of $ound ,!in !rticle$8 At o$&heric te &er!ture !nd 9&eed of $ound The divi$ion of the !t o$&here into l!'er$ o$tl' )' reference to te &er!ture i$ di$cu$$ed !)ove. Te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith !ltitude $t!rting !t $e! level# )ut v!ri!tion$ in thi$ trend )egin !)ove 11 k # %here the te &er!ture $t!)iliJe$ through ! l!rge vertic!l di$t!nce through the re$t of the tro&o$&here. 7n the $tr!to$&here# $t!rting !)ove !)out 2* k # the te &er!ture incre!$e$ %ith height# due to he!ting %ithin the oJone l!'er c!u$ed )' c!&ture of $ignific!nt ultr!violet r!di!tion fro the 9un )' the dio-'gen !nd oJone g!$ in thi$ region. 9till !nother region of incre!$ing te &er!ture %ith !ltitude occur$ !t ver' high !ltitude$# in the !&tl'-n! ed ther o$&here !)ove 9* k . Bec!u$e in !n ide!l g!$ of con$t!nt co &o$ition the $&eed of $ound de&end$ onl' on te &er!ture !nd not on the g!$ &re$$ure or den$it'# the $&eed of $ound in the !t o$&here %ith !ltitude t!ke$ on the for of the co &lic!ted te &er!ture &rofile ($ee illu$tr!tion to the right)# !nd doe$ not irror !ltitudin!l ch!nge$ in den$it' or &re$$ure. Fen$it' !nd !$$ Te &er!ture !nd !$$ den$it' !g!in$t !ltitude fro the "</,979:-** $t!nd!rd !t o$&here odel (the eight dotted line$ in e!ch 6dec!de6 !re !t the eight cu)e$ .# 2+# 20# ...# +29) ,!in !rticle8 Fen$it' of !ir The den$it' of !ir !t $e! level i$ !)out 1.2 kgO 3 (1.2 gO/). Fen$it' i$ not e!$ured directl' )ut i$ c!lcul!ted fro e!$ure ent$ of te &er!ture# &re$$ure !nd hu idit' u$ing the e>u!tion of $t!te for !ir (! for of the ide!l g!$ l!%). At o$&heric den$it' decre!$e$ !$ the !ltitude incre!$e$. Thi$ v!ri!tion c!n )e !&&ro-i !tel' odeled u$ing the )!ro etric for ul!. ,ore $o&hi$tic!ted odel$ !re u$ed to &redict or)it!l dec!' of $!tellite$. The !ver!ge !$$ of the !t o$&here i$ !)out 1 >u!drillion (1C1*11) tonne$ or 1O1#2**#*** the !$$ of :!rth. According to the A eric!n "!tion!l ?enter for At o$&heric <e$e!rch# 6The tot!l e!n !$$ of the !t o$&here i$ 1.10.*C1*1. kg %ith !n !nnu!l r!nge due to %!ter v!&or of 1.2 or 1.1C1*11 kg de&ending on %hether $urf!ce &re$$ure or %!ter v!&or d!t! !re u$ed; $o e%h!t $ !ller th!n the &reviou$ e$ti !te. The e!n !$$ of %!ter v!&or i$ e$ti !ted !$ 1.2+C1*12 kg !nd the dr' !ir !$$ !$ 1.1312 X*.***3C1*1. kg.6 @&tic!l &ro&ertie$ 9ee !l$o8 9unlight 9ol!r r!di!tion (or $unlight) i$ the energ' the :!rth receive$ fro the 9un. The :!rth !l$o e it$ r!di!tion )!ck into $&!ce# )ut !t longer %!velength$ th!t %e c!nnot $ee. H!rt of the inco ing !nd e itted r!di!tion i$ !)$or)ed or reflected )' the !t o$&here. 9c!ttering ,!in !rticle8 9c!ttering ;hen light &!$$e$ through our !t o$&here# &hoton$ inter!ct %ith it through $c!ttering. 7f the light doe$ not inter!ct %ith the !t o$&here# it i$ c!lled direct r!di!tion !nd i$ %h!t 'ou $ee if 'ou %ere to look directl' !t the 9un. 7ndirect r!di!tion i$ light th!t h!$ )een $c!ttered in the !t o$&here. For e-! &le# on !n overc!$t d!' %hen 'ou c!nnot $ee 'our $h!do% there i$ no direct r!di!tion re!ching 'ou# it h!$ !ll )een $c!ttered. A$ !nother e-! &le# due to ! &heno enon c!lled <!'leigh $c!ttering# $horter ()lue) %!velength$ $c!tter ore e!$il' th!n longer (red) %!velength$. Thi$ i$ %h' the $k' look$ )lue; 'ou !re $eeing $c!ttered )lue light. Thi$ i$ !l$o %h' $un$et$ !re red. Bec!u$e the 9un i$ clo$e to the horiJon# the 9un5$ r!'$ &!$$ through ore !t o$&here th!n nor !l to re!ch 'our e'e. ,uch of the )lue light h!$ )een $c!ttered out# le!ving the red light in ! $un$et. A)$or&tion ,!in !rticle8 A)$or&tion (electro !gnetic r!di!tion) Fifferent olecule$ !)$or) different %!velength$ of r!di!tion. For e-! &le# @2 !nd @3 !)$or) !l o$t !ll %!velength$ $horter th!n 3** n!no eter$. ;!ter (H2@) !)$or)$ !n' %!velength$ !)ove +** n . ;hen ! olecule !)$or)$ ! &hoton# it incre!$e$ the energ' of the olecule. ;e c!n think of thi$ !$ he!ting the !t o$&here# )ut the !t o$&here !l$o cool$ )' e itting r!di!tion# !$ di$cu$$ed )elo%. <ough &lot of :!rth5$ !t o$&heric tr!n$ itt!nce (or o&!cit') to v!riou$ %!velength$ of electro !gnetic r!di!tion# including vi$i)le light. The co )ined !)$or&tion $&ectr! of the g!$e$ in the !t o$&here le!ve 6%indo%$6 of lo% o&!cit'# !llo%ing the tr!n$ i$$ion of onl' cert!in )!nd$ of light. The o&tic!l %indo% run$ fro !round 3** n (ultr!violet-?) u& into the r!nge hu !n$ c!n $ee# the vi$i)le $&ectru (co onl' c!lled light)# !t roughl' 0**N+** n !nd continue$ to the infr!red to !round 11** n . There !re !l$o infr!red !nd r!dio %indo%$ th!t tr!n$ it $o e infr!red !nd r!dio

%!ve$ !t longer %!velength$. For e-! &le# the r!dio %indo% run$ fro !)out one centi eter to !)out eleveneter %!ve$. : i$$ion ,!in !rticle8 : i$$ion (electro !gnetic r!di!tion) : i$$ion i$ the o&&o$ite of !)$or&tion# it i$ %hen !n o)(ect e it$ r!di!tion. @)(ect$ tend to e it ! ount$ !nd %!velength$ of r!di!tion de&ending on their 6)l!ck )od'6 e i$$ion curve$# therefore hotter o)(ect$ tend to e it ore r!di!tion# %ith $horter %!velength$. ?older o)(ect$ e it le$$ r!di!tion# %ith longer %!velength$. For e-! &le# the 9un i$ !&&ro-i !tel' 2#*** D (1#+3* Q?; 1*#30* QF)# it$ r!di!tion &e!k$ ne!r 1** n # !nd i$ vi$i)le to the hu !n e'e. The :!rth i$ !&&ro-i !tel' 29* D (1+ Q?; 22 QF)# $o it$ r!di!tion &e!k$ ne!r 1*#*** n # !nd i$ uch too long to )e vi$i)le to hu !n$. Bec!u$e of it$ te &er!ture# the !t o$&here e it$ infr!red r!di!tion. For e-! &le# on cle!r night$ the :!rth5$ $urf!ce cool$ do%n f!$ter th!n on cloud' night$. Thi$ i$ )ec!u$e cloud$ (H2@) !re $trong !)$or)er$ !nd e itter$ of infr!red r!di!tion. Thi$ i$ !l$o %h' it )eco e$ colder !t night !t higher elev!tion$. The !t o$&here !ct$ !$ ! 6)l!nket6 to li it the ! ount of r!di!tion the :!rth lo$e$ into $&!ce. The greenhou$e effect i$ directl' rel!ted to thi$ !)$or&tion !nd e i$$ion (or 6)l!nket6) effect. 9o e che ic!l$ in the !t o$&here !)$or) !nd e it infr!red r!di!tion# )ut do not inter!ct %ith $unlight in the vi$i)le $&ectru . ?o on e-! &le$ of the$e che ic!l$ !re ?@2 !nd H2@. 7f there !re too uch of the$e greenhou$e g!$e$# $unlight he!t$ the :!rth5$ $urf!ce# )ut the g!$e$ )lock the infr!red r!di!tion fro e-iting )!ck to $&!ce. Thi$ i )!l!nce c!u$e$ the :!rth to %!r # !nd thu$ cli !te ch!nge. <efr!ctive indeThe refr!ctive inde- of !ir i$ clo$e to# )ut (u$t gre!ter th!n 1. 9'$te !tic v!ri!tion$ in refr!ctive inde- c!n le!d to the )ending of light r!'$ over long o&tic!l &!th$. @ne e-! &le i$ th!t# under $o e circu $t!nce$# o)$erver$ on)o!rd $hi&$ c!n $ee other ve$$el$ (u$t over the horiJon )ec!u$e light i$ refr!cted in the $! e direction !$ the curv!ture of the :!rth5$ $urf!ce. The refr!ctive inde- of !ir de&end$ on te &er!ture# giving ri$e to refr!ction effect$ %hen the te &er!ture gr!dient i$ l!rge. An e-! &le of $uch effect$ i$ the ir!ge. 9ee !l$o8 9cintill!tion (!$trono ') ?ircul!tion ,!in !rticle8 At o$&heric circul!tion An ide!li$ed vie% of three l!rge circul!tion cell$. At o$&heric circul!tion i$ the l!rge-$c!le ove ent of !ir through the tro&o$&here# !nd the e!n$ (%ith oce!n circul!tion) )' %hich he!t i$ di$tri)uted !round the :!rth. The l!rge-$c!le $tructure of the !t o$&heric circul!tion v!rie$ fro 'e!r to 'e!r# )ut the )!$ic $tructure re !in$ f!irl' con$t!nt !$ it i$ deter ined )' the :!rth5$ rot!tion r!te !nd the difference in $ol!r r!di!tion )et%een the e>u!tor !nd &ole$. :volution of :!rth5$ !t o$&here 9ee !l$o8 Hi$tor' of :!rth !nd H!leocli !tolog' :!rlie$t !t o$&here The fir$t !t o$&here %ould h!ve con$i$ted of g!$e$ in the $ol!r ne)ul!# &ri !ril' h'drogen. 7n !ddition there %ould &ro)!)l' h!ve )een $i &le h'dride$ $uch !$ !re no% found in g!$-gi!nt &l!net$ like Yu&iter !nd 9!turn# not!)l' %!ter v!&or# eth!ne !nd ! oni!. A$ the $ol!r ne)ul! di$$i&!ted the$e g!$e$ %ould h!ve e$c!&ed# &!rtl' driven off )' the $ol!r %ind.A1.B 9econd !t o$&here The ne-t !t o$&here# con$i$ting l!rgel' of nitrogen &lu$ c!r)on dio-ide !nd inert g!$e$# %!$ &roduced )' outg!$$ing fro volc!ni$ # $u&&le ented )' g!$e$ &roduced during the l!te he!v' )o )!rd ent of :!rth )' huge !$teroid$.A1.B A !(or r!inf!ll led to the )uildu& of ! v!$t oce!n. A !(or &!rt of c!r)on dio-ide e-h!l!tion$ %ere $oon di$$olved in %!ter !nd )uilt u& c!r)on!te $edi ent$. ;!ter-rel!ted $edi ent$ h!ve )een found d!ting fro !$ e!rl' !$ 3.. )illion 'e!r$ !go.A19B A)out 3.0 )illion 'e!r$ !go# nitrogen %!$ the !(or &!rt of the then $t!)le 6$econd !t o$&here6. An influence of life h!$ to )e t!ken into !ccount r!ther $oon in the hi$tor' of the !t o$&here# $ince hint$ of e!rl' life for $ !re to )e found !$ e!rl' !$ 3.1 )illion 'e!r$ !go.A2*B The f!ct th!t thi$ i$ not &erfectl' in line %ith the 3*G lo%er $ol!r r!di!nce (co &!red to tod!') of the e!rl' 9un h!$ )een de$cri)ed !$ the 6f!int 'oung 9un &!r!do-6. The geologic!l record ho%ever $ho%$ ! continu!ll' rel!tivel' %!r $urf!ce during the co &lete e!rl' te &er!ture record of the :!rth %ith the e-ce&tion of one cold gl!ci!l &h!$e !)out 2.0 )illion 'e!r$ !go. 7n the l!te Arch!e!n eon !n o-'gen-cont!ining !t o$&here )eg!n to develo&# !&&!rentl' fro &hoto$'nthe$iJing !lg!e %hich h!ve )een found !$ $tro !tolite fo$$il$ fro 2.+ )illion 'e!r$ !go. The e!rl' )!$ic c!r)on i$oto&' (i$oto&e r!tio &ro&ortion$) i$ ver' uch in line %ith %h!t i$ found tod!'#A21B $ugge$ting th!t the fund! ent!l fe!ture$ of the c!r)on c'cle %ere e$t!)li$hed !$ e!rl' !$ 0 )illion 'e!r$ !go.

Third !t o$&here @-'gen content of the !t o$&here over the l!$t )illion 'e!r$. Thi$ di!gr! in ore det!il The !ccretion of continent$ !)out 3.1 )illion 'e!r$ !goA22B !dded &l!te tectonic$# con$t!ntl' re!rr!nging the continent$ !nd !l$o $h!&ing long-ter cli !te evolution )' !llo%ing the tr!n$fer of c!r)on dio-ide to l!rge l!nd)!$ed c!r)on!te $tore$. Free o-'gen did not e-i$t until !)out 1.+ )illion 'e!r$ !go !nd thi$ c!n )e $een %ith the develo& ent of the red )ed$ !nd the end of the )!nded iron for !tion$. The :!rth h!d ! lot of iron in the )eginning# !nd higher ! ount$ of o-'gen %!$ not !v!il!)le in the !t o$&here until !ll the iron h!d )een o-idiJed. Thi$ $ignifie$ ! $hift fro ! reducing !t o$&here to !n o-idiJing !t o$&here. @2 $ho%ed !(or u&$ !nd do%n$ until re!ching ! $te!d' $t!te of ore th!n 11G.A23B The follo%ing ti e $&!n %!$ the Hh!neroJoic eon# during %hich o-'gen-)re!thing et!Jo!n life for $ )eg!n to !&&e!r. The ! ount of o-'gen in the !t o$&here h!$ gone u& !nd do%n during the l!$t 2** illion 'e!r$. There %!$ ! &e!k 2.* illion 'e!r$ !go# %hen the ! ount of o-'gen %!$ !)out 3*G# uch higher th!n tod!'. T%o !in &roce$$e$ govern ch!nge$ in the !t o$&here8 Hl!nt$ convert$ c!r)on dio-ide into the )odie$ of the &l!nt$# %hich e it$ o-'gen into the !t o$&here# !nd )re!k do%n of &'rite rock$ c!u$e $ul&hur to )e !dded to the oce!n$. Iolc!no$ c!u$e thi$ $ul&hur to )e o-idiJed# reducing the ! ount of o-'gen in the !t o$&here. But volc!no$ !l$o e it c!r)on dio-ide# $o th!t &l!nt$ c!n convert thi$ to o-'gen. The e-!ct c!u$e of the v!ri!tion of o-'gen in the !t o$&here i$ not kno%n. Heriod$ %ith uch o-'gen in the !t o$&here !re )elieved to c!u$e r!&id develo& ent of !ni !l$. :ven though the !t o$&here tod!' h!$ onl' 21 &ercent o-'gen# tod!' i$ $till reg!rded !$ ! &eriod %ith r!&id develo& ent of !ni !l$ )ec!u$e of ! high ! ount of o-'gen in the !t o$&here.A20B ?urrentl'# !nthro&ogenic greenhou$e g!$e$ !re incre!$ing in the !t o$&here. According to the 7ntergovern ent!l H!nel on ?li !te ?h!nge# thi$ incre!$e i$ the !in c!u$e of glo)!l %!r ing.A21B Air &ollution ,!in !rticle8 Air &ollution Air &ollution i$ the introduction of che ic!l$# &!rticul!te !tter# or )iologic!l !teri!l$ th!t c!u$e h!r or di$co fort to org!ni$ $ into the !t o$&here.A22B 9tr!to$&heric oJone de&letion i$ )elieved to )e c!u$ed )' !ir &ollution (chiefl' fro chlorofluoroc!r)on$).Acit!tion neededB 9ee !l$o At o$&here &ort!l :nviron ent &ort!l Aeri!l &er$&ective Air glo% Air$hed At o$&here (for infor !tion on !t o$&here$ in gener!l) At o$&heric di$&er$ion odeling At o$&heric electricit' At o$&heric odel$ At o$&heric <!di!tion ,e!$ure ent (A<,) (in the P.9.) At o$&heric $tr!tific!tion Avi!tion Bio$&here ?!r)on dio-ide in :!rth5$ !t o$&here ?o &re$$ed !ir :nviron ent!l i &!ct of !vi!tion Glo)!l di ing Hi$toric!l te &er!ture record H'dro$&here H'&er o)ilit' (tr!vel) D'oto Hrotocol /e!ching (!griculture) /itho$&here 9t!nd!rd Fr' Air ?@9HA< intern!tion!l reference !t o$&here (?7<A) P.9. 9t!nd!rd At o$&here ;!r &eriod ;!ter v!&or in :!rth5$ !t o$&here <eference$ Z 6799*22-:-*222+2 c!&tion6. "A9A. <etrieved 21 9e&te )er 2*12.

Z 6Tr!ce G!$e$6. Ace. u.!c.uk. Archived fro the origin!l on 9 @cto)er 2*1*. <etrieved 2*1*-1*-12. Z 9ource for figure$8 ?!r)on dio-ide# "@AA :!rth 9'$te <e$e!rch /!)or!tor'# (u&d!ted 2*12.*3). ,eth!ne# 7H?? TA< t!)le 2.1# (u&d!ted to 199.). The "A9A tot!l %!$ 1+ && v over 1**G# !nd ?@2 %!$ incre!$ed here )' 11 && v. To nor !liJe# "2 $hould )e reduced )' !)out 21 && v !nd @2 )' !)out + && v. Z Ahren$# ?. Fon!ld. :$$enti!l$ of ,eteorolog'. Hu)li$hed )' Tho $on Brook$O?ole# 2**1. Z 9t!te$# <o)ert Y.; G!rdner# ?he$ter 9. (Y!nu!r' 2***). 6Ther !l 9tructure of the ,e$o&!u$e <egion (.*N1*1 k ) !t 0*Q" /!titude. H!rt 78 9e!$on!l I!ri!tion$6. Yourn!l of the At o$&heric 9cience$ 2*** 1+8 22N++. Bi)code 2***YAt9...1+...229. doi81*.11+1O112*-*029(2***)*1+[**228T9@T,<\2.*.?@;2. Z Yoe Buchd!hl. 6At o$&here# ?li !te ] :nviron ent 7nfor !tion Hrogr! e6. Ace. u.!c.uk. <etrieved 2*12-*0-1.. Z 6The height of the tro&o&!u$e6. F!$.u%'o.edu. <etrieved 2*12-*0-1.. Z ,cGr!%-Hill ?onci$e :nc'clo&edi! of 9cience ] Technolog'. (19.0). Tro&o$here. 67t cont!in$ !)out fourfifth$ of the !$$ of the %hole !t o$&here.6 Z 655ho o$&here55^A,9 Glo$$!r'6. A $glo$$!r'.!llen&re$$.co . Archived fro the origin!l on 10 9e&te )er 2*1*. <etrieved 2*1*-1*-12. Z 6:!rth5$ At o$&here6. Z 6"A9A ^ :!rth F!ct 9heet6. "$$dc.g$fc.n!$!.gov. Archived fro the origin!l on 3* @cto)er 2*1*. <etrieved 2*1*-1*-12. Z 6Glo)!l 9urf!ce Te &er!ture Ano !lie$6. Z 6:!rth5$ <!di!tion B!l!nce !nd @ce!nic He!t Flu-e$6. Z 6?ou&led ,odel 7nterco &!ri$on Hro(ect ?ontrol <un6. Z Geo etric !ltitude v$. te &er!ture# &re$$ure# den$it'# !nd the $&eed of $ound derived fro the 1922 P.9. 9t!nd!rd At o$&here. Z 6The ,!$$ of the At o$&here8 A ?on$tr!int on Glo)!l An!l'$e$6. A $.!llen&re$$.co . 19+*-*1-*1. <etrieved 2*1*-1*-12. Z /utgen$# Frederick D. !nd :d%!rd Y. T!r)uck (1991) The At o$&here# Hrentice H!ll# 2th ed.# &&10-1+# 79B" *-13-31*212-2 Z ! ) _!hnle# D.; 9ch!efer# /.; Fegle'# B. (2*1*). 6:!rth5$ :!rlie$t At o$&here$6. ?old 9&ring H!r)or Her$&ective$ in Biolog' 2 (1*)8 !**0.91. doi81*.11*1Oc$h&er$&ect.!**0.91. H,7F 2*1+3+13. edit Z B. ;indle'8 The :volving ?ontinent$. ;ile' Hre$$# "e% `ork 19.0 Z Y. 9cho&f8 :!rth5$ :!rlie$t Bio$&here8 7t$ @rigin !nd :volution. Hrinceton Pniver$it' Hre$$# Hrinceton# ".Y.# 19.3 Z ?ele$ti!l cli !te driver8 ! &er$&ective fro 0 )illion 'e!r$ of the c!r)on c'cle Geo$cience ?!n!d!# ,!rch# 2**1 )' Y!n IeiJer Z IeiJer in B. F. ;indle' (ed.)# The :!rl' Hi$tor' of the :!rth# Yohn ;ile' !nd 9on$# /ondon# &. 129.# 19+2 Z ?hri$to&her <. 9cote$e# B!ck to :!rth Hi$tor' 8 9u !r' ?h!rt for the Hrec! )ri!n# H!leo !r Hro(ect Z Heter ;!rd8A1B @ut of Thin AirB8 Fino$!ur$# Bird$# !nd :!rth5$ Ancient At o$&here Z 69u !r' for Holic' !ker$6 (HFF). ?li !te ?h!nge 2**+8 The Hh'$ic!l 9cience B!$i$. ?ontri)ution of ;orking Grou& 7 to the Fourth A$$e$$ ent <e&ort of the 7ntergovern ent!l H!nel on ?li !te ?h!nge. 7ntergovern ent!l H!nel on ?li !te ?h!nge. 1 Fe)ru!r' 2**+. Z 9t!rting fro A2B Hollution ^ Fefinition fro the ,erri! -;e)$ter @nline Fiction!r' :-tern!l link$ ;iki edi! ?o on$ h!$ edi! rel!ted to8 :!rth5$ !t o$&here "A9A !t o$&here odel$ "A9A5$ :!rth F!ct 9heet A eric!n Geo&h'$ic!l Pnion8 At o$&heric 9cience$ @utre!ch of the G:@ on &ro(ect 9ee ho% :!rth !t o$&here i$ o)$erved !nd onitored )' ! :uro&e!n &ro(ect th!t co )ine$ !n' !&&ro!che$. 9tuff in the Air Find out %h!t the !t o$&here cont!in$. /!'er$ of the At o$&here An$%er$ to $ever!l >ue$tion$ of curiou$ kid$ rel!ted to Air !nd At o$&here The A,9 Glo$$!r' of ,eteorolog' H!ul ?rutJen 7ntervie% Free video of H!ul ?rutJen "o)el /!ure!te for hi$ %ork on deco &o$ition of oJone t!lking to H!rr' Droto "o)el /!ure!te )' the Ieg! 9cience Tru$t.

Tro&o$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! For the ?ongole$e e-&eri ent!l rocket f! il'# $ee Tro&o$&here (rocket f! il'). 9&!ce 9huttle :nde!vour !&&e!r$ to $tr!ddle the $tr!to$&here !nd e$o$&here in thi$ &hoto. 6The or!nge l!'er i$ the tro&o$&here# %here !ll of the %e!ther !nd cloud$ %hich %e t'&ic!ll' %!tch !nd e-&erience !re gener!ted !nd cont!ined. Thi$ or!nge l!'er give$ %!' to the %hiti$h $tr!to$&here !nd then into the e$o$&here.6A1B :!rth !t o$&here di!gr! $ho%ing the e-o$&here !nd other l!'er$. The l!'er$ !re to $c!le. Fro :!rth5$ $urf!ce to the to& of the $tr!to$&here (1*k ) i$ (u$t under 1G of :!rth5$ r!diu$. The tro&o$&here i$ the lo%e$t &ortion of :!rth5$ !t o$&here. 7t cont!in$ !&&ro-i !tel' .*G of the !t o$&here5$ !$$ !nd 99G of it$ %!ter v!&or !nd !ero$ol$.A2B The !ver!ge de&th of the tro&o$&here i$ !&&ro-i !tel' 1+ k (11 i) in the iddle l!titude$. 7t i$ dee&er in the tro&ic$# u& to 2* k (12 i)# !nd $h!llo%er ne!r the &ol!r region$# !t + k (0.3 i) in $u er# !nd indi$tinct in %inter. The lo%e$t &!rt of the tro&o$&here# %here friction %ith the :!rth5$ $urf!ce influence$ !ir flo%# i$ the &l!net!r' )ound!r' l!'er. Thi$ l!'er i$ t'&ic!ll' ! fe% hundred eter$ to 2 k (1.2 i) dee& de&ending on the l!ndfor !nd ti e of d!'. The )order )et%een the tro&o$&here !nd $tr!to$&here# c!lled the tro&o&!u$e# i$ ! te &er!ture inver$ion.A3B The %ord tro&o$&here derive$ fro the Greek8 tro&o$ for 6turning6 or 6 i-ing#6 reflecting the f!ct th!t tur)ulent i-ing &l!'$ !n i &ort!nt role in the tro&o$&here5$ $tructure !nd )eh!vior. ,o$t of the &heno en! %e !$$oci!te %ith d!'-to-d!' %e!ther occur in the tro&o$&here.A3B ?ontent$ AhideB 1 Hre$$ure !nd te &er!ture $tructure 1.1 ?o &o$ition 1.2 Hre$$ure 1.3 Te &er!ture 1.0 Tro&o&!u$e 2 At o$&heric flo% 2.1 _on!l Flo% 2.2 ,eridion!l flo% 2.3 Three-cell odel 3 9'no&tic $c!le o)$erv!tion$ !nd conce&t$ 3.1 Forcing 3.2 Fivergence !nd ?onvergence 0 <eference$ 1 :-tern!l link$ AeditBHre$$ure !nd te &er!ture $tructure

A vie% of :!rth5$ tro&o$&here fro

!n !ir&l!ne.

At o$&heric circul!tion $ho%n %ith three l!rge cell$. AeditB?o &o$ition The che ic!l co &o$ition of the tro&o$&here i$ e$$enti!ll' unifor # %ith the not!)le e-ce&tion of %!ter v!&or. The $ource of %!ter v!&or i$ !t the $urf!ce through the &roce$$e$ of ev!&or!tion !nd tr!n$&ir!tion. Further ore the te &er!ture of the tro&o$&here decre!$e$ %ith height# !nd $!tur!tion v!&or &re$$ure decre!$e$ $trongl' !$ te &er!ture dro&$# $o the ! ount of %!ter v!&or th!t c!n e-i$t in the !t o$&here decre!$e$ $trongl' %ith height. Thu$ the &ro&ortion of %!ter v!&or i$ nor !ll' gre!te$t ne!r the $urf!ce !nd decre!$e$ %ith height. AeditBHre$$ure The &re$$ure of the !t o$&here i$ !-i u !t $e! level !nd decre!$e$ %ith higher !ltitude. Thi$ i$ )ec!u$e the !t o$&here i$ ver' ne!rl' in h'dro$t!tic e>uili)riu # $o th!t the &re$$ure i$ e>u!l to the %eight of !ir !)ove ! given &oint. The ch!nge in &re$$ure %ith height# therefore c!n )e e>u!ted to the den$it' %ith thi$ h'dro$t!tic e>u!tion8A0B %here8 gn i$ the $t!nd!rd gr!vit'

S i$ the den$it' J i$ the !ltitude & i$ the &re$$ure < i$ the g!$ con$t!nt T i$ the ther od'n! ic (!)$olute) te &er!ture i$ the ol!r !$$ 9ince te &er!ture in &rinci&le !l$o de&end$ on !ltitude# one need$ ! $econd e>u!tion to deter ine the &re$$ure !$ ! function of height# !$ di$cu$$ed in the ne-t $ection.a AeditBTe &er!ture ,!in !rticle8 /!&$e r!te The te &er!ture of the tro&o$&here gener!ll' decre!$e$ !$ !ltitude incre!$e$. The r!te !t %hich the te &er!ture decre!$e$# # i$ c!lled the environ ent!l l!&$e r!te (:/<). The :/< i$ nothing ore th!n the difference in te &er!ture )et%een the $urf!ce !nd the tro&o&!u$e divided )' the height. The re!$on for thi$ te &er!ture difference i$ the !)$or&tion of the $un5$ energ' occur$ !t the ground %hich he!t$ the lo%er level$ of the !t o$&here# !nd the r!di!tion of he!t occur$ !t the to& of the !t o$&here cooling the e!rth# thi$ &roce$$ !int!ining the over!ll he!t )!l!nce of the e!rth. A$ &!rcel$ of !ir in the !t o$&here ri$e !nd f!ll# the' !l$o undergo ch!nge$ in te &er!ture for re!$on$ de$cri)ed )elo%. The r!te of ch!nge of the te &er!ture in the &!rcel !' )e le$$ th!n or ore th!n the :/<. ;hen ! &!rcel of !ir ri$e$# it e-&!nd$# )ec!u$e the &re$$ure i$ lo%er !t higher !ltitude$. A$ the !ir &!rcel e-&!nd$# it &u$he$ on the !ir !round it# doing %ork; )ut gener!ll' it doe$ not g!in he!t in e-ch!nge fro it$ environ ent# )ec!u$e it$ ther !l conductivit' i$ lo% ($uch ! &roce$$ i$ c!lled !di!)!tic). 9ince the &!rcel doe$ %ork !nd g!in$ no he!t# it lo$e$ energ'# !nd $o it$ te &er!ture decre!$e$. (The rever$e# of cour$e# %ill )e true for ! $inking &!rcel of !ir.) A3B 9ince the he!t e-ch!nged i$ rel!ted to the entro&' ch!nge )' # the e>u!tion governing the te &er!ture !$ ! function of height for ! thoroughl' i-ed !t o$&here i$ %here 9 i$ the entro&'. The r!te !t %hich te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith height under $uch condition$ i$ c!lled the !di!)!tic l!&$e r!te. For dr' !ir# %hich i$ !&&ro-i !tel' !n ide!l g!$# %e c!n &roceed further. The !di!)!tic e>u!tion for !n ide!l g!$ i$ A1B %here i$ the he!t c!&!cit' r!tio (W+O1# for !ir). ?o )ining %ith the e>u!tion for the &re$$ure# one !rrive$ !t the dr' !di!)!tic l!&$e r!te#A2B 7f the !ir cont!in$ %!ter v!&or# then cooling of the !ir c!n c!u$e the %!ter to conden$e# !nd the )eh!vior i$ no longer th!t of !n ide!l g!$. 7f the !ir i$ !t the $!tur!ted v!&or &re$$ure# then the r!te !t %hich te &er!ture dro&$ %ith height i$ c!lled the $!tur!ted !di!)!tic l!&$e r!te. ,ore gener!ll'# the !ctu!l r!te !t %hich the te &er!ture dro&$ %ith !ltitude i$ c!lled the environ ent!l l!&$e r!te. 7n the tro&o$&here# the !ver!ge environ ent!l l!&$e r!te i$ ! dro& of !)out 2.1 Q? for ever' 1 k (1#*** eter$) in incre!$ed height.A3B The environ ent!l l!&$e r!te (the !ctu!l r!te !t %hich te &er!ture dro&$ %ith height# ) i$ not u$u!ll' e>u!l to the !di!)!tic l!&$e r!te (or corre$&ondingl'# ). 7f the u&&er !ir i$ %!r er th!n &redicted )' the !di!)!tic l!&$e r!te ()# then %hen ! &!rcel of !ir ri$e$ !nd e-&!nd$# it %ill !rrive !t the ne% height !t ! lo%er te &er!ture th!n it$ $urrounding$. 7n thi$ c!$e# the !ir &!rcel i$ den$er th!n it$ $urrounding$# $o it $ink$ )!ck to it$ origin!l height# !nd the !ir i$ $t!)le !g!in$t )eing lifted. 7f# on the contr!r'# the u&&er !ir i$ cooler th!n &redicted )' the !di!)!tic l!&$e r!te# then %hen the !ir &!rcel ri$e$ to it$ ne% height it %ill h!ve ! higher te &er!ture !nd ! lo%er den$it' th!n it$ $urrounding$# !nd %ill continue to !cceler!te u&%!rd.A3BA0B Te &er!ture$ decre!$e !t iddle l!titude$ fro !n !ver!ge of 11Q? !t $e! level to !)out -11Q? !t the to& of the tro&o&!u$e. At the &ole$# the tro&o$&here i$ thinner !nd the te &er!ture onl' decre!$e$ to -01Q?# %hile !t the e>u!tor the te &er!ture !t the to& of the tro&o$&here c!n re!ch -+1Q?.Acit!tion neededB AeditBTro&o&!u$e ,!in !rticle8 Tro&o&!u$e The tro&o&!u$e i$ the )ound!r' region )et%een the tro&o$&here !nd the $tr!to$&here. ,e!$uring the te &er!ture ch!nge %ith height through the tro&o$&here !nd the $tr!to$&here identifie$ the loc!tion of the tro&o&!u$e. 7n the tro&o$&here# te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith !ltitude. 7n the $tr!to$&here# ho%ever# the te &er!ture re !in$ con$t!nt for ! %hile !nd then incre!$e$ %ith !ltitude. The region of the !t o$&here %here the l!&$e r!te ch!nge$ fro &o$itive (in the tro&o$&here) to neg!tive (in the $tr!to$&here)# i$ defined !$ the tro&o&!u$e.A3B Thu$# the tro&o&!u$e i$ !n inver$ion l!'er# !nd there i$ little i-ing )et%een the t%o l!'er$ of the !t o$&here. AeditBAt o$&heric flo%

The flo% of the !t o$&here gener!ll' ove$ in ! %e$t to e!$t direction. Thi$ ho%ever c!n often )eco e interru&ted# cre!ting ! ore north to $outh or $outh to north flo%. The$e $cen!rio$ !re often de$cri)ed in eteorolog' !$ Jon!l or eridion!l. The$e ter $# ho%ever# tend to )e u$ed in reference to loc!li$ed !re!$ of !t o$&here (!t ! $'no&tic $c!le)). A fuller e-&l!n!tion of the flo% of !t o$&here !round the :!rth !$ ! %hole c!n )e found in the three-cell odel. AeditB_on!l Flo% A Jon!l flo% regi e i$ the eteorologic!l ter e!ning th!t the gener!l flo% &!ttern i$ %e$t to e!$t !long the :!rth5$ l!titude line$# %ith %e!k $hort%!ve$ e )edded in the flo%.A+B The u$e of the %ord 6Jone6 refer$ to the flo% )eing !long the :!rth5$ l!titudin!l 6Jone$6. Thi$ &!ttern c!n )uckle !nd thu$ )eco e ! eridion!l flo%. AeditB,eridion!l flo% ,eridion!l Flo% &!ttern of @cto)er 23# 2**3. "ote the ! &lified trough$ !nd ridge$ in thi$ 1** hH! height &!ttern. ;hen the Jon!l flo% )uckle$# the !t o$&here c!n flo% in ! ore longitudin!l (or eridion!l) direction# !nd thu$ the ter 6 eridion!l flo%6 !ri$e$. ,eridion!l flo% &!ttern$ fe!ture $trong# ! &lified trough$ !nd ridge$# %ith ore north-$outh flo% in the gener!l &!ttern th!n %e$t-to-e!$t flo%.A.B AeditBThree-cell odel ,!in !rticle8 At o$&heric circul!tion The three cell$ odel !tte &t$ to de$cri)e the !ctu!l flo% of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here !$ ! %hole. 7t divide$ the :!rth into the tro&ic!l (H!dle' cell)# id l!titude (Ferrel cell)# !nd &ol!r (&ol!r cell) region$# de!ling %ith energ' flo% !nd glo)!l circul!tion. 7t$ fund! ent!l &rinci&le i$ th!t of )!l!nce - the energ' th!t the :!rth !)$or)$ fro the $un e!ch 'e!r i$ e>u!l to th!t %hich it lo$e$ )!ck into $&!ce# )ut thi$ ho%ever i$ not ! )!l!nce &reci$el' !int!ined in e!ch l!titude due to the v!r'ing $trength of the $un in e!ch 6cell6 re$ulting fro the tilt of the :!rth5$ !-i$ in rel!tion to it$ or)it. 7t de on$tr!te$ th!t ! &!ttern e erge$ to irror th!t of the oce!n - the tro&ic$ do not continue to get %!r er )ec!u$e the !t o$&here tr!n$&ort$ %!r !ir &ole%!rd !nd cold !ir e>u!tor%!rd# the &ur&o$e of %hich !&&e!r$ to )e th!t of he!t !nd oi$ture di$tri)ution !round the &l!net.A9B AeditB9'no&tic $c!le o)$erv!tion$ !nd conce&t$ AeditBForcing Forcing i$ ! ter u$ed )' eteorologi$t$ to de$cri)e the $itu!tion %here ! ch!nge or !n event in one &!rt of the !t o$&here c!u$e$ ! $trengthening ch!nge in !nother &!rt of the !t o$&here. 7t i$ u$u!ll' u$ed to de$cri)e connection$ )et%een u&&er# iddle or lo%er level$ ($uch !$ u&&er-level divergence c!u$ing lo%er level convergence in c'clone for !tion)# )ut c!n $o eti e$ !l$o )e u$ed to de$cri)e $uch connection$ over di$t!nce r!ther th!n height !lone. 7n $o e re$&ect$# tele-connection$ could )e con$idered ! t'&e of forcing. AeditBFivergence !nd ?onvergence An !re! of convergence i$ one in %hich the tot!l !$$ of !ir i$ incre!$ing %ith ti e# re$ulting in !n incre!$e in &re$$ure !t loc!tion$ )elo% the convergence level (rec!ll th!t !t o$&heric &re$$ure i$ (u$t the tot!l %eight of !ir !)ove ! given &oint). Fivergence i$ the o&&o$ite of convergence - !n !re! %here the tot!l !$$ of !ir i$ decre!$ing %ith ti e# re$ulting in f!lling &re$$ure in region$ )elo% the !re! of divergence. ;here divergence i$ occurring in the u&&er !t o$&here# there %ill )e !ir co ing in to tr' to )!l!nce the net lo$$ of !$$ (thi$ i$ c!lled the &rinci&le of !$$ con$erv!tion)# !nd there i$ ! re$ulting u&%!rd otion (&o$itive vertic!l velocit'). Another %!' to $t!te thi$ i$ to $!' th!t region$ of u&&er !ir divergence !re conducive to lo%er level convergence# c'clone for !tion# !nd &o$itive vertic!l velocit'. Therefore# identif'ing region$ of u&&er !ir divergence i$ !n i &ort!nt $te& in forec!$ting the for !tion of ! $urf!ce lo% &re$$ure !re!. AeditB<eference$ Z 6799*22-:-*222+2 c!&tion6. "A9A. <etrieved 21 9e&te )er 2*12. Z ,cGr!%-Hill ?onci$e :nc'clo&edi! of 9cience ] Technolog'. (19.0). Tro&o$here. 67t cont!in$ !)out fourfifth$ of the !$$ of the %hole !t o$&here.6 Z ! ) c d e f F!niel$on# /evin# !nd A)r! $# ,eteorolog'# ,cGr!% Hill# 2**3 Z ! ) /!nd!u !nd /if$hitJ# Fluid ,ech!nic$# Herg! on# 19+9 Z /!nd!u !nd /if$hitJ# 9t!ti$tic!l Hh'$ic$ H!rt 1# Herg! on# 19.* Z Dittel !nd Droe er# Ther !l Hh'$ic$# Free !n# 19.*; ch!&ter 2# &ro)le 11 Z 6A eric!n ,eteorologic!l 9ociet' Glo$$!r' - _on!l Flo%6. Allen Hre$$ 7nc.. Yune 2***. <etrieved 2**2-1**3. Z 6A eric!n ,eteorologic!l 9ociet' Glo$$!r' - ,eridion!l Flo%6. Allen Hre$$ 7nc.. Yune 2***. <etrieved 2**21*-*3. Z 6,eteorolog' - ,9" :nc!rt!# 6:nerg' Flo% !nd Glo)!l ?ircul!tion66. :nc!rt!.,$n.co . Archived fro the origin!l on 2**9-1*-31. <etrieved 2**2-1*-13. AeditB:-tern!l link$

/ook u& tro&o$&here in ;iktion!r'# the free diction!r'. ?o &o$ition of the At o$&here# fro the Pniver$it' of Tenne$$ee Hh'$ic$ de&t. ?he ic!l <e!ction$ in the At o$&here htt&8OOenc!rt!. $n.co Oenc'clo&edi!b+211+1*3+b3O,eteorolog'.ht lc$12 (Archived 2**9-1*-31) AhideB v t e :!rth5$ !t o$&here Tro&o$&here 9tr!to$&here ,e$o$&here Ther o$&here :-o$&here Tro&o&!u$e 9tr!to&!u$e ,e$o&!u$e Ther o&!u$e O :-o)!$e @Jone l!'er Tur)o&!u$e 7ono$&here Iie% &!ge r!ting$ <!te thi$ &!ge ;h!t5$ thi$d Tru$t%orth' @)(ective ?o &lete ;ell-%ritten 7 ! highl' kno%ledge!)le !)out thi$ to&ic (o&tion!l) 9u) it r!ting$ ?!tegorie$8 At o$&hereAt o$&heric ther od'n! ic$At o$&here of :!rth 9tr!to$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! For other u$e$# $ee 9tr!to$&here (di$! )igu!tion). Thi$ !rticle need$ !ddition!l cit!tion$ for verific!tion. Hle!$e hel& i &rove thi$ !rticle )' !dding cit!tion$ to reli!)le $ource$. Pn$ourced !teri!l !' )e ch!llenged !nd re oved. (@cto)er 2*1*) 9&!ce 9huttle :nde!vour !&&e!r$ to $tr!ddle the $tr!to$&here !nd e$o$&here in thi$ &hoto. 6The or!nge l!'er i$ the tro&o$&here# %here !ll of the %e!ther !nd cloud$ %hich %e t'&ic!ll' %!tch !nd e-&erience !re gener!ted !nd cont!ined. Thi$ or!nge l!'er give$ %!' to the %hiti$h 9tr!to$&here !nd then into the ,e$o$&here.6A1B At o$&here di!gr! $ho%ing $tr!to$&here. The l!'er$ !re to $c!le8 fro :!rth5$ $urf!ce to the to& of the $tr!to$&here (1*k ) i$ (u$t under 1G of :!rth5$ r!diu$. (click to enl!rge) The $tr!to$&here (O$tretf$ffrO) i$ the $econd !(or l!'er of :!rth5$ !t o$&here# (u$t !)ove the tro&o$&here# !nd )elo% the e$o$&here. 7t i$ $tr!tified in te &er!ture# %ith %!r er l!'er$ higher u& !nd cooler l!'er$ f!rther do%n. Thi$ i$ in contr!$t to the tro&o$&here ne!r the :!rth5$ $urf!ce# %hich i$ cooler higher u& !nd %!r er f!rther do%n. The )order of the tro&o$&here !nd $tr!to$&here# the tro&o&!u$e# i$ !rked )' %here thi$ inver$ion )egin$# %hich in ter $ of !t o$&heric ther od'n! ic$ i$ the e>uili)riu level. The $tr!to$&here i$ $itu!ted )et%een !)out 1* k (2 i) !nd 1* k (3* i) !ltitude !)ove the $urf!ce !t oder!te l!titude$# %hile !t the &ole$ it $t!rt$ !t !)out . k (1 i) !ltitude. ?ontent$ AhideB 1 @Jone !nd te &er!ture 2 Aircr!ft flight 3 ?ircul!tion !nd i-ing 0 /ife 1 9ee !l$o 2 <eference$ AeditB@Jone !nd te &er!ture ;ithin thi$ l!'er# te &er!ture incre!$e$ !$ !ltitude incre!$e$ ($ee te &er!ture inver$ion); the to& of the $tr!to$&here h!$ ! te &er!ture of !)out 2+* D (L3Q? or 29.2QF)# (u$t $lightl' )elo% the freeJing &oint of %!ter. A2B The $tr!to$&here i$ l!'ered in te &er!ture )ec!u$e oJone (@3) here !)$or)$ high energ' PIB !nd PI? energ' %!ve$ fro the 9un !nd i$ )roken do%n into !to ic o-'gen (@) !nd di!to ic o-'gen (@2). Ato ic o-'gen i$ found &rev!lent in the u&&er $tr!to$&here due to the )o )!rd ent of PI light !nd the de$truction of )oth oJone !nd di!to ic o-'gen. The id $tr!to$&here h!$ le$$ PI light &!$$ing through it# @ !nd @2 !re !)le to co )ine# !nd i$ %here the !(orit' of n!tur!l oJone i$ &roduced. 7t i$ %hen the$e t%o for $ of o-'gen reco )ine to for oJone th!t the' rele!$e the he!t found in the $tr!to$&here. The lo%er $tr!to$&here receive$

ver' lo% ! ount$ of PI?# thu$ !to ic o-'gen i$ not found here !nd oJone i$ not for ed (%ith he!t !$ the )'&roduct)Averific!tion neededB. Thi$ vertic!l $tr!tific!tion# %ith %!r er l!'er$ !)ove !nd cooler l!'er$ )elo%# !ke$ the $tr!to$&here d'n! ic!ll' $t!)le8 there i$ no regul!r convection !nd !$$oci!ted tur)ulence in thi$ &!rt of the !t o$&here. The to& of the $tr!to$&here i$ c!lled the $tr!to&!u$e# !)ove %hich the te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith height. ,eth!ne# (?H0) %hile not ! direct c!u$e of oJone de$truction in the $tr!to$&here# doe$ le!d to the for !tion of co &ound$ th!t de$tro' oJone. ,ono!to ic o-'gen (@) in the u&&er $tr!to$&here re!ct$ %ith eth!ne (?H0) to for ! h'dro-'l r!dic!l (@Hg). Thi$ h'dro-'l r!dic!l i$ then !)le to inter!ct %ith non-$olu)le co &ound$ like chlorofluoroc!r)on$# !nd PI light )re!k$ off chlorine r!dic!l$ (?lg). The$e chlorine r!dic!l$ )re!k off !n o-'gen !to fro the oJone olecule# cre!ting !n o-'gen olecule (@2) !nd ! h'&ochlorite r!dic!l (?l@g). The h'&ochlorite r!dic!l then re!ct$ %ith !n !to ic o-'gen cre!ting !nother o-'gen olecule !nd !nother chlorine r!dic!l# there)' &reventing the re!ction of ! ono!to ic o-'gen %ith @2 to cre!te n!tur!l oJone. AeditBAircr!ft flight ?o erci!l !irliner$ t'&ic!ll' crui$e !t !ltitude$ of 9N12 k (3*#***N39#*** ft) in te &er!te l!titude$ (in the lo%er re!che$ of the $tr!to$&here).A3B Thi$ o&ti iJe$ fuel )urn# o$tl' th!nk$ to the lo% te &er!ture$ encountered ne!r the tro&o&!u$e !nd lo% !ir den$it'# reducing &!r!$itic dr!g on the !irfr! e. 7t !l$o !llo%$ the to $t!' !)ove h!rd %e!ther (e-tre e tur)ulence). ?oncorde %ould crui$e !t !ch 2 !t !)out 1.#*** (2*#*** ft)# !nd the 9<-+1 %ould crui$e !t !ch 3 !t 22#*** (.1#*** ft)# !ll $till in the $tr!to$&here. Bec!u$e the te &er!ture in the tro&o&!u$e !nd lo%er $tr!to$&here re !in$ con$t!nt (or $lightl' incre!$e$) %ith incre!$ing !ltitude# ver' little convective tur)ulence occur$ !t the$e !ltitude$. Though o$t tur)ulence !t thi$ !ltitude i$ c!u$ed )' v!ri!tion$ in the (et $tre! !nd other loc!l %ind $he!r$# !re!$ of $ignific!nt convective !ctivit' (thunder$tor $) in the tro&o$&here )elo% !' &roduce convective over$hoot. Although ! fe% glider$ h!ve !chieved gre!t !ltitude$ in the &o%erful ther !l$ in thunder$tor $Acit!tion neededB# thi$ i$ d!ngerou$. ,o$t high !ltitude flight$ )' glider$ u$e lee %!ve$ fro ount!in r!nge$ !nd %ere u$ed to $et the current record of 11#00+ (1*#2+9 ft). @n @cto)er 10# 2*12# Feli- B!u g!rtner )ec! e the record holder for )oth re!ching the !ltitude record for ! !nned )!lloon !nd highe$t $k'dive ever fro 39k (12.#*9+ feet).A0B AeditB?ircul!tion !nd i-ing Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (Yune 2**9) The $tr!to$&here i$ ! region of inten$e inter!ction$ ! ong r!di!tive# d'n! ic!l# !nd che ic!l &roce$$e$# in %hich the horiJont!l i-ing of g!$eou$ co &onent$ &roceed$ uch ore r!&idl' th!n in vertic!l i-ing. An intere$ting fe!ture of $tr!to$&heric circul!tion i$ the >u!$i-)ienni!l o$cill!tion (=B@) in the tro&ic!l l!titude$# %hich i$ driven )' gr!vit' %!ve$ th!t !re convectivel' gener!ted in the tro&o$&here. The =B@ induce$ ! $econd!r' circul!tion th!t i$ i &ort!nt for the glo)!l $tr!to$&heric tr!n$&ort of tr!cer$# $uch !$ oJone or %!ter v!&or. 7n northern he i$&heric %inter# $udden $tr!to$&heric %!r ing$# c!u$ed )' the !)$or&tion of <o$$)' %!ve$ in the $tr!to$&here# c!n often )e o)$erved. AeditB/ife B!cteri!l life $urvive$ in the $tr!to$&here# !king it ! &!rt of the )io$&here.A1B Al$o# $o e )ird $&ecie$ h!ve )een re&orted to fl' !t the lo%er level$ of the $tr!to$&here. @n "ove )er 29# 19+1# ! <h&&ell5$ Iulture %!$ re&ortedl' inge$ted into ! (et engine 11#112 (3+#9** ft) !)ove the 7vor' ?o!$t# !nd B!r-he!ded gee$e routinel' overfl' ,ount :vere$t5$ $u it# %hich i$ .#.0. (29#*29 ft).A2BA+B AeditB9ee !l$o /ook u& $tr!to$&here in ;iktion!r'# the free diction!r'. /ion Tei$$erenc de Bort !nd <ich!rd A$$ !nn (the di$coverer$ of the $tr!to$&here) H!ri$ Gun (fir$t !rtifici!l o)(ect to re!ch $tr!to$&here) 9<-+1 Bl!ck)ird ?oncorde /ockheed P-2 <=-0 Glo)!l H!%k 9ervice ceiling /e Gr!nd 9!ut Feli- B!u g!rtner <ed Bull 9tr!to$ AeditB<eference$

Z 6799*22-:-*222+2 c!&tion6. "A9A. <etrieved 21 9e&te )er 2*12. Z 9einfeld# Y. H.# !nd 9. ". H!ndi$# (2**2)# At o$&heric ?he i$tr' !nd Hh'$ic$8 Fro Air Hollution to ?li !te ?h!nge 2nd ed# ;ile'# "e% Yer$e' Z 6Altitude of ! ?o erci!l Yet6. H'&erte-t)ook.co . <etrieved 2*11-11-*.. Z //@<?A# YPA" ?A</@9 (@cto)er 11# 2*12). 69k'diver Feli- B!u g!rtner hit$ .33.9 &h in record (u &6. A$$oci!ted Hre$$. <etrieved 2*12-1*-11. Z 9. 9hiv!(i et !l# 67$ol!tion of three novel )!cteri!l $tr!in$# Y!ni)!cter ho'lei $&. nov.# B!cillu$ i$ronen$i$ $&. nov. !nd B!cillu$ !r'!)h!tt!i $&. nov. fro cr'otu)e$ u$ed for collecting !ir fro u&&er !t o$&here.6# 7nt Y 9'$t :vol ,icro)iol# 2**9. Z 6Audu)on8 Bird$6. Audu)on !g!Jine.org. <etrieved 2*11-11-*.. Z Tho !$ Aler$t! # F!vid A. ?hri$tie# A$trid Plf$tr!nd. Bird ,igr!tion (199*). H!ge 2+2. AhideB v t e :!rth5$ !t o$&here Tro&o$&here 9tr!to$&here ,e$o$&here Ther o$&here :-o$&here Tro&o&!u$e 9tr!to&!u$e ,e$o&!u$e Ther o&!u$e O :-o)!$e @Jone l!'er Tur)o&!u$e 7ono$&here Iie% &!ge r!ting$ <!te thi$ &!ge ;h!t5$ thi$d Tru$t%orth' @)(ective ?o &lete ;ell-%ritten 7 ! highl' kno%ledge!)le !)out thi$ to&ic (o&tion!l) 9u) it r!ting$ ?!tegorie$8 At o$&here,eteorolog'At o$&here of :!rth

,e$o$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! 9&!ce 9huttle :nde!vour !&&e!r$ to $tr!ddle the $tr!to$&here !nd e$o$&here in thi$ &hoto. 6The or!nge l!'er i$ the tro&o$&here# %here !ll of the %e!ther !nd cloud$ %hich %e t'&ic!ll' %!tch !nd e-&erience !re gener!ted !nd cont!ined. Thi$ or!nge l!'er give$ %!' to the %hiti$h 9tr!to$&here !nd then into the ,e$o$&here.6A1B :!rth !t o$&here di!gr! $ho%ing the e-o$&here !nd other l!'er$. The l!'er$ !re to $c!le. Fro to the to& of the $tr!to$&here (1* k or 31 i) i$ (u$t under 1G of :!rth5$ r!diu$. :!rth5$ $urf!ce

Thi$ !rticle i$ !)out the !t o$&heric e$o$&here# for the :!rth5$ !ntle $ee ,e$o$&here ( !ntle). The e$o$&here (O $o$ffrO; fro Greek e$o$ W iddle !nd $&h!ir! W )!ll) i$ the l!'er of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here th!t i$ directl' !)ove the $tr!to$&here !nd directl' )elo% the ther o$&here. 7n the e$o$&here te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith incre!$ing height. The u&&er )ound!r' of the e$o$&here i$ the e$o&!u$e# %hich c!n )e the colde$t n!tur!ll' occurring &l!ce on :!rth %ith te &er!ture$ )elo% 13* D. The e-!ct u&&er !nd lo%er )ound!rie$ of the e$o$&here v!r' %ith l!titude !nd %ith $e!$on# )ut the lo%er )ound!r' of the e$o$&here i$ u$u!ll' loc!ted !t height$ of !)out 1* k !)ove the :!rth5$ $urf!ce !nd the e$o&!u$e i$ u$u!ll' !t height$ ne!r 1** k # e-ce&t !t iddle !nd high l!titude$ in $u er %here it de$cend$ to height$ of !)out .1 k . The $tr!to$&here# e$o$&here !nd lo%e$t &!rt of the ther o$&here !re collectivel' referred to !$ the 6 iddle !t o$&here6# %hich $&!n$ height$ fro !&&ro-i !tel' 1* to 1** k . The e$o&!u$e# !t !n !ltitude of .*N9* k

(1*N12 i)# $e&!r!te$ the e$o$&here fro the ther o$&here^the $econd-outer o$t l!'er of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here. Thi$ i$ !l$o !round the $! e !ltitude !$ the tur)o&!u$e# )elo% %hich different che ic!l $&ecie$ !re %ell i-ed due to tur)ulent eddie$. A)ove thi$ level the !t o$&here )eco e$ non-unifor ; the $c!le height$ of different che ic!l $&ecie$ differ )' their olecul!r !$$e$. ?ontent$ AhideB 1 Te &er!ture 2 F'n! ic fe!ture$ 3 Pncert!intie$ 0 ,eteor$ 1 <eference$ 2 :-tern!l link$ AeditBTe &er!ture ;ithin the e$o$&here# te &er!ture decre!$e$ %ith incre!$ing !ltitude. Thi$ i$ due to decre!$ing $ol!r he!ting !nd incre!$ing cooling )' ?@2 r!di!tive e i$$ion. The to& of the e$o$&here# c!lled the e$o&!u$e# i$ the colde$t &!rt of :!rth5$ !t o$&here.A2B Te &er!ture$ in the u&&er e$o$&here f!ll !$ lo% !$ L1** Q? (1+3 D; L10. QF)#A3B v!r'ing !ccording to l!titude !nd $e!$on. AeditBF'n! ic fe!ture$ The !in d'n! ic fe!ture$ in thi$ region !re $trong Jon!l (:!$t-;e$t) %ind$# !t o$&heric tide$# intern!l !t o$&heric gr!vit' %!ve$ (co onl' c!lled 6gr!vit' %!ve$6) !nd &l!net!r' %!ve$. ,o$t of the$e tide$ !nd %!ve$ !re e-cited in the tro&o$&here !nd lo%er $tr!to$&here# !nd &ro&!g!te u&%!rd to the e$o$&here. 7n the e$o$&here# gr!vit'-%!ve ! &litude$ c!n )eco e $o l!rge th!t the %!ve$ )eco e un$t!)le !nd di$$i&!te. Thi$ di$$i&!tion de&o$it$ o entu into the e$o$&here !nd l!rgel' drive$ glo)!l circul!tion. "octilucent cloud$ !re loc!ted in the e$o$&here. The u&&er e$o$&here i$ !l$o the region of the iono$&here kno%n !$ the F l!'er. The F l!'er i$ onl' &re$ent during the d!'# %hen $o e ioniJ!tion occur$ %ith nitric o-ide )eing ioniJed )' /' !n $erie$-!l&h! h'drogen r!di!tion. The ioniJ!tion i$ $o %e!k th!t %hen night f!ll$# !nd the $ource of ioniJ!tion i$ re oved# the free electron !nd ion for )!ck into ! neutr!l olecule. A 1 k (3.1 i) dee& $odiu l!'er i$ loc!ted )et%een .*N1*1 k (1*N21 i). ,!de of un)ound# non-ioniJed !to $ of $odiu # the $odiu l!'er r!di!te$ %e!kl' to contri)ute to the !irglo%. AeditBPncert!intie$ The e$o$&here lie$ !)ove the !-i u !ltitude for !ircr!ft !nd )elo% the ini u !ltitude for or)it!l $&!cecr!ft. 7t h!$ onl' )een !cce$$ed through the u$e of $ounding rocket$. A$ ! re$ult# it i$ the o$t &oorl' under$tood &!rt of the !t o$&here. The &re$ence of red $&rite$ !nd )lue (et$ (electric!l di$ch!rge$ or lightning %ithin the lo%er e$o$&here)# noctilucent cloud$ !nd den$it' $he!r$ %ithin the &oorl' under$tood l!'er !re of current $cientific intere$t. AeditB,eteor$ ,illion$ of eteor$ enter the !t o$&here# !n !ver!ge of 0* ton$ &er 'e!r.A0B ;ithin the e$o$&here o$t elt or v!&oriJe !$ ! re$ult of colli$ion$ %ith the g!$ &!rticle$ cont!ined there. Thi$ re$ult$ in ! higher concentr!tion of iron !nd other refr!ctor' !teri!l$ re!ching the $urf!ce.Acit!tion neededB AeditB<eference$ Z 6799*22-:-*222+2 c!&tion6. "A9A. <etrieved 21 9e&te )er 2*12. Z "ic# ,.; Yir!t# Y.; Do$!t!# B.# ed$. (2**2N). 6 e$o$&here6. 7PHA? ?o &endiu of ?he ic!l Ter inolog' (@nline ed.). doi81*.1311Ogold)ook.,*3.11. 79B" *-92+.11*-9-.. Z ,e$o$&here# retrieved 2*11-11-10 Z /einert ?.; Gruen :. (199*). 67nter&l!net!r' Fu$t6. Hh'$ic$ !nd ?he i$tr' in 9&!ce (<. 9ch%enn !nd :. ,!r$ch ed$.). 9&ringer-Ierl!g. &&. 2*0-2+1 AeditB:-tern!l link$ Fe$cri&tion %ith link$ to other !t o$&heric to&ic$

Ther o$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi!

:!rth !t o$&here di!gr! $ho%ing the e-o$&here !nd other l!'er$. The l!'er$ !re to $c!le. Fro :!rth5$ $urf!ce to the to& of the $tr!to$&here (1* kilo etre$ (31 i)) i$ (u$t under 1G of :!rth5$ r!diu$. The ther o$&here i$ the l!'er of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here directl' !)ove the e$o$&here !nd directl' )elo% the e-o$&here. ;ithin thi$ l!'er# ultr!violet r!di!tion (PI) c!u$e$ ioniJ!tion. ?!lled fro the Greek jkSlmn (&ronounced ther o$) e!ning he!t# the ther o$&here )egin$ !)out .1 kilo etre$ (13 i) !)ove the :!rth.A1B At the$e high !ltitude$# the re$idu!l !t o$&heric g!$e$ $ort into $tr!t! !ccording to olecul!r !$$ ($ee tur)o$&here). Ther o$&heric te &er!ture$ incre!$e %ith !ltitude due to !)$or&tion of highl' energetic $ol!r r!di!tion. Te &er!ture$ !re highl' de&endent on $ol!r !ctivit'# !nd c!n ri$e to 2#*** Q? (3#23* QF). <!di!tion c!u$e$ the !t o$&here &!rticle$ in thi$ l!'er to )eco e electric!ll' ch!rged ($ee iono$&here)# en!)ling r!dio %!ve$ to )ounce off !nd )e received )e'ond the horiJon. 7n the e-o$&here# )eginning !t 1** to 1#*** kilo etre$ (31* to 22* i) !)ove the :!rth5$ $urf!ce# the !t o$&here turn$ into $&!ce. The highl' diluted g!$ in thi$ l!'er c!n re!ch 2#1** Q? (0#13* QF) during the d!'. :ven though the te &er!ture i$ $o high# one %ould not feel %!r in the ther o$&here# )ec!u$e it i$ $o ne!r v!cuu th!t there i$ not enough cont!ct %ith the fe% !to $ of g!$ to tr!n$fer uch he!t. A nor !l ther o eter %ould re!d $ignific!ntl' )elo% * Q? (32 QF)# )ec!u$e the energ' lo$t )' ther !l r!di!tion %ould e-ceed the energ' !c>uired fro the !t o$&heric g!$ )' direct cont!ct. 7n the !n!cou$tic Jone !)ove 12* kilo etre$ (99 i)# the den$it' i$ $o lo% th!t olecul!r inter!ction$ !re too infre>uent to &er it the tr!n$ i$$ion of $ound. The d'n! ic$ of the ther o$&here !re do in!ted )' !t o$&heric tide$# %hich !re driven )' the ver' $ignific!nt diurn!l he!ting. At o$&heric$ %!ve$ di$$i&!te !)ove thi$ level )ec!u$e of colli$ion$ )et%een the neutr!l g!$ !nd the iono$&heric &l!$ !. The 7ntern!tion!l 9&!ce 9t!tion h!$ ! $t!)le or)it %ithin the iddle of the ther o$&here# )et%een 32* !nd 3.* kilo etre$ (2** !nd 20* i). Auror!$ !l$o occur in the ther o$&here. ?ontent$ AhideB 1 Hi$tor' 2 "eutr!l g!$ con$tituent$ 3 :nerg' in&ut 3.1 :nerg' )udget 3.2 9ol!r KPI r!di!tion 3.3 9ol!r %ind 3.0 At o$&heric %!ve$ 0 F'n! ic$ 1 Ther o$&heric $tor $ 2 <eference$ AeditBHi$tor' Hrior to the $&!ce !ge# the onl' indirect !cce$$ to the height region !)ove !)out 1** k !ltitude$ c! e fro iono$&heric !nd geo !gnetic re$e!rch. :lectro !gnetic %!ve$ )elo% the IHF-r!nge (IHF W ver' high fre>uencie$; 3* - 3** ,HJ) reflected !nd !ttenu!ted in the iono$&heric F-# :-# !nd F- l!'er$ de&ending on fre>uenc'# ti e of d!'# geogr!&hic loc!tion# !nd $ol!r !ctivit' c!n )e o)$erved on the ground.A2B The geo !gnetic !ctivit'# like%i$e o)$erved on the ground# %!$ !ttri)uted to u&&er !t o$&heric electric current$# kno%n tod!' !$ current$ flo%ing %ithin the iono$&heric d'n! o region !nd the !gneto$&here.A3B ;ith the !dvent of the <u$$i!n $!tellite 9&utnik in 191+# o)$erv!tion$ of the Fo&&ler effect of the $!tellite $ign!l overhe!d !llo%ed for the fir$t ti e to deter ine continuou$l' the or)it!l dec!' of the $!tellite !nd thu$ the !t o$&heric dr!g fro %hich the v!ri!tion$ of the ther o$&heric den$it' could )e derived. ,!inl' involved in the$e e!rl' e!$ure ent$ %ere /.G. Y!cchi! !nd Y.;. 9lo%e' (P9A)# F.G. Ding-Hele (Gre!t Brit!in)# !nd ;. Hrie$ter !nd H.D. HotJold (Ger !n'). The' di$covered for the fir$t ti e the l!rge d!il' v!ri!tion$ of the !t o$&heric den$it'# it$ re!ction on geo !gnetic!ll' di$tur)!nced condition$# etc. Tod!'# !n !rr!' of $!tellite$ e!$ure$ directl' the v!riou$ co &onent$ of the !t o$&heric g!$. A full $u !r' of e!rl' !nd &re$ent o)$erv!tion$ %!$ &re$ented )' G. ;. Hrpl$$ in 2*11 .A0B AeditB"eutr!l g!$ con$tituent$ 7t i$ convenient to $e&!r!te the !t o$&heric region$ !ccording to the t%o te &er!ture ini ! !t !)out 12 k !ltitude (the tro&o&!u$e) !nd !t !)out .1 k (the e$o&!u$e) (Figure 1). The ther o$&here (or the u&&er !t o$&here) i$ the height region !)ove .1 k # %hile the region )et%een the tro&o$&!u$e !nd the e$o&!u$e i$ the iddle !t o$&here ($tr!to$&here !nd e$o$&here) %here !)$or&tion of $ol!r PI r!di!tion gener!te$ the te &er!ture !-i u ne!r 01 k !ltitude !nd c!u$e$ the oJone l!'er. Figure 1. "o encl!ture of !t o$&heric region$ )!$ed on the &rofile$ of electric conductivit' (left)# te &er!ture ( iddle)# !nd electron den$it' (right)

The den$it' of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here decre!$e$ ne!rl' e-&onenti!ll' %ith !ltitude. The tot!l !$$ of the !t o$&here i$ , W SA H 1 kgOc 2 %ithin ! colu n of one $>u!re centi eter !)ove the ground (%ith SA W 1.29 kgO 3 the !t o$&heric den$it' on the ground !t J W * !ltitude# !nd H . k the !ver!ge !t o$&heric $c!le height). .*G of th!t !$$ i$ !lre!d' concentr!ted %ithin the tro&o$&here. The !$$ of the ther o$&here !)ove !)out .1 k i$ onl' *.**2G of the tot!l !$$. Therefore# no $ignific!nt energetic feed)!ck fro the ther o$&here to the lo%er !t o$&heric region$ c!n )e e-&ected. Tur)ulence c!u$e$ the !ir %ithin the lo%er !t o$&heric region$ )elo% the tur)o&!u$e !t !)out 11* k to )e ! i-ture of g!$e$ th!t doe$ not ch!nge it$ co &o$ition. 7t$ e!n olecul!r %eight i$ 29 gO ol %ith olecul!r o-'gen (@2) !nd nitrogen ("2) !$ the t%o do in!nt con$tituent$. A)ove the tur)o&!u$e# ho%ever# diffu$ive $e&!r!tion of the v!riou$ con$tituent$ i$ $ignific!nt# $o th!t e!ch con$tituent follo%$ it$ o%n )!ro etric height $tructure %ith ! $c!le height inver$el' &ro&ortion!l to it$ olecul!r %eight. The lighter con$tituent$ !to ic o-'gen (@)# heliu (He)# !nd h'drogen (H) $ucce$$ivel' do in!te !)ove !)out 2** k !ltitude !nd v!r' %ith geogr!&hic loc!tion# ti e# !nd $ol!r !ctivit'. The r!tio "2O@ %hich i$ ! e!$ure of the electron den$it' !t the iono$&heric F region i$ highl' !ffected )' the$e v!ri!tion$.A1B The$e ch!nge$ follo% fro the diffu$ion of the inor con$tituent$ through the !(or g!$ co &onent during d'n! ic &roce$$e$. AeditB:nerg' in&ut AeditB:nerg' )udget The ther o$&heric te &er!ture c!n )e deter ined fro den$it' o)$erv!tion$ !$ %ell !$ fro direct $!tellite e!$ure ent$. The te &er!ture v$. !ltitude J in Fig. 1 c!n )e $i ul!ted )' the $o-c!lled B!te$ &rofile A2B (1) T W Tq - (Tq - To) e-&r-$ (J - Jo)s %ith Tq the e-o$&heric te &er!ture !)ove !)out 0** k !ltitude# To W 311 D# !nd Jo W 12* k reference te &er!ture !nd height# !nd $ !n e &iric!l &!r! eter de&ending on Tq !nd decre!$ing %ith Tq. Th!t for ul! i$ derived fro ! $i &le e>u!tion of he!t conduction. @ne e$ti !te$ ! tot!l he!t in&ut of >o *.. to 1.2 ;O 2 !)ove Jo W 12* k !ltitude. 7n order to o)t!in e>uili)riu condition$# th!t he!t in&ut >o !)ove Jo i$ lo$t to the lo%er !t o$&heric region$ )' he!t conduction. The e-o$&heric te &er!ture Tq i$ ! f!ir e!$ure ent of the $ol!r KPI r!di!tion. 9ince $ol!r r!dio e i$$ion F !t 1*.+ c %!velength i$ ! good indic!tor of $ol!r !ctivit'# on c!n !&&l' the e &iric!l for ul! for >uiet !gneto$&heric condition$.A+B (2) Tq 1** t 3.0 Fo %ith Tq in D# Fo in 1*- 2 ; L2 HJL1 (the ?ovington inde-) ! v!lue of F !ver!ged over $ever!l $ol!r c'cle$. The ?ovington inde- v!rie$ t'&ic!ll' )et%een +* !nd 21* during ! $ol!r c'cle# !nd never dro&$ )elo% !)out 1*. Thu$# Tq v!rie$ )et%een !)out +0* !nd 131* D. Furing ver' >uiet !gneto$&heric condition$# the $till continuou$l' flo%ing !gneto$&heric energ' in&ut contri)ute$ )' !)out 21* D to the re$idu!l te &er!ture of 1** D in e>.(2). The re$t of 21* D in e>.(2) c!n )e !ttri)uted to !t o$&heric %!ve$ gener!ted %ithin the tro&o$&here !nd di$$i&!ted %ithin the lo%er ther o$&here. AeditB9ol!r KPI r!di!tion The $ol!r K-r!' !nd e-tre e ultr!violet r!di!tion (KPI) !t %!velength$ [ 1+* n i$ !l o$t co &letel' !)$or)ed %ithin the ther o$&here. Thi$ r!di!tion c!u$e$ the v!riou$ iono$&heric l!'er$ !$ %ell !$ ! te &er!ture incre!$e !t the$e height$ (Figure 1). ;hile the $ol!r vi$i)le light (3.* to +.* n ) i$ ne!rl' con$t!nt %ith ! v!ri!)ilit' of not ore th!n !)out *.1G of the $ol!r con$t!nt#A.B the $ol!r KPI r!di!tion i$ highl' v!ri!)le in ti e !nd $&!ce. For in$t!nce# K-r!' )ur$t$ !$$oci!ted %ith $ol!r fl!re$ c!n dr! !tic!ll' incre!$e their inten$it' over &refl!re level$ )' !n' order$ of !gnitude over ! ti e $&!n of ten$ of inute$. 7n the e-tre e ultr!violet# the /' !n u line !t 121.2 n re&re$ent$ !n i &ort!nt $ource of ioniJ!tion !nd di$$oci!tion !t iono$&heric F l!'er height$.A9B Furing >uiet &eriod$ of $ol!r !ctivit'# it !lone cont!in$ ore energ' th!n the re$t of the $&ectru !t lo%er %!velength$. =u!$i-&eriodic ch!nge$ of the order of 1**G !nd ore %ith &eriod of 2+ d!'$ !nd 11 'e!r$ )elong to the &ro inent v!ri!tion$ of $ol!r KPI r!di!tion. Ho%ever# irregul!r fluctu!tion$ over !ll ti e $c!le$ !re &re$ent !ll the ti e.A1*B Furing lo% $ol!r !ctivit'# !)out one h!lf of the tot!l energ' in&ut into the ther o$&here i$ thought to )e $ol!r KPI r!di!tion. :videntl'# th!t $ol!r KPI energ' in&ut occur$ onl' during d!'ti e condition$# !-i iJing !t the e>u!tor during e>uino-. AeditB9ol!r %ind A $econd $ource of energ' in&ut into the ther o$&here i$ $ol!r %ind energ' %hich i$ tr!n$ferred to the !gneto$&here )' ech!ni$ $ th!t !re not co &letel' under$tood. @ne &o$$i)le %!' to tr!n$fer energ' i$ vi! ! h'drod'n! ic d'n! o &roce$$. 9ol!r %ind &!rticle$ &enetr!te into the &ol!r region$ of the !gneto$&here %here the geo !gnetic field line$ !re e$$enti!ll' vertic!ll' directed. An electric field i$ gener!ted# directed fro d!%n to du$k. Along the l!$t clo$ed geo !gnetic field line$ %ith their foot&oint$ %ithin the !uror!l Jone$# field !ligned electric current$ c!n flo% into the iono$&heric d'n! o region %here the' !re clo$ed )' electric Heder$en !nd H!ll current$. @h ic lo$$e$ of the Heder$en current$ he!t the lo%er ther o$&here ($ee e.g.# ,!gneto$&heric electric convection field). 7n !ddition# &enetr!tion of high energetic &!rticle$ fro the !gneto$&here into the !uror!l region$ enh!nce dr!$tic!ll' the electric conductivit'# further incre!$ing the electric current$ !nd thu$ Youle he!ting. Furing >uiet !gneto$&heric !ctivit'# the !gneto$&here contri)ute$ &erh!&$ )' ! >u!rter to the

energ' )udget of the ther o$&here.A11B Thi$ i$ !)out 21* D of the e-o$&heric te &er!ture in e>.(2). Furing ver' l!rge !ctivit'# ho%ever# thi$ he!t in&ut c!n incre!$e $u)$t!nti!ll'# )' ! f!ctor of four or ore. Th!t $ol!r %ind in&ut occur$ !inl' in the !uror!l region$ during the d!' !$ %ell !$ during the night. AeditBAt o$&heric %!ve$ T%o kind$ of l!rge $c!le !t o$&heric %!ve$ %ithin the lo%er !t o$&here e-i$t8 intern!l %!ve$ %ith finite vertic!l %!velength$ %hich c!n tr!n$&ort %!ve energ' u&%!rd !nd e-tern!l %!ve$ %ith infinitel' l!rge %!velength$ %hich c!nnot tr!n$&ort %!ve energ'.A12B At o$&heric gr!vit' %!ve$ !nd o$t of the !t o$&heric tide$ gener!ted %ithin the tro&o$&here )elong to the intern!l %!ve$. Their den$it' ! &litude$ incre!$e e-&onenti!ll' %ith height# $o th!t !t the e$o&!u$e the$e %!ve$ )eco e tur)ulent !nd their ener' i$ di$$i&!ted ($i il!r to )re!king of oce!n %!ve$ !t the co!$t)# thu$ contri)uting to the he!ting of the ther o$&here )' !)out 21* D in e>.(2). @n the other h!nd# the fund! ent!l diurn!l tide l!)elled (1# -2) %hich i$ o$t efficientl' e-cited )' $ol!r irr!di!nce i$ !n e-tern!l %!ve !nd &l!'$ onl' ! !rgin!l role %ithin lo%er !nd iddle !t o$&here. Ho%ever# !t ther o$&heric !ltitude$# it )eco e$ the &redo in!nt %!ve. 7t drive$ the electric 9>-current %ithin the iono$&heric d'n! o region )et%een !)out 1** !nd 2** k height. He!ting# &redo in!tel' )' tid!l %!ve$# occur$ !inl' !t lo%er !nd iddle l!titude$. The v!ri!)ilit' of thi$ he!ting de&end$ in gener!l on the eteorologic!l condition$ %ithin tro&o$&here !nd iddle !t o$&here# !nd !' not e-ceed !)out 1*G. AeditBF'n! ic$

Figure 2. 9che !tic eridi!n-height cro$$-$ection of circul!tion of (!) $' etric %ind co &onent (H2*)# ()) of !nti$' etric %ind co &onent (H1*)# !nd (d) of $' etric diurn!l %ind co &onent (H11) !t 3 h !nd 11 h loc!l ti e. P&&er right &!nnel (c) $ho%$ the horiJont!l %ind vector$ of the diurn!l co &onent in the northern he i$&here de&ending on loc!l ti e ;ithin the ther o$&here !)ove !)out 11* k height# !ll !t o$&heric %!ve$ $ucce$$ivel' )eco e e-tern!l %!ve$# !nd no $ignifi!nt vertic!l %!ve $tructure i$ vi$i)le. The !t o$&heric %!ve ode$ degener!te to the $&heric!l function$ Hn %ith n ! eridion!l %!ve nu )er !nd the Jon!l %!ve nu )er ( W *8 Jon!l e!n flo%; W 18 diurn!l tide$; W 28 $e idiun!l tide$; etc.). The ther o&here )eco e$ ! d! &ed o$cill!tor $'$te %ith lo% &!$$ filter ch!r!cteri$tic$. Thi$ e!n$ th!t $ !ller $c!le %!ve$ (gre!ter nu )er$ of (n# )) !nd higher fre>uencie$ !re $u&&re$$ed in f!vor of l!rge $c!le %!ve$ !nd lo%er fre>uencie$. 7f one con$ider$ ver' >uiet !gneto$&heric di$tur)!nce$ !nd ! con$t!nt e!n e-o$&heric te &er!ture (!ver!ged over the $&here)# the o)$erved te &or!l !nd $&!ti!l di$tri)ution of the e-o$&heric te &er!ture di$tri)ution c!n )e de$cri)ed )' ! $u of $&heric function$8A13B (3) T(v#w#t) W Tqr1 t xT2* H2*(v) t xT1* H1*(v) co$Ay!(t - t!)B t xT11 H11(v) co$(R - Rd) t . . .s Here# it i$ v l!titude# w longitude# !nd t ti e# y! the !ngul!r fre>uenc' of one 'e!r# yd the !ngul!r fre>uenc' of one $ol!r d!'# !nd R W ydt t w the loc!l ti e. t! W Yune# 21 i$ the ti e of northern $u er $ol$tice# !nd Rd W 118** i$ the loc!l ti e of !-i u diurn!l te &er!ture. The fir$t ter in (3) on the right i$ the glo)!l e!n of the e-o$&heric te &er!ture (of the order of 1*** D). The $econd ter A%ith H2* W *.1(3 $in2(v)- 1)B re&re$ent$ the he!t $ur&lu$ !t lo%er l!titude$ !nd ! corre$&onding he!t deficit !t higher l!titude$ (Fig. 2!). A ther !l %ind $'$te develo&$ %ith %ind$ to%!rd the &ole$ in the u&&er level !nd %ind !%!' fro the &ole$ in the lo%er level. The coefficient xT2* z *.**0 i$ $ !ll )ec!u$e Youle he!ting in the !uror! region$ co &en$!te$ th!t he!t $ur&lu$ even during >uiet !gneto$&heric condition$. Furing di$tur)ed condition$# ho%ever# th!t ter )eco e$ do in!nt ch!nging $ign $o th!t no% he!t $ur&lu$ i$ tr!n$&orted fro the &ole$ to the e>u!tor. The third ter (%ith H1* W $in v) re&re$ent$ he!t $ur&lu$ on the $u er he i$&here !nd i$ re$&on$i)le for the tr!n$&ort of e-ce$$ he!t fro the $u er into the %inter he i$&here (Fig. 2)). 7t$ rel!tive ! &litude i$ of the order xT1* *.13. The fourth ter (%ith H11(v) W co$ v) i$ the do in!nt diurn!l %!ve (the tid!l ode (1#-2)). 7t i$ re$&on$i)le for the tr!n$&ort of e-ce$$ he!t fro the d!' ti e he i$&here into the night ti e he i$&here (Fig. 2d). 7t$ rel!tive ! &litude i$ xT11 *.11# thu$ of the order of 11* D. Addition!l ter $ (e.g.# $e i!nnu!l# $e idiurn!l ter $ !nd higher order ter $) u$t )e !dded to e>.(3). The' !re# ho%ever# of inor i &ort!nce. ?orre$&onding $u $ c!n )e develo&ed for den$it'# &re$$ure# !nd the v!riou$ g!$ con$tituent$.A+BA10B AeditBTher o$&heric $tor $ ?ontr!r' to $ol!r KPI r!di!tion# !gneto$&heric di$tur)!nce$# indic!ted on the ground )' geo !gnetic v!ri!tion$# $ho% !n un&redict!)le i &ul$ive ch!r!cter# fro $hort &eriodic di$tur)!nce$ of the order of hour$ to long $t!nding gi!nt $tor $ of $ever!l d!'5$ dur!tion. The re!ction of the ther o$&here to ! l!rge !gneto$&heric $tor i$ c!lled ther o$&heric $tor . 9ince the he!t in&ut into the ther o$&here occur$ !t high l!titude$ ( !inl' into the !uror!l region$)# the he!t tr!n$&ort re&re$ented )' the ter H2* in e>.(3) i$ rever$ed. 7n !ddition# due to the i &ul$ive for of the di$tur)!nce# higher order ter $ !re gener!ted %hich# ho%ever# &o$$e$$ $hort dec!' ti e$ !nd thu$ >uickl' di$!&&e!r. The $u of the$e ode$ deter ine$ the 6tr!vel ti e6 of the di$tur)!nce to the

lo%er l!titude$# !nd thu$ the re$&on$e ti e of the ther o$&here %ith re$&ect to the !gneto$&heric di$tur)!nce. 7 &ort!nt for the develo& ent of ! iono$&heric $tor i$ the incre!$e of the r!tio "2O@ during ! ther o$&heric $tor !t iddle !nd higher l!titude.A0B An incre!$e of "2 incre!$e$ the lo$$ &roce$$ of the iono$&heric &l!$ ! !nd c!u$e$ therefore ! decre!$e of the electron den$it' %ithin the iono$&heric F-l!'er (neg!tive iono$&heric $tor ). AeditB<eference$ Z Fu-)ur' ] Fu-)ur'. 7ntroduction to the ;orld5$ @ce!n$. 1ed. (199+) Z <!%er# D.# 6;!ve Hro&!g!tion in the 7ono$&here6# Dlu%er# Fordrecht# 1993 Z ?h!& !n# 9. !nd Y. B!rtel$# 6Geo !gneti$ 6# ?l!rendon Hre$$# "e% `ork#1911 Z ! ) Hrpl$$# G.;.# Fen$it' &ertur)!tion$ in the u&&er !t o$&here c!u$ed )' di$$i&!tion of $ol!r %ind energ'# 9urv. Geo&h'$.# 32# 1*1# 2*11 Z Hrpl$$# G.;. !nd ,. D. Bird# 6Hh'$ic$ of the :!rth5$ 9&!ce :nviron ent6# 9&ringer Ierl!g# Heidel)erg# 2*1* Z <!%er# D.# ,odelling of neutr!l !nd ioniJed !t o$&here$# in Flhgge# 9. (ed)8 :nc'cl. Hh'$.# 09O+# 9&ringer Ierl!g# Heidel)erg# 223 Z ! ) Hedin#A.:.# A revi$ed ther o$&heric odel )!$ed on !$$ $&ectro eter !nd incoherent $c!tter d!t!8 ,979.3 Y. Geo&h'$. <e$.# ..# 1*1+*# 19.3 Z ;ill$on# <.?.# ,e!$ure ent$ of the $ol!r tot!l irr!di!nce !nd it$ v!ri!)ilit'# 9&!ce 9ci. <ev.# 3.# 2*3# 19.0 Z Br!$$eur# G.# !nd 9. 9!lo on# 6Aerono ' of the ,iddle At o$&here6# <eidel Hu).# Fordrecht# 19.0 Z 9ch idtke# G.# ,odelling of the $ol!r r!di!tion for !erono ic!l !&&lic!tion$# in Flhgge# 9. (ed)# :nc'cl. Hh'$. 09O+# 9&ringer Ierl!g# Heidel)erg# 1 Z Dni&&# F.Y.# ;.D. To)i$k!# !nd B.A. : er'# Firect !nd indirect ther o$&heric he!ting $ource for $ol!r c'cle$# 9ol!r Hh'$.# 220# 21*2# 2**0 Z Ioll!nd# H.# 6At o$&heric Tid!l !nd Hl!net!r' ;!ve$6# Dlu%er# Fordrecht# 19.. Z Dphnlein# ;.# A odel of ther o$&heric te &er!ture !nd co &o$ition# Hl!net. 9&!ce 9ci. 2.# 221# 19.* Z von _!hn# P.# et !l.# :9<@-0 odel of glo)!l ther o$&heric co &o$ition !nd te &er!ture$ during lo% $ol!r !ctivit'# Geo&h'. <e$. /ett.# 0# 33# 19++

:-o$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! :!rth !t o$&here di!gr! $ho%ing the e-o$&here !nd other l!'er$. The l!'er$ !re to $c!le. Fro :!rth5$ $urf!ce to the to& of the $tr!to$&here (1*k ) i$ (u$t under 1G of :!rth5$ r!diu$. The e-o$&here (Ancient Greek8 {y i-| 6out$ide# e-tern!l# )e'ond6# Ancient Greek8 }vuSu $&h!~r! 6$&here6) i$ the u&&er o$t l!'er of :!rth5$ !t o$&here. 7n the e-o$&here the den$it' i$ $o lo% th!t &!rticle$ collide onl' r!rel'. Th!t !ke$ it &o$$i)le for energetic &!rticle$ to e$c!&e :!rth5$ gr!vit' !ltogether. Here# the :!rth5$ !t o$&here gr!du!ll' thin$ out !nd erge$ %ith inter&l!net!r' $&!ce. 9ever!l oon$# $uch !$ :!rth5$ oon !nd the G!lile!n $!tellite$# h!ve e-o$&here$ %ithout den$er !t o$&here$. The$e con$i$t of !to $ !nd olecule$ %hich !re e(ected fro $urf!ce rock$ !nd follo% ! &!r!)olic tr!(ector' until the collide %ith the $urf!ce. Gener!ll' e!ch of the$e !to $ !nd olecule$ h!$ !n inde&endent tr!(ector'. Author$ differ !$ to %hether $uch oon$ !re con$idered to h!ve !t o$&here$ or not. 9 !ller )odie$ $uch !$ !$teroid$# in %hich the !to $ e itted fro the $urf!ce e$c!&e to $&!ce# !re not con$idered to h!ve e-o$&here$. ?ontent$ AhideB 1 :!rth5$ e-o$&here 1.1 /o%er )ound!r' 1.2 P&&er )ound!r' 2 <eference$ AeditB:!rth5$ e-o$&here The !in g!$e$ %ithin the :!rth5$ e-o$&here !re the lighte$t !t o$&heric g!$e$# !inl' h'drogen# %ith $o e heliu # c!r)on dio-ide# !nd !to ic o-'gen ne!r the e-o)!$e. 9ince there i$ no cle!r )ound!r' )et%een outer $&!ce !nd the e-o$&here# the e-o$&here i$ $o eti e$ con$idered ! &!rt of outer $&!ce. AeditB/o%er )ound!r' ,!in !rticle8 Ther o&!u$e The lo%er )ound!r' of the e-o$&here i$ kno%n !$ e-o)!$e; it i$ !l$o c!lled the ther o&!u$e !$ in :!rth5$ !t o$&here the !t o$&heric te &er!ture )eco e$ ne!rl' ! con$t!nt !)ove thi$ !ltitude. Before the ter e-o)!$e %!$ e$t!)li$hed thi$ )ound!r' %!$ !l$o c!lled the critic!l level %here )!ro etric l!% no longer !&&lie$.A1B The

!ltitude of the e-o)!$e r!nge$ fro !)out 1** to 1#*** kilo etre$ (31* to 22* i) de&ending on $ol!r !ctivit'. Acit!tion neededB The e-o)!$e c!n defined in one of t%o %!'$8 The height !)ove %hich there !re negligi)le !to ic colli$ion$ )et%een the &!rticle$ (free olecul!r flo%) !nd The height !)ove %hich con$tituent !to $ !re on &urel' )!lli$tic tr!(ectorie$. 7f %e define the e-o)!$e !$ the height !t %hich u&%!rd tr!veling olecule$ e-&erience one colli$ion on !ver!ge# then !t thi$ &o$ition the e!n free &!th of ! olecule i$ e>u!l to one &re$$ure $c!le height. Thi$ i$ $ho%n in the follo%ing. ?on$ider ! volu e of !ir# %ith horiJont!l !re! !nd height e>u!l to the e!n free &!th # !t &re$$ure !nd te &er!ture . For !n ide!l g!$# the nu )er of olecule$ cont!ined in it i$8 %here i$ the univer$!l g!$ con$t!nt. Fro !ver!ge one colli$ion# the &re$$ure i$8 %here i$ the e!n olecul!r the re>uire ent th!t e!ch olecule tr!veling u&%!rd undergoe$ on

!$$ of the g!$. 9olving the$e t%o e>u!tion$ give$8

%hich i$ the e>u!tion for the &re$$ure $c!le height. A$ the &re$$ure $c!le height i$ !l o$t e>u!l to the den$it' $c!le height of the &ri !r' con$tituent# !nd $ince the Dnud$en nu )er i$ the r!tio of e!n free &!th !nd t'&ic!l den$it' fluctu!tion $c!le# thi$ e!n$ th!t the e-o)!$e lie$ in the region %here . The fluctu!tion in the height of the e-o)!$e i$ i &ort!nt )ec!u$e thi$ &rovide$ !t o$&heric dr!g on $!tellite$# eventu!ll' c!u$ing the to f!ll fro or)it if no !ction i$ t!ken to !int!in the or)it. AeditBP&&er )ound!r' 7n &rinci&le# the e-o$&here cover$ !ll di$t!nce$ %here &!rticle$ !re $till gr!vit!tion!ll' )ound to :!rth# i.e. &!rticle$ $till h!ve )!lli$tic or)it$ th!t %ill t!ke the )!ck to%!rd$ :!rth. Theoretic!ll'# the u&&er )ound!r' of the e-o$&here c!n )e defined !$ the di$t!nce !t %hich the influence of $ol!r r!di!tion &re$$ure on !to ic h'drogen e-ceed$ th!t of the :!rth$ gr!vit!tion!l &ull. Thi$ h!&&en$ !t h!lf the di$t!nce to the ,oon (19*#*** kilo etre$ (12*#*** i)). The e-o$&here o)$erv!)le fro $&!ce !$ the geocoron! i$ $een to e-tend to !t le!$t 1**#*** kilo etre$ (22#*** i) fro the $urf!ce of the :!rth. The e-o$&here i$ ! tr!n$ition!l Jone )et%een :!rth$ !t o$&here !nd inter&l!net!r' $&!ce. AeditB<eference$ Z B!uer ] /! er# Hl!net!r' Aerono '8 At o$&here :nviron ent$ in Hl!net!r' 9'$te $# 9&ringer# 2**0. Gerd ;. Hrol$$8 Hh'$ic$ of the :!rth5$ 9&!ce :nviron ent8 An 7ntroduction. 79B" 3-10*-21022-+ AhideB v t e :!rth5$ !t o$&here Tro&o$&here 9tr!to$&here ,e$o$&here Ther o$&here :-o$&here Tro&o&!u$e 9tr!to&!u$e ,e$o&!u$e Ther o&!u$e O :-o)!$e @Jone l!'er Tur)o&!u$e 7ono$&here

7ono$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! (<edirected fro 7ono$&heric) The iono$&here i$ ! &!rt of the u&&er !t o$&here# fro !)out .1 k to 2** k !ltitude# co &ri$ing &ortion$ of the e$o$&here# ther o$&here !nd e-o$&here# di$tingui$hed )ec!u$e it i$ ioniJed )' $ol!r r!di!tion. 7t &l!'$ !n i &ort!nt &!rt in !t o$&heric electricit' !nd for $ the inner edge of the !gneto$&here. 7t h!$ &r!ctic!l i &ort!nce )ec!u$e# ! ong other function$# it influence$ r!dio &ro&!g!tion to di$t!nt &l!ce$ on the :!rth.A1B <el!tion$hi& of the !t o$&here !nd iono$&here ?ontent$ AhideB 1 Geo&h'$ic$ 2 The iono$&heric l!'er$ 2.1 F l!'er 2.2 : l!'er 2.3 :$ 2.0 F l!'er 2.1 7ono$&heric odel 3 Ano !lie$ to the 6ide!l6 odel 3.1 ;inter !no !l' 3.2 :>u!tori!l !no !l'

3.3 :>u!tori!l electro(et 0 7ono$&heric &ertur)!tion$ 0.1 K-r!'$8 $udden iono$&heric di$tur)!nce$ (97F) 0.2 Hroton$8 &ol!r c!& !)$or&tion (H?A) 0.3 Geo !gnetic $tor $ 0.0 /ightning 1 <!dio !&&lic!tion 1.1 ,ech!ni$ of refr!ction 2 @ther !&&lic!tion$ + ,e!$ure ent$ +.1 7onogr! $ +.2 7ncoherent $c!tter r!d!r$ +.3 9ol!r flu+.0 9cientific re$e!rch on iono$&heric &ro&!g!tion . 7ono$&here$ on other &l!net$ !nd Tit!n 9 Hi$tor' 1* 9ee !l$o 11 "ote$ 12 <eference$ 13 :-tern!l link$ AeditBGeo&h'$ic$ The iono$&here i$ ! $hell of electron$ !nd electric!ll' ch!rged !to $ !nd olecule$ th!t $urround$ the :!rth# $tretching fro ! height of !)out 1* k to ore th!n 1*** k . 7t o%e$ it$ e-i$tence &ri !ril' to ultr!violet r!di!tion fro the 9un. The lo%e$t &!rt of the :!rth5$ !t o$&here# the tro&o$&here e-tend$ fro the $urf!ce to !)out 1* k (2.2 i). A)ove 1* k i$ the $tr!to$&here# follo%ed )' the e$o$&here. 7n the $tr!to$&here inco ing $ol!r r!di!tion cre!te$ the oJone l!'er. At height$ of !)ove .* k (1* i)# in the ther o$&here# the !t o$&here i$ $o thin th!t free electron$ c!n e-i$t for $hort &eriod$ of ti e )efore the' !re c!&tured )' ! ne!r)' &o$itive ion. The nu )er of the$e free electron$ i$ $ufficient to !ffect r!dio &ro&!g!tion. Thi$ &ortion of the !t o$&here i$ ioniJed !nd cont!in$ ! &l!$ ! %hich i$ referred to !$ the iono$&here. 7n ! &l!$ !# the neg!tive free electron$ !nd the &o$itive ion$ !re !ttr!cted to e!ch other )' the electro$t!tic force# )ut the' !re too energetic to $t!' fi-ed together in !n electric!ll' neutr!l olecule. Pltr!violet (PI)# K-<!' !nd $horter %!velength$ of $ol!r r!di!tion !re ioniJing# $ince &hoton$ !t the$e fre>uencie$ cont!in $ufficient energ' to di$lodge !n electron fro ! neutr!l g!$ !to or olecule u&on !)$or&tion. 7n thi$ &roce$$ the light electron o)t!in$ ! high velocit' $o th!t the te &er!ture of the cre!ted electronic g!$ i$ uch higher (of the order of thou$!nd D) th!n the one of ion$ !nd neutr!l$. The rever$e &roce$$ to 7oniJ!tion i$ reco )in!tion# in %hich ! free electron i$ 6c!&tured6 )' ! &o$itive ion# occur$ $&ont!neou$l'. Thi$ c!u$e$ the e i$$ion of ! &hoton c!rr'ing !%!' the energ' &roduced u&on reco )in!tion. A$ g!$ den$it' incre!$e$ !t lo%er !ltitude$# the reco )in!tion &roce$$ &rev!il$# $ince the g!$ olecule$ !nd ion$ !re clo$er together. The )!l!nce )et%een the$e t%o &roce$$e$ deter ine$ the >u!ntit' of ioniJ!tion &re$ent. 7oniJ!tion de&end$ &ri !ril' on the 9un !nd it$ !ctivit'. The ! ount of ioniJ!tion in the iono$&here v!rie$ gre!tl' %ith the ! ount of r!di!tion received fro the 9un. Thu$ there i$ ! diurn!l (ti e of d!') effect !nd ! $e!$on!l effect. The loc!l %inter he i$&here i$ ti&&ed !%!' fro the 9un# thu$ there i$ le$$ received $ol!r r!di!tion. The !ctivit' of the 9un i$ !$$oci!ted %ith the $un$&ot c'cle# %ith ore r!di!tion occurring %ith ore $un$&ot$. <!di!tion received !l$o v!rie$ %ith geogr!&hic!l loc!tion (&ol!r# !uror!l Jone$# id-l!titude$# !nd e>u!tori!l region$). There !re !l$o ech!ni$ $ th!t di$tur) the iono$&here !nd decre!$e the ioniJ!tion. There !re di$tur)!nce$ $uch !$ $ol!r fl!re$ !nd the !$$oci!ted rele!$e of ch!rged &!rticle$ into the $ol!r %ind %hich re!che$ the :!rth !nd inter!ct$ %ith it$ geo !gnetic field. AeditBThe iono$&heric l!'er$

7ono$&heric l!'er$. At night the F l!'er i$ the onl' l!'er of $ignific!nt ioniJ!tion &re$ent# %hile the ioniJ!tion in the : !nd F l!'er$ i$ e-tre el' lo%. Furing the d!'# the F !nd : l!'er$ )eco e uch ore he!vil' ioniJed# !$ doe$ the F l!'er# %hich develo&$ !n !ddition!l# %e!ker region of ioni$!tion kno%n !$ the F1 l!'er. The F2 l!'er &er$i$t$ )' d!' !nd night !nd i$ the region !inl' re$&on$i)le for the refr!ction of r!dio %!ve$. AeditBF l!'er The F l!'er i$ the inner o$t l!'er# 2* k to 9* k !)ove the $urf!ce of the :!rth. 7oniJ!tion here i$ due to /' !n $erie$-!l&h! h'drogen r!di!tion !t ! %!velength of 121.1 n!no etre (n ) ioniJing nitric o-ide ("@). 7n

!ddition# %ith high 9ol!r !ctivit' h!rd K-r!'$ (%!velength [ 1 n ) !' ioniJe ("2# @2). Furing the night co$ ic r!'$ &roduce ! re$idu!l ! ount of ioniJ!tion. <eco )in!tion i$ high in the F l!'er# the net ioniJ!tion effect i$ lo%# )ut lo$$ of %!ve energ' i$ gre!t due to fre>uent colli$ion$ of the electron$ (!)out ten colli$ion$ ever' $ec). A$ ! re$ult high-fre>uenc' (HF) r!dio %!ve$ !re not reflected )' the F l!'er )ut $uffer lo$$ of energ' therein. Thi$ i$ the !in re!$on for !)$or&tion of HF r!dio %!ve$# &!rticul!rl' !t 1* ,HJ !nd )elo%# %ith &rogre$$ivel' $ !ller !)$or&tion !$ the fre>uenc' get$ higher. The !)$or&tion i$ $ !ll !t night !nd gre!te$t !)out idd!'. The l!'er reduce$ gre!tl' !fter $un$et; ! $ !ll &!rt re !in$ due to g!l!ctic co$ ic r!'$. A co on e-! &le of the F l!'er in !ction i$ the di$!&&e!r!nce of di$t!nt A, )ro!dc!$t )!nd $t!tion$ in the d!'ti e. Furing $ol!r &roton event$# ioniJ!tion c!n re!ch unu$u!ll' high level$ in the F-region over high !nd &ol!r l!titude$. 9uch ver' r!re event$ !re kno%n !$ Hol!r ?!& A)$or&tion (or H?A) event$# )ec!u$e the incre!$ed ioniJ!tion $ignific!ntl' enh!nce$ the !)$or&tion of r!dio $ign!l$ &!$$ing through the region. 7n f!ct# !)$or&tion level$ c!n incre!$e )' !n' ten$ of dB during inten$e event$# %hich i$ enough to !)$or) o$t (if not !ll) tr!n$&ol!r HF r!dio $ign!l tr!n$ i$$ion$. 9uch event$ t'&ic!ll' l!$t le$$ th!n 20 to 0. hour$. AeditB: l!'er The : l!'er i$ the iddle l!'er# 9* k to 12* k !)ove the $urf!ce of the :!rth. 7oniJ!tion i$ due to $oft K-r!' (1-1* n ) !nd f!r ultr!violet (PI) $ol!r r!di!tion ioniJ!tion of olecul!r o-'gen (@2). "or !ll'# !t o)li>ue incidence# thi$ l!'er c!n onl' reflect r!dio %!ve$ h!ving fre>uencie$ lo%er th!n !)out 1* ,HJ !nd !' contri)ute ! )it to !)$or&tion on fre>uencie$ !)ove. Ho%ever# during inten$e 9&or!dic : event$# the :$ l!'er c!n reflect fre>uencie$ u& to 1* ,HJ !nd higher. The vertic!l $tructure of the : l!'er i$ &ri !ril' deter ined )' the co &eting effect$ of ioniJ!tion !nd reco )in!tion. At night the : l!'er r!&idl' di$!&&e!r$ )ec!u$e the &ri !r' $ource of ioniJ!tion i$ no longer &re$ent. After $un$et !n incre!$e in the height of the : l!'er !-i u incre!$e$ the r!nge to %hich r!dio %!ve$ c!n tr!vel )' reflection fro the l!'er. Thi$ region i$ !l$o kno%n !$ the Dennell'-He!vi$ide /!'er or $i &l' the He!vi$ide l!'er. 7t$ e-i$tence %!$ &redicted in 19*2 inde&endentl' !nd !l o$t $i ult!neou$l' )' the A eric!n electric!l engineer Arthur :d%in Dennell' (1.21N1939) !nd the Briti$h &h'$ici$t @liver He!vi$ide (1.1*N1921). Ho%ever# it %!$ not until 1920 th!t it$ e-i$tence %!$ detected )' :d%!rd I. A&&leton. AeditB:$ The :$ l!'er ($&or!dic :-l!'er) i$ ch!r!cteriJed )' $ !ll# thin cloud$ of inten$e ioniJ!tion# %hich c!n $u&&ort reflection of r!dio %!ve$# r!rel' u& to 221 ,HJ. 9&or!dic-: event$ !' l!$t for (u$t ! fe% inute$ to $ever!l hour$. 9&or!dic : &ro&!g!tion !ke$ r!dio ! !teur$ ver' e-cited# !$ &ro&!g!tion &!th$ th!t !re gener!ll' unre!ch!)le c!n o&en u&. There !re ulti&le c!u$e$ of $&or!dic-: th!t !re $till )eing &ur$ued )' re$e!rcher$. Thi$ &ro&!g!tion occur$ o$t fre>uentl' during the $u er onth$ %hen high $ign!l level$ !' )e re!ched. The $ki& di$t!nce$ !re gener!ll' !round 1#20* k (1#*2* i). Fi$t!nce$ for one ho& &ro&!g!tion c!n )e !$ clo$e !$ 9** k (12* i) or u& to 2#1** k (1#2** i). Fou)le-ho& rece&tion over 3#1** k (2#2** i) i$ &o$$i)le. AeditBF l!'er The F l!'er or region# !l$o kno%n !$ the A&&leton l!'er e-tend$ fro !)out 2** k to ore th!n 1** k !)ove the $urf!ce of :!rth. 7t i$ the den$e$t &oint of the iono$&here# %hich i &lie$ $ign!l$ &enetr!ting thi$ l!'er %ill e$c!&e into $&!ce. At higher !ltitude$ the ! ount of o-'gen ion$ decre!$e$ !nd lighter ion$ $uch !$ h'drogen !nd heliu )eco e do in!nt# thi$ l!'er i$ the to&$ide iono$&here. Here e-tre e ultr!violet (PI# 1*N1** n ) $ol!r r!di!tion ioniJe$ !to ic o-'gen. The F l!'er con$i$t$ of one l!'er !t night# )ut during the d!'# ! defor !tion often for $ in the &rofile th!t i$ l!)eled F1. The F2 l!'er re !in$ )' d!' !nd night re$&on$i)le for o$t $k'%!ve &ro&!g!tion of r!dio %!ve$# f!cilit!ting high fre>uenc' (HF# or $hort%!ve) r!dio co unic!tion$ over long di$t!nce$. Fro 19+2 to 19+1 "A9A l!unched the A:<@9 !nd A:<@9 B $!tellite$ to $tud' the F region.A2B AeditB7ono$&heric odel An iono$&heric odel i$ ! !the !tic!l de$cri&tion of the iono$&here !$ ! function of loc!tion# !ltitude# d!' of 'e!r# &h!$e of the $un$&ot c'cle !nd geo !gnetic !ctivit'. Geo&h'$ic!ll'# the $t!te of the iono$&heric &l!$ ! !' )e de$cri)ed )' four &!r! eter$8 electron den$it'# electron !nd ion te &er!ture !nd# $ince $ever!l $&ecie$ of ion$ !re &re$ent# ionic co &o$ition. <!dio &ro&!g!tion de&end$ uni>uel' on electron den$it'. ,odel$ !re u$u!ll' e-&re$$ed !$ co &uter &rogr! $. The odel !' )e )!$ed on )!$ic &h'$ic$ of the inter!ction$ of the ion$ !nd electron$ %ith the neutr!l !t o$&here !nd $unlight# or it !' )e ! $t!ti$tic!l de$cri&tion )!$ed on ! l!rge nu )er of o)$erv!tion$ or ! co )in!tion of &h'$ic$ !nd o)$erv!tion$. @ne of the o$t %idel' u$ed odel$ i$ the 7ntern!tion!l <eference 7ono$&here (7<7)A3B (7<7 2**+)# %hich i$ )!$ed on d!t! !nd $&ecifie$ the four &!r! eter$ (u$t entioned. The 7<7 i$ !n intern!tion!l &ro(ect $&on$ored )' the ?o ittee on 9&!ce <e$e!rch (?@9HA<) !nd the 7ntern!tion!l Pnion of <!dio 9cience (P<97).A0B The !(or d!t! $ource$ !re the %orld%ide net%ork of iono$onde$# the &o%erful incoherent $c!tter r!d!r$ (Yic! !rc!# Areci)o# ,ill$tone Hill# ,!lvern# 9t. 9!ntin)# the 7979 !nd Alouette to&$ide $ounder$# !nd in $itu in$tru ent$ on $ever!l $!tellite$ !nd rocket$. 7<7 i$ u&d!ted 'e!rl'. 7<7 i$ ore !ccur!te in de$cri)ing the v!ri!tion of the electron den$it' fro )otto of the iono$&here to the !ltitude of !-i u den$it' th!n in de$cri)ing the tot!l electron content (T:?).9ince 1999 thi$ odel i$ 67ntern!tion!l 9t!nd!rd6 for the terre$tri!l iono$&here ($t!nd!rd T91201+).

AeditBAno !lie$ to the 6ide!l6

odel

7onogr! $ !llo% deducing# vi! co &ut!tion# the true $h!&e of the different l!'er$. "onho ogeneou$ $tructure of the electronOion-&l!$ ! &roduce$ rough echo tr!ce$# $een &redo in!ntl' !t night !nd !t higher l!titude$# !nd during di$tur)ed condition$. AeditB;inter !no !l' At id-l!titude$# the F2 l!'er d!'ti e ion &roduction i$ higher in the $u er# !$ e-&ected# $ince the 9un $hine$ ore directl' on the :!rth. Ho%ever# there !re $e!$on!l ch!nge$ in the olecul!r-to-!to ic r!tio of the neutr!l !t o$&here th!t c!u$e the $u er ion lo$$ r!te to )e even higher. The re$ult i$ th!t the incre!$e in the $u erti e lo$$ over%hel $ the incre!$e in $u erti e &roduction# !nd tot!l F2 ioniJ!tion i$ !ctu!ll' lo%er in the loc!l $u er onth$. Thi$ effect i$ kno%n !$ the %inter !no !l'. The !no !l' i$ !l%!'$ &re$ent in the northern he i$&here# )ut i$ u$u!ll' !)$ent in the $outhern he i$&here during &eriod$ of lo% $ol!r !ctivit'. AeditB:>u!tori!l !no !l' :lectric current$ cre!ted in $un%!rd iono$&here. ;ithin !&&ro-i !tel' X 2* degree$ of the !gnetic e>u!tor# i$ the e>u!tori!l !no !l'. 7t i$ the occurrence of ! trough of concentr!ted ioniJ!tion in the F2 l!'er. The :!rth5$ !gnetic field line$ !re horiJont!l !t the !gnetic e>u!tor. 9ol!r he!ting !nd tid!l o$cill!tion$ in the lo%er iono$&here ove &l!$ ! u& !nd !cro$$ the !gnetic field line$. Thi$ $et$ u& ! $heet of electric current in the : region %hich# %ith the horiJont!l !gnetic field# force$ ioniJ!tion u& into the F l!'er# concentr!ting !t X 2* degree$ fro the !gnetic e>u!tor. Thi$ &heno enon i$ kno%n !$ the e>u!tori!l fount!in. AeditB:>u!tori!l electro(et The %orld%ide $ol!r-driven %ind re$ult$ in the $o-c!lled 9> ($ol!r >uiet) current $'$te in the : region of the :!rth5$ iono$&here (iono$&heric d'n! o region) (1**N13* k !ltitude). <e$ulting fro thi$ current i$ !n electro$t!tic field directed :-; (d!%n-du$k) in the e>u!tori!l d!' $ide of the iono$&here. At the !gnetic di& e>u!tor# %here the geo !gnetic field i$ horiJont!l# thi$ electric field re$ult$ in !n enh!nced e!$t%!rd current flo% %ithin X 3 degree$ of the !gnetic e>u!tor# kno%n !$ the e>u!tori!l electro(et. AeditB7ono$&heric &ertur)!tion$ AeditBK-r!'$8 $udden iono$&heric di$tur)!nce$ (97F) ;hen the 9un i$ !ctive# $trong $ol!r fl!re$ c!n occur th!t %ill hit the $unlit $ide of :!rth %ith h!rd K-r!'$. The K-r!'$ %ill &enetr!te to the F-region# rele!$ing electron$ th!t %ill r!&idl' incre!$e !)$or&tion# c!u$ing ! High Fre>uenc' (3 - 3* ,HJ) r!dio )l!ckout. Furing thi$ ti e Ier' /o% Fre>uenc' (3 N 3* kHJ) $ign!l$ %ill )e reflected )' the F l!'er in$te!d of the : l!'er# %here the incre!$ed !t o$&heric den$it' %ill u$u!ll' incre!$e the !)$or&tion of the %!ve !nd thu$ d! &en it. A$ $oon !$ the K-r!'$ end# the $udden iono$&heric di$tur)!nce (97F) or r!dio )l!ck-out end$ !$ the electron$ in the F-region reco )ine r!&idl' !nd $ign!l $trength$ return to nor !l. AeditBHroton$8 &ol!r c!& !)$or&tion (H?A) A$$oci!ted %ith $ol!r fl!re$ i$ ! rele!$e of high-energ' &roton$. The$e &!rticle$ c!n hit the :!rth %ithin 11 inute$ to 2 hour$ of the $ol!r fl!re. The &roton$ $&ir!l !round !nd do%n the !gnetic field line$ of the :!rth !nd &enetr!te into the !t o$&here ne!r the !gnetic &ole$ incre!$ing the ioniJ!tion of the F !nd : l!'er$. H?A5$ t'&ic!ll' l!$t !n'%here fro !)out !n hour to $ever!l d!'$# %ith !n !ver!ge of !round 20 to 32 hour$. AeditBGeo !gnetic $tor $ A geo !gnetic $tor i$ ! te &or!r' inten$e di$tur)!nce of the :!rth5$ !gneto$&here. Furing ! geo !gnetic $tor the F2 l!'er %ill )eco e un$t!)le# fr!g ent# !nd !' even di$!&&e!r co &letel'. 7n the "orthern !nd 9outhern &ole region$ of the :!rth !uror!e %ill )e o)$erv!)le in the $k'. AeditB/ightning /ightning c!n c!u$e iono$&heric &ertur)!tion$ in the F-region in one of t%o %!'$. The fir$t i$ through I/F (Ier' /o% Fre>uenc') r!dio %!ve$ l!unched into the !gneto$&here. The$e $o-c!lled 6%hi$tler6 ode %!ve$ c!n inter!ct %ith r!di!tion )elt &!rticle$ !nd c!u$e the to &reci&it!te onto the iono$&here# !dding ioniJ!tion to the F-region. The$e di$tur)!nce$ !re c!lled 6lightning-induced electron &reci&it!tion6 (/:H) event$. Addition!l ioniJ!tion c!n !l$o occur fro direct he!tingOioniJ!tion !$ ! re$ult of huge otion$ of ch!rge in lightning $trike$. The$e event$ !re c!lled :!rl'OF!$t. 7n 1921# ?. F. ;il$on &ro&o$ed ! ech!ni$ )' %hich electric!l di$ch!rge fro lightning $tor $ could &ro&!g!te u&%!rd$ fro cloud$ to the iono$&here. Around the $! e ti e# <o)ert ;!t$on-;!tt# %orking !t the <!dio <e$e!rch 9t!tion in 9lough# PD# $ugge$ted th!t the iono$&heric $&or!dic : l!'er (:$) !&&e!red to )e enh!nced !$ ! re$ult of lightning )ut th!t ore %ork %!$ needed. 7n 2**1# ?. F!vi$ !nd ?. Yohn$on# %orking !t the <utherford A&&leton /!)or!tor' in @-ford$hire# PD# de on$tr!ted th!t the :$ l!'er %!$ indeed enh!nced !$ ! re$ult of lightning !ctivit'. Their $u)$e>uent re$e!rch h!$ focu$$ed on the ech!ni$ )' %hich thi$ &roce$$ c!n occur. AeditB<!dio !&&lic!tion

FK co unic!tion# &o&ul!r ! ong ! !teur r!dio enthu$i!$t$# i$ ! ter given to co unic!tion over gre!t di$t!nce$. Th!nk$ to the &ro&ert' of ioniJed !t o$&heric g!$e$ to refr!ct high fre>uenc' (HF# or $hort%!ve) r!dio %!ve$# the iono$&here c!n )e utiliJed to 6)ounce6 ! tr!n$ itted $ign!l do%n to ground. Tr!n$continent!l HF-connection$ rel' on u& to 1 )ounce$# or ho&$. 9uch co unic!tion$ &l!'ed !n i &ort!nt role during ;orld ;!r 77. D!rl <!%er5$ o$t $o&hi$tic!ted &rediction ethodA1B took !ccount of $ever!l (Jig-J!g) &!th$# !ttenu!tion in the F-region !nd &redicted the 11-'e!r $ol!r c'cle )' ! ethod due to ;olfg!ng Glei)erg. AeditB,ech!ni$ of refr!ction ;hen ! r!dio %!ve re!che$ the iono$&here# the electric field in the %!ve force$ the electron$ in the iono$&here into o$cill!tion !t the $! e fre>uenc' !$ the r!dio %!ve. 9o e of the r!dio-fre>uenc' energ' i$ given u& to thi$ re$on!nt o$cill!tion. The o$cill!ting electron$ %ill then either )e lo$t to reco )in!tion or %ill re-r!di!te the origin!l %!ve energ'. Tot!l refr!ction c!n occur %hen the colli$ion fre>uenc' of the iono$&here i$ le$$ th!n the r!dio fre>uenc'# !nd if the electron den$it' in the iono$&here i$ gre!t enough. The critic!l fre>uenc' i$ the li iting fre>uenc' !t or )elo% %hich ! r!dio %!ve i$ reflected )' !n iono$&heric l!'er !t vertic!l incidence. 7f the tr!n$ itted fre>uenc' i$ higher th!n the &l!$ ! fre>uenc' of the iono$&here# then the electron$ c!nnot re$&ond f!$t enough# !nd the' !re not !)le to re-r!di!te the $ign!l. 7t i$ c!lcul!ted !$ $ho%n )elo%8 %here " W electron den$it' &er 3 !nd fcritic!l i$ in HJ. The ,!-i u P$!)le Fre>uenc' (,PF) i$ defined !$ the u&&er fre>uenc' li it th!t c!n )e u$ed for tr!n$ i$$ion )et%een t%o &oint$ !t ! $&ecified ti e. %here W !ngle of !tt!ck# the !ngle of the %!ve rel!tive to the horiJon# !nd $in i$ the $ine function. The cutoff fre>uenc' i$ the fre>uenc' )elo% %hich ! r!dio %!ve f!il$ to &enetr!te ! l!'er of the iono$&here !t the incidence !ngle re>uired for tr!n$ i$$ion )et%een t%o $&ecified &oint$ )' refr!ction fro the l!'er. AeditB@ther !&&lic!tion$ The o&en $'$te electrod'n! ic tether# %hich u$e$ the iono$&here# i$ )eing re$e!rched. The $&!ce tether u$e$ &l!$ ! cont!ctor$ !nd the iono$&here !$ &!rt$ of ! circuit to e-tr!ct energ' fro the :!rth5$ !gnetic field )' electro !gnetic induction. AeditB,e!$ure ent$ AeditB7onogr! $ 7onogr! $ $ho% the virtu!l height$ !nd critic!l fre>uencie$ of the iono$&heric l!'er$ !nd %hich !re e!$ured )' !n iono$onde. An iono$onde $%ee&$ ! r!nge of fre>uencie$# u$u!ll' fro *.1 to 3* ,HJ# tr!n$ itting !t vertic!l incidence to the iono$&here. A$ the fre>uenc' incre!$e$# e!ch %!ve i$ refr!cted le$$ )' the ioniJ!tion in the l!'er# !nd $o e!ch &enetr!te$ further )efore it i$ reflected. :ventu!ll'# ! fre>uenc' i$ re!ched th!t en!)le$ the %!ve to &enetr!te the l!'er %ithout )eing reflected. For ordin!r' ode %!ve$# thi$ occur$ %hen the tr!n$ itted fre>uenc' (u$t e-ceed$ the &e!k &l!$ !# or critic!l# fre>uenc' of the l!'er. Tr!cing$ of the reflected high fre>uenc' r!dio &ul$e$ !re kno%n !$ ionogr! $. <eduction rule$ !re given in8 6P<97 H!nd)ook of 7onogr! 7nter&ret!tion !nd <eduction6# edited )' ;illi! <o' Higgott !nd D!rl <!%er# :l$evier A $terd! # 1921 (tr!n$l!tion$ into ?hine$e# French# Y!&!ne$e !nd <u$$i!n !re !v!il!)le). AeditB7ncoherent $c!tter r!d!r$ 7ncoherent $c!tter r!d!r$ o&er!te !)ove the critic!l fre>uencie$. Therefore the techni>ue !llo%$ to &ro)e the iono$&here# unlike iono$onde$# !l$o !)ove the electron den$it' &e!k$. The ther !l fluctu!tion$ of the electron den$it' $c!ttering the tr!n$ itted $ign!l$ l!ck coherence# %hich g!ve the techni>ue it$ n! e. Their &o%er $&ectru cont!in$ infor !tion not onl' on the den$it'# )ut !l$o on the ion !nd electron te &er!ture$# ion !$$e$ !nd drift velocitie$. AeditB9ol!r flu9ol!r flu- i$ ! e!$ure ent of the inten$it' of $ol!r r!dio e i$$ion$ !t ! fre>uenc' of 2.** ,HJ !de u$ing ! r!dio tele$co&e loc!ted in Fo inion <!dio A$tro&h'$ic!l @)$erv!tor'# Henticton# Briti$h ?olu )i!# ?!n!d!.A1B Dno%n !l$o !$ the 1*.+ c flu- (the %!velength of the r!dio $ign!l$ !t 2.** ,HJ)# thi$ $ol!r r!dio e i$$ion h!$ )een $ho%n to )e &ro&ortion!l to $un$&ot !ctivit'. Ho%ever# the level of the 9un5$ ultr!violet !nd K-r!' e i$$ion$ i$ &ri !ril' re$&on$i)le for c!u$ing ioniJ!tion in the :!rth5$ u&&er !t o$&here. ;e no% h!ve d!t! fro the G@:9 $&!cecr!ft th!t e!$ure$ the )!ckground K-r!' flu- fro the 9un# ! &!r! eter ore clo$el' rel!ted to the ioniJ!tion level$ in the iono$&here. The A !nd D indice$ !re ! e!$ure ent of the )eh!vior of the horiJont!l co &onent of the geo !gnetic field. The D inde- u$e$ ! $c!le fro * to 9 to e!$ure the ch!nge in the horiJont!l co &onent of the geo !gnetic field. A ne% D inde- i$ deter ined !t the Boulder Geo !gnetic @)$erv!tor' 0*Q*.11" 1*1Q1012;. The geo !gnetic !ctivit' level$ of the :!rth !re e!$ured )' the fluctu!tion of the :!rth5$ !gnetic field in 97 unit$ c!lled te$l!$ (or in non-97 g!u$$# e$&eci!ll' in older liter!ture). The :!rth5$ !gnetic field i$ e!$ured !round the &l!net )' !n' o)$erv!torie$. The d!t! retrieved i$ &roce$$ed !nd turned into e!$ure ent indice$.

F!il' e!$ure ent$ for the entire &l!net !re !de !v!il!)le through !n e$ti !te of the !& inde-# c!lled the &l!net!r' A-inde- (HA7). AeditB9cientific re$e!rch on iono$&heric &ro&!g!tion 9cienti$t$ !l$o !re e-&loring the $tructure of the iono$&here )' ! %ide v!riet' of ethod$# including &!$$ive o)$erv!tion$ of o&tic!l !nd r!dio e i$$ion$ gener!ted in the iono$&here# )ouncing r!dio %!ve$ of different fre>uencie$ fro it# incoherent $c!tter r!d!r$ $uch !$ the :79?AT# 9ondre 9tro f(ord# ,ill$tone Hill# Areci)o# !nd Yic! !rc! r!d!r$# coherent $c!tter r!d!r$ $uch !$ the 9u&er Fu!l Auror!l <!d!r "et%ork (9u&erFA<") r!d!r$# !nd u$ing $&eci!l receiver$ to detect ho% the reflected %!ve$ h!ve ch!nged fro the tr!n$ itted %!ve$. A v!riet' of e-&eri ent$# $uch !$ HAA<H (High Fre>uenc' Active Auror!l <e$e!rch Hrogr! )# involve high &o%er r!dio tr!n$ itter$ to odif' the &ro&ertie$ of the iono$&here. The$e inve$tig!tion$ focu$ on $tud'ing the &ro&ertie$ !nd )eh!vior of iono$&heric &l!$ !# %ith &!rticul!r e &h!$i$ on )eing !)le to under$t!nd !nd u$e it to enh!nce co unic!tion$ !nd $urveill!nce $'$te $ for )oth civili!n !nd ilit!r' &ur&o$e$. HAA<H %!$ $t!rted in 1993 !$ ! &ro&o$ed t%ent' 'e!r e-&eri ent# !nd i$ currentl' !ctive ne!r G!kon!# Al!$k!. The 9u&erFA<" r!d!r &ro(ect re$e!rche$ the high- !nd id-l!titude$ u$ing coherent )!ck$c!tter of r!dio %!ve$ in the . to 2* ,HJ r!nge. ?oherent )!ck$c!tter i$ $i il!r to Br!gg $c!ttering in cr'$t!l$ !nd involve$ the con$tructive interference of $c!ttering fro iono$&heric den$it' irregul!ritie$. The &ro(ect involve$ ore th!n 11 different countrie$ !nd ulti&le r!d!r$ in )oth he i$&here$. 9cienti$t$ !re !l$o e-! ining the iono$&here )' the ch!nge$ to r!dio %!ve$# fro $!tellite$ !nd $t!r$# &!$$ing through it. The Areci)o r!dio tele$co&e loc!ted in Huerto <ico# %!$ origin!ll' intended to $tud' :!rth5$ iono$&here. AeditB7ono$&here$ on other &l!net$ !nd Tit!n The !t o$&here of Tit!n include$ !n iono$&here.A2B 7t r!nge$ fro cont!in$ c!r)on co &ound$. Hl!net$ %ith iono$&here$ (inco &lete li$t)8 7ono$&here of Ienu$ 7ono$&here of Pr!nu$ AeditBHi$tor' !)out 11** to 13** k in !ltitude# !nd

Gugliel o ,!rconi received the fir$t tr!n$-Atl!ntic r!dio $ign!l on Fece )er 12# 19*1# in 9t. Yohn5$# "e%foundl!nd (no% in ?!n!d!) u$ing ! 112.0 (1** ft) kite-$u&&orted !ntenn! for rece&tion. The tr!n$ itting $t!tion in Holdhu# ?orn%!ll u$ed ! $&!rk-g!& tr!n$ itter to &roduce ! $ign!l %ith ! fre>uenc' of !&&ro-i !tel' 1** kHJ !nd ! &o%er of 1** ti e$ ore th!n !n' r!dio $ign!l &reviou$l' &roduced. The e$$!ge received %!$ three dit$# the ,or$e code for the letter 9. To re!ch "e%foundl!nd the $ign!l %ould h!ve to )ounce off the iono$&here t%ice. Fr. Y!ck Belro$e h!$ recentl' conte$ted thi$# ho%ever# )!$ed on theoretic!l !nd e-&eri ent!l %ork.A+B Ho%ever# ,!rconi did !chieve tr!n$!tl!ntic %irele$$ co unic!tion$ )e'ond ! $h!do% of dou)t in Gl!ce B!'# "ov! 9coti! one 'e!r l!ter. 7n 19*2# @liver He!vi$ide &ro&o$ed the e-i$tence of the Dennell'-He!vi$ide /!'er of the iono$&here %hich )e!r$ hi$ n! e. He!vi$ide5$ &ro&o$!l included e!n$ )' %hich r!dio $ign!l$ !re tr!n$ itted !round the :!rth5$ curv!ture. He!vi$ide5$ &ro&o$!l# cou&led %ith Hl!nck5$ l!% of )l!ck )od' r!di!tion# !' h!ve h! &ered the gro%th of r!dio !$trono ' for the detection of electro !gnetic %!ve$ fro cele$ti!l )odie$ until 1932 (!nd the develo& ent of high fre>uenc' r!dio tr!n$ceiver$). Al$o in 19*2# Arthur :d%in Dennell' di$covered $o e of the iono$&here5$ r!dio-electric!l &ro&ertie$. 7n 1912# the P.9. ?ongre$$ i &o$ed the <!dio Act of 1912 on ! !teur r!dio o&er!tor$# li iting their o&er!tion$ to fre>uencie$ !)ove 1.1 ,HJ (%!velength 2** eter$ or $ !ller). The govern ent thought tho$e fre>uencie$ %ere u$ele$$. Thi$ led to the di$cover' of HF r!dio &ro&!g!tion vi! the iono$&here in 1923. 7n 1922# 9cotti$h &h'$ici$t <o)ert ;!t$on-;!tt introduced the ter iono$&here in ! letter &u)li$hed onl' in 1929 in "!ture8 ;e h!ve in >uite recent 'e!r$ $een the univer$!l !do&tion of the ter $tr!to$&here..!nd..the co &!nion ter tro&o$&here... The ter iono$&here# for the region in %hich the !in ch!r!cteri$tic i$ l!rge $c!le ioni$!tion %ith con$ider!)le e!n free &!th$# !&&e!r$ !&&ro&ri!te !$ !n !ddition to thi$ $erie$. :d%!rd I. A&&leton %!$ !%!rded ! "o)el HriJe in 190+ for hi$ confir !tion in 192+ of the e-i$tence of the iono$&here. /lo'd Berkner fir$t e!$ured the height !nd den$it' of the iono$&here. Thi$ &er itted the fir$t co &lete theor' of $hort %!ve r!dio &ro&!g!tion. ,!urice I. ;ilke$ !nd Y. A. <!tcliffe re$e!rched the to&ic of r!dio &ro&!g!tion of ver' long r!dio %!ve$ in the iono$&here. Iit!l' GinJ)urg h!$ develo&ed ! theor' of electro !gnetic %!ve &ro&!g!tion in &l!$ !$ $uch !$ the iono$&here. 7n 1922 the ?!n!di!n $!tellite Alouette 1 %!$ l!unched to $tud' the iono$&here. Follo%ing it$ $ucce$$ %ere Alouette 2 in 1921 !nd the t%o 7979 $!tellite$ in 1929 !nd 19+1# further A:<@9 -A !nd -B in 19+2 !nd 19+1# !ll for e!$uring the iono$&here. AeditB9ee !l$o

Geo&h'$ic$ I!n Allen r!di!tion )elt 9chu !nn re$on!nce$ 7ntern!tion!l <eference 7ono$&here ,!gneto$&heric electric convection field iono$&heric d'n! o region <!dio 9feric$ :!rth-7ono$&here %!veguide F!ding /ine-of-$ight &ro&!g!tion 7ono$&heric !)$or&tion <el!ted Tether &ro&ul$ion ?!n!di!n Geo$&!ce ,onitoring Hioneer Ienu$ &ro(ect "oJo i "e% HoriJon$ 9oft g! ! re&e!ter T7,:F (Ther o$&here 7ono$&here ,e$o$&here :nergetic$ !nd F'n! ic$) 7ntern!tion!l Geo&h'$ic!l `e!r P&&er At o$&heric /ightning /i$t$ /i$t of !$trono ic!l to&ic$ /i$t of electronic$ to&ic$ /i$t of &l!$ ! (&h'$ic$) !rticle$ AeditB"ote$ Z ! ) D. <!%er. ;!ve Hro&!g!tion in the 7ono$&here. Dlu%er Ac!d.Hu)l.# Fordrecht 1993. 79B" *-+923-*++1-1 Z `enne# Bill (19.1). The :nc'clo&edi! of P9 9&!cecr!ft. :-eter Book$ (A Bi$on Book)# "e% `ork. 79B" *2+1-*+1.*-2.&.12 A:<@9 Z F.BilitJ!87ntern!tion!l <eference 7ono$&here 2***.<!dio 9ci.32#c2#221-2+1 2**1 Z 67ntern!tion!l <eference 7ono$&here6. ?c c.g$fc.n!$!.gov. <etrieved 2*11-11-*.. Z 6F1*.+ 9ol!r Flu- Forec!$t Ierific!tion6. 9%&c.no!!.gov. 2**+-1*-*1. <etrieved 2*11-11-*.. Z "A9AOYH/8 Tit!n5$ u&&er !t o$&here Acce$$ed 2*1*-*.-21 Z Yohn 9. Belro$e# 6Fe$$enden !nd ,!rconi8 Their Fiffering Technologie$ !nd Tr!n$!tl!ntic :-&eri ent$ Furing the Fir$t Fec!de of thi$ ?entur'6. 7ntern!tion!l ?onference on 1** `e!r$ of <!dio -- 1N+ 9e&te )er 1991. AeditB<eference$ ?oru # Y. F.# !nd ?oru # D. /.# 6A Hh'$ic!l 7nter&ret!tion of the ?olor!do 9&ring$ F!t!6. Hroceeding$ of the 9econd 7ntern!tion!l Te$l! 9' &o$iu . ?olor!do 9&ring$# ?olor!do# 19.2. F!vie$# Denneth (199*). 7ono$&heric <!dio. 7:: :lectro !gnetic ;!ve$ 9erie$ c31. /ondon# PD8 Heter Heregrinu$ /tdOThe 7n$titution of :lectric!l :ngineer$. 79B" *-.2301-1.2-K. GrotJ# To)'# 6The True ,e!ning of ;irele$$ Tr!n$ i$$ion of &o%er6. Te$l! 8 A Yourn!l of ,odern 9cience# 199+. H!rgre!ve$# Y. D.# 6The P&&er At o$&here !nd 9ol!r-Terre$tri!l <el!tion$6. ?! )ridge Pniver$it' Hre$$# 1992# Delle'# ,. ?# !nd Heeli$# <. A.# 6The :!rth5$ 7ono$&here8 Hl!$ ! Hh'$ic$ !nd :lectrod'n! ic$6. Ac!de ic Hre$$# 19.9. /eo F. ,c"! !r!. (1990) 79B" *-.9020-.*0-+ 6<!dio A !teur$ Guide to the 7ono$&here6. <!%er#D.86;!ve Hro&!g!tion in the 7ono$&here6. Dlu%er Ac!de ic Hu)l.# Fordrecht 1993 79B" *-+923-*++11. F. BilitJ!# 67ntern!tion!l <eference 7ono$&here 2***#6.<!dio 9cience 32# c2# && 221N2+1# 2**1. Y. /ilen$ten et H.-/. Blell'8 Fu 9oleil l! Terre# Airono ie et itiorologie de l5e$&!ce# ?ollection Greno)le 9cience$# Pniver$iti Yo$e&h Fourier Greno)le 7# 2***. 79B" 9+.-2-.2..3-02+-2 H.-/. Blell' !nd F. Alc!'di# 7ono$&here# in8 `. D! ideOA. ?hi!n# H!nd)ook of the 9ol!r-Terre$tri!l :nviron ent# 9&ringer-Ierl!g Berlin Heidel)erg# &&. 1.9N22*# 2**+. doi81*.1**+O1132++1.b. H. Ioll!nd# At o$&heric :lectrod'n! ic$# 9&ringer Ierl!g# Berlin# 19.0. AeditB:-tern!l link$ ;iki edi! ?o on$ h!$ edi! rel!ted to8 7ono$&here

/ook u& iono$&here in ;iktion!r'# the free diction!r'. Gehred# H!ul# !nd "or ?ohen# 9;H?5$ <!dio P$er5$ H!ge. A $!t-7t!li! &ro(ect on 7ono$&heric &ro&!g!tion (:9A 9;:":T %e)$ite) "_0@ 9ol!r 9&!ce ;e!ther ] Geo !gnetic F!t! Archive "_0@ 12* ,eter (,ediu Fre>uenc')<!dio Hro&!g!tion Theor' "ote$ /!' !n /evel :-&l!n!tion$ @f 69ee ingl'6 ,'$teriou$ 12* ,eter (,FOHF) Hro&!g!tion @ccurrence$ P9G9 Geo !gneti$ Hrogr! :nc'clo&!edi! Brit!nnic!# 7ono$&here !nd !gneto$&here ?urrent 9&!ce ;e!ther ?ondition$ ?urrent 9ol!r K-<!' Flu9u&er Fu!l Auror!l <!d!r "et%ork :uro&e!n 7nchorent 9c!tter r!d!r $'$te ,ill$tone Hill incoherent $c!tter r!d!r AhideB v t e :!rth5$ !t o$&here Tro&o$&here 9tr!to$&here ,e$o$&here Ther o$&here :-o$&here Tro&o&!u$e 9tr!to&!u$e ,e$o&!u$e Ther o&!u$e O :-o)!$e @Jone l!'er Tur)o&!u$e 7ono$&here

,!gneto$&here Fro ;iki&edi!# the free enc'clo&edi! ,!gnetic field line$ re&re$ent the !gnetic field $urrounding :!rth.

Arti$tic rendition of ! !gneto$&here. 9iJe$ !re not to $c!le. A !gneto$&here i$ for ed %hen ! $tre! of ch!rged &!rticle$# $uch !$ the $ol!r %ind# inter!ct$ %ith !nd i$ deflected )' the !gnetic field of ! &l!net or $i il!r )od'. :!rth i$ $urrounded )' ! !gneto$&here# !$ !re the other &l!net$ %ith intrin$ic !gnetic field$8 ,ercur'# Yu&iter# 9!turn# Pr!nu$# !nd "e&tune. Yu&iter5$ oon G!n' ede h!$ ! $ !ll !gneto$&here# )ut it i$ $itu!ted entirel' %ithin the !gneto$&here of Yu&iter# le!ding to co &le- inter!ction$. The iono$&here$ of %e!kl' !gnetiJed &l!net$ $uch !$ Ienu$ !nd ,!r$ $et u& current$ th!t &!rti!ll' deflect the $ol!r %ind flo%# )ut do not h!ve !gneto$&here$# &er $e. The !gneto$&here i$ c!u$ed )' the ove ent of electric!l current$ in the outer core of the e!rth. The outer core i$ of ! li>uid $t!te %hile the inner core i$ of ! $olid $t!te due to the i en$e ! ount of &re$$ure it e-&erience$. The ,!gneto$&here i$ nothing )ut the !gnetic field th!t &revent$ the $ol!r %ind$# or highl' energetic &!rticle$ th!t co e fro the $un5$ coron! fro co &letel' de&riving the e!rth of it$ o-'gen. 7f the !gneto$&here did not e-i$t# then :!rth %ould not )e !)le to $u$t!in life. ?ontent$ AhideB 1 Hi$tor' of !gneto$&heric &h'$ic$ 2 :!rth5$ !gneto$&here 3 Gener!l &ro&ertie$ 0 <!di!tion )elt$ 1 ,!gnetic t!il$ 2 :lectric current$ in $&!ce + ?l!$$ific!tion of !gnetic field$ . ,!gnetic $u)$tor $ !nd $tor $ 9 @ther )odie$ 1* 9ee !l$o 11 <eference$ 12 :-tern!l link$ AeditBHi$tor' of !gneto$&heric &h'$ic$ ,!in !rticle8 ,!gneto$&here hi$tor' Theorie$ !)out the $ol!r &l!$ ! $tre! !nd it$ inter!ction %ith :!rth %ere &u)li$hed !$ e!rl' !$ 1931. Furing the ne-t $ever!l dec!de$ ulti&le $cienti$t$# including 9'dne' ?h!& !n !nd H!nne$ Alfvin# &ro&o$ed ! v!riet' of

ech!ni$ $ !nd e-&l!n!tion$.A1B The :!rth5$ !gneto$&here %!$ fir$t e!$ured in 191. )' :-&lorer 1 %ith in$tru ent$ de$igned )' Y! e$ A. I!n Allen of The Pniver$it' of 7o%! during the re$e!rch &erfor ed for the 7ntern!tion!l Geo&h'$ic!l `e!r.A2BA3B 7n Augu$t !nd 9e&te )er 191.# Hro(ect Argu$ %!$ &erfor ed to te$t ! theor' !)out the for !tion of r!di!tion )elt$ th!t !' h!ve t!ctic!l u$e in %!r. 7n 1919 Tho !$ Gold &ro&o$ed the n! e 6 !gneto$&here6 %hen he %rote8 6The region !)ove the iono$&here in %hich the !gnetic field of the e!rth h!$ ! do in!nt control over the otion$ of g!$ !nd f!$t ch!rged &!rticle$ i$ kno%n to e-tend out to ! di$t!nce of the order of 1* e!rth r!dii; it !' !&&ro&ri!tel' )e c!lled the 5 !gneto$&here5.6A0B AeditB:!rth5$ !gneto$&here

9che !tic of :!rth5$ !gneto$&here. The $ol!r %ind flo%$ fro left to right. The !gneto$&here of :!rth i$ ! region in $&!ce %ho$e $h!&e i$ deter ined )' the :!rth5$ intern!l !gnetic field# the $ol!r %ind &l!$ !# !nd the inter&l!net!r' !gnetic field (7,F).A1B The )ound!r' of the !gneto$&here (6 !gneto&!u$e6) i$ roughl' )ullet $h!&ed# !)out 11 <: !)re!$t of :!rth !nd on the night $ide (in the 6 !gnetot!il6 or 6geot!il6) !&&ro!ching ! c'linder %ith ! r!diu$ 2*-21 <:. The t!il region $tretche$ %ell &!$t 2** <:# !nd the %!' it end$ i$ not %ell kno%n. The outer neutr!l g!$ envelo&e of :!rth# or geocoron!# con$i$t$ o$tl' of the lighte$t !to $# h'drogen !nd heliu # !nd continue$ )e'ond 0-1 <:# %ith di ini$hing den$it'. The hot &l!$ ! ion$ of the !gneto$&here !c>uire electron$ during colli$ion$ %ith the$e !to $ !nd cre!te !n e$c!&ing 6glo%6 of energetic neutr!l !to $ (:"A$)A2B th!t h!ve )een u$ed to i !ge the hot &l!$ ! cloud$ )' the 7,AG:A+B !nd T;7"9A.B i$$ion$. The u&%!rd e-ten$ion of the iono$&here# kno%n !$ the &l!$ !$&here# !l$o e-tend$ )e'ond 0-1 <: %ith di ini$hing den$it'# )e'ond %hich it )eco e$ ! flo% of light ion$ c!lled the &ol!r %ind th!t e$c!&e$ out of the !gneto$&here into the $ol!r %ind. :nerg' de&o$ited in the iono$&here )' !uror!$ $trongl' he!t$ the he!vier !t o$&heric co &onent$ $uch !$ o-'gen !nd olecule$ of o-'gen !nd nitrogen# %hich %ould not other%i$e e$c!&e fro :!rth5$ gr!vit'. @%ing to thi$ highl' v!ri!)le he!ting# ho%ever# ! he!v' !t o$&heric or iono$&heric outflo% of &l!$ ! flo%$ during di$tur)ed &eriod$ fro the !uror!l Jone$ into the !gneto$&here# e-tending the region do in!ted )' terre$tri!l !teri!l# kno%n !$ the fourth or &l!$ ! geo$&here# !t ti e$ out to the !gneto&!u$e. :!rth$ !gneto$&here &rotect$ the oJone l!'er fro the $ol!r %ind. The oJone l!'er &rotect$ the :!rth (!nd life on it) fro d!ngerou$ ultr!violet r!di!tion.A9B AeditBGener!l &ro&ertie$ Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (9e&te )er 2*11) Fen$it' !nd te &er!ture of &l!$ ! in the !gneto$&here !nd other !re!$ of $&!ce. Fen$it' incre!$e$ u&%!rd$# te &er!ture incre!$e$ to%!rd$ the right. The free electron$ in ! et!l !' )e con$idered !n electron &l!$ !A1*B T%o f!ctor$ deter ine the $tructure !nd )eh!vior of the !gneto$&here8 (1) The intern!l field of the :!rth# !nd (2) The $ol!r %ind. The intern!l field of the :!rth (it$ 6 !in field6) !&&e!r$ to )e gener!ted in the :!rth5$ core )' ! d'n! o &roce$$# !$$oci!ted %ith the circul!tion of li>uid et!l in the core# driven )' intern!l he!t $ource$. 7t$ !(or &!rt re$e )le$ the field of ! )!r !gnet (6di&ole field6) inclined )' !)out 1*Q to the rot!tion !-i$ of :!rth# )ut ore co &le- &!rt$ (6higher h!r onic$6) !l$o e-i$t# !$ fir$t $ho%n )' ?!rl Friedrich G!u$$. The di&ole field h!$ !n inten$it' of !)out 3*#***-2*#*** n!note$l!$ (nT) !t the :!rth5$ $urf!ce# !nd it$ inten$it' di ini$he$ !$ the inver$e of the cu)e of the di$t!nce# i.e. !t ! di$t!nce of 2 :!rth r!dii it onl' ! ount$ to 1O. of the $urf!ce field in the $! e direction. Higher h!r onic$ di ini$h f!$ter# like higher &o%er$ of 1O<# !king the di&ole field the onl' i &ort!nt intern!l $ource in o$t of the !gneto$&here. The $ol!r %ind i$ ! f!$t outflo% of hot &l!$ ! fro the $un in !ll direction$. A)ove the $un5$ e>u!tor it t'&ic!ll' !tt!in$ 0** k O$; !)ove the $un5$ &ole$# u& to t%ice !$ uch. The flo% i$ &o%ered )' the illion-degree te &er!ture of the $un5$ coron!# for %hich no gener!ll' !cce&ted e-&l!n!tion e-i$t$ 'et. 7t$ co &o$ition re$e )le$ th!t of the 9un^!)out 91G of the ion$ !re &roton$# !)out 0G heliu nuclei (!l&h! &!rticle$)# %ith 1G of he!vier !tter (?# "# @# "e# 9i# ,g...u& to Fe) !nd enough electron$ to kee& ch!rge neutr!lit'. At :!rth5$ or)it it$ t'&ic!l den$it' i$ 2 ion$Oc 3 (v!ri!)le# !$ i$ the velocit')# !nd it cont!in$ ! v!ri!)le inter&l!net!r' !gnetic field (7,F) of (t'&ic!ll') 2N1 nT. The 7,F i$ &roduced )' $tretched-out !gnetic field line$ origin!ting on the 9un# ! &roce$$ de$cri)ed in the !rticle Geo !gnetic $tor . Hh'$ic!l re!$on$ !ke it difficult for $ol!r %ind &l!$ ! %ith it$ e )edded 7,F to i- %ith terre$tri!l &l!$ ! %ho$e !gnetic field h!$ ! different $ource. The t%o &l!$ !$ end u& $e&!r!ted )' ! )ound!r'# the !gneto&!u$e# !nd the :!rth5$ &l!$ ! i$ confined to ! c!vit' in$ide the flo%ing $ol!r %ind# the !gneto$&here. The i$ol!tion i$ not co &lete# th!nk$ to $econd!r' &roce$$e$ $uch !$ !gnetic reconnection^other%i$e it %ould

)e h!rd for the $ol!r %ind to tr!n$ it uch energ' to the !gneto$&here^)ut it $till deter ine$ the over!ll configur!tion. An !ddition!l fe!ture i$ ! colli$ion-free )o% $hock %hich for $ in the $ol!r %ind !he!d of :!rth# t'&ic!ll' !t 13.1 <: on the $un%!rd $ide. 7t for $ )ec!u$e the $ol!r velocit' of the %ind e-ceed$ (t'&ic!ll' 2N3 ti e$) th!t of Alfvin %!ve$# ! f! il' of ch!r!cteri$tic %!ve$ %ith %hich di$tur)!nce$ &ro&!g!te in ! !gnetiJed fluid. 7n the region )ehind the $hock (6 !gneto$he!th6) the velocit' dro&$ )riefl' to the Alfvin velocit' (!nd the te &er!ture ri$e$# !)$or)ing lo$t kinetic energ')# )ut the velocit' $oon ri$e$ )!ck !$ &l!$ ! i$ dr!gged for%!rd )' the $urrounding $ol!r %ind flo%. To under$t!nd the !gneto$&here# one need$ to vi$u!liJe it$ !gnetic field line$# th!t ever'%here &oint in the direction of the !gnetic field^e.g.# diverging out ne!r the !gnetic north &ole (or geogr!&hic $outh&ole)# !nd converging !g!in !round the !gnetic $outh &ole (or the geogr!&hic north&ole)# %here the' enter the :!rth. The' c!n )e vi$u!liJed like %ire$ %hich tie the !gneto$&here together^%ire$ th!t !l$o guide the otion$ of tr!&&ed &!rticle$# %hich $lide !long the like )e!d$ (though other otion$ !' !l$o occur). AeditB<!di!tion )elt$ Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (9e&te )er 2*11) ;hen the fir$t $cientific $!tellite$ %ere l!unched in the fir$t h!lf of 191.^:-&lorer$ 1 !nd 3 )' the P9# 9&utnik 3 )' the 9oviet Pnion^the' o)$erved !n inten$e (!nd une-&ected) r!di!tion )elt !round :!rth# held )' it$ !gnetic field. 6,' God# $&!ce i$ r!dio!ctive6 e-cl!i ed one of I!n Allen5$ colle!gue$# %hen the e!ning of tho$e o)$erv!tion$ %!$ re!liJed. Th!t %!$ the 6inner r!di!tion )elt6 of &roton$ %ith energie$ in the r!nge 1*-1** ,eI ( eg!electronvolt$)# !ttri)uted l!ter to 6!l)edo neutron dec!'#6 ! $econd!r' effect of the inter!ction of co$ ic r!di!tion %ith the u&&er !t o$&here. 7t i$ centered on field line$ cro$$ing the e>u!tor !)out 1.1 <: fro the :!rth5$ center. /!ter ! &o&ul!tion of tr!&&ed ion$ !nd electron$ %!$ o)$erved on field line$ cro$$ing the e>u!tor !t 2.1N. <:. The high-energ' &!rt of th!t &o&ul!tion (!)out 1 ,eI) )ec! e kno%n !$ the 6outer r!di!tion )elt6# )ut it$ )ulk i$ !t lo%er energie$ (&e!k !)out 21 keI) !nd i$ identified !$ the ring current &l!$ !. The tr!&&ing of ch!rged &!rticle$ in ! !gnetic field c!n )e >uite $t!)le. Thi$ i$ &!rticul!rl' true in the inner )elt# )ec!u$e the )uild-u& of tr!&&ed &roton$ fro !l)edo neutron$ i$ >uite $lo%# re>uiring 'e!r$ to re!ch o)$erved inten$itie$. 7n Yul' 1922# the Pnited 9t!te$ te$ted ! ther onucle!r %e!&on high over the 9outh H!cific !t !round 0** k in the u&&er !t o$&here# in thi$ region# cre!ting !n !rtifici!l )elt of high-energ' electron$# !nd $o e of the %ere $till !round 0N1 'e!r$ l!ter ($uch te$t$ !re no% )!nned )' tre!t'). The outer )elt !nd ring current !re le$$ &er$i$tent# )ec!u$e ch!rge-e-ch!nge colli$ion$ %ith !to $ of the geocoron! ($ee !)ove) tend$ to re ove their &!rticle$. Th!t $ugge$t$ the e-i$tence of !n effective $ource ech!ni$ # continu!ll' $u&&l'ing thi$ region %ith fre$h &l!$ !. 7t turn$ out th!t the !gnetic )!rrier c!n )e )roken do%n )' electric force$# !$ di$cu$$ed in ,!gnetic 9tor $ !nd Hl!$ ! Flo%$ (,9HF). 7f &l!$ ! i$ &u$hed h!rd enough# it gener!te$ electric field$ %hich !llo% it to ove in re$&on$e to the &u$h# often (not !l%!'$) defor ing the !gnetic field in the &roce$$. AeditB,!gnetic t!il$ Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (9e&te )er 2*11) A vie% fro the 7,AG: $!tellite $ho%ing :!rth5$ &l!$ !$&here u$ing it$ :-tre e Pltr!violet (:PI) i !ger in$tru ent. A !gnetic t!il or !gnetot!il i$ for ed )' &re$$ure fro the $ol!r %ind on ! &l!net5$ !gneto$&here. The !gnetot!il c!n e-tend gre!t di$t!nce$ !%!' fro it$ origin!ting &l!net. :!rth5$ !gnetic t!il e-tend$ !t le!$t 2** :!rth r!dii in the !nti-$un%!rd direction %ell )e'ond the or)it of the ,oon !t !)out 2* :!rth r!dii# %hile Yu&iter5$ !gnetic t!il e-tend$ )e'ond the or)it of 9!turn. @n occ!$ion 9!turn i$ i er$ed in$ide the Yovi!n !gneto$&here. The e-tended !gnetot!il re$ult$ fro the energ' $tored in the &l!net5$ !gnetic field. At ti e$ thi$ energ' i$ rele!$ed !nd the !gnetic field )eco e$ te &or!ril' ore di&ole-like. A$ it doe$ $o th!t $tored energ' goe$ to energiJe &l!$ ! tr!&&ed on the involved !gnetic field line$. 9o e of th!t &l!$ ! i$ driven t!il%!rd !nd into the di$t!nt $ol!r %ind. The re$t i$ in(ected into the inner !gneto$&here %here it re$ult$ in the !uror! !nd the ring current &l!$ ! &o&ul!tion. The re$ulting energetic &l!$ ! !nd electric current$ c!n di$ru&t $&!cecr!ft o&er!tion$# co unic!tion !nd n!vig!tion. AeditB:lectric current$ in $&!ce Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (9e&te )er 2*11) ,!gnetic field$ in the !gneto$&here !ri$e fro the :!rth5$ intern!l !gnetic field !$ %ell !$ fro electric current$ th!t flo% in the !gneto$&heric &l!$ !8 the &l!$ ! !ct$ !$ !n electro !gnet. ,!gnetic field$ fro current$ th!t circul!te in the !gneto$&heric &l!$ ! e-tend the :!rth5$ !gneti$ uch further in $&!ce th!n

%ould )e &redicted fro the :!rth5$ intern!l field !lone. 9uch current$ !l$o deter ine the field5$ $tructure f!r fro :!rth# cre!ting the region$ de$cri)ed in the introduction !)ove. Pnlike in ! convention!l re$i$tive electric circuit# %here current$ !re )e$t thought of !$ !ri$ing !$ ! re$&on$e to !n !&&lied volt!ge# current$ in the !gneto$&here !re )etter $een !$ c!u$ed )' the $tructure !nd otion of the &l!$ ! in it$ !$$oci!ted !gnetic field. For in$t!nce# electron$ !nd &o$itive ion$ tr!&&ed in the di&ole-like field ne!r the :!rth tend to circul!te !round the !gnetic !-i$ of the di&ole (the line connecting the !gnetic &ole$) in ! ring !round the :!rth# %ithout g!ining or lo$ing energ' (thi$ i$ kno%n !$ Guiding center otion). Iie%ed fro !)ove the !gnetic north &ole (geogr!&hic $outh)# ion$ circul!te clock%i$e# electron$ counterclock%i$e# &roducing ! net circul!ting clock%i$e current# kno%n (fro it$ $h!&e) !$ the ring current. "o volt!ge i$ needed^ the current !ri$e$ n!tur!ll' fro the otion of the ion$ !nd electron$ in the !gnetic field. An' $uch current %ill odif' the !gnetic field. The ring current# for in$t!nce# $trengthen$ the field on it$ out$ide# hel&ing e-&!nd the $iJe of the !gneto$&here. At the $! e ti e# it %e!ken$ the !gnetic field in it$ interior. 7n ! !gnetic $tor # &l!$ ! i$ !dded to the ring current# !king it te &or!ril' $tronger# !nd the field !t :!rth i$ o)$erved to %e!ken )' u& to 1-2G. The defor !tion of the !gnetic field# !nd the flo% of electric current$ in it# !re inti !tel' linked# !king it often h!rd to l!)el one !$ c!u$e !nd the other !$ effect. Fre>uentl' (!$ in the !gneto&!u$e !nd the !gnetot!il) it i$ intuitivel' ore u$eful to reg!rd the di$tri)ution !nd flo% of &l!$ ! !$ the &ri !r' effect# &roducing the o)$erved !gnetic $tructure# %ith the !$$oci!ted electric current$ (u$t one fe!ture of tho$e $tructure$# ore of ! con$i$tenc' re>uire ent of the !gnetic $tructure. A$ noted# one e-ce&tion (!t le!$t) e-i$t$# ! c!$e %here volt!ge$ do drive current$. Th!t h!&&en$ %ith Birkel!nd current$# %hich flo% fro di$t!nt $&!ce into the ne!r-&ol!r iono$&here# continue !t le!$t $o e di$t!nce in the iono$&here# !nd then return to $&!ce. (H!rt of the current then detour$ !nd le!ve$ :!rth !g!in !long field line$ on the orning $ide# flo%$ !cro$$ idnight !$ &!rt of the ring current# then co e$ )!ck to the iono$&here !long field line$ on the evening $ide !nd re(oin$ the &!ttern.) The full circuit of tho$e current$# under v!riou$ condition$# i$ $till under de)!te. Bec!u$e the iono$&here i$ !n oh ic conductor of $ort$# $uch flo% %ill he!t it u&. 7t %ill !l$o cre!te $econd!r' H!ll current$# !nd !cceler!te !gneto$&heric &!rticle$^electron$ in the !rc$ of the &ol!r !uror!# !nd $ingl' ioniJed o-'gen ion$ (@t) %hich contri)ute to the ring current. T%o kind$ of glo)!l-$c!le !gneto$&heric electric field$ c!n )e identified8 !) ! !gneto$&heric electric convection field# %hich origin!te$ fro the inter!ction )et%een the $ol!r %ind &l!$ ! !nd the &ol!r geo !gnetic field. 7t i$ directed fro d!%n to du$k# !nd )) ! co-rot!tion field# %hich i$ gener!ted in ! co-rot!ting fr! e of reference in order to co &en$!te for the /orentJ force. The ther !l &l!$ ! %ithin the inner !gneto$&here corot!te$ %ith the :!rth !nd therefore re!ct$ to the $u of the$e t%o field$. The configur!tion of the $u of )oth electric &otenti!l$ h!$ ! toru$-like inner region of clo$ed electric &otenti!l line$ in %hich ioniJed &!rticle$ of ther !l energ' !re tr!&&ed (&l!$ !$&here). @ut$ide the l!$t clo$ed electric &otenti!l $hell (the &l!$ !&!u$e)# the ioniJed &!rticle$ !re lo$t to $&!ce. The electric convection field c!u$e$ ch!rge $e&!r!tion !t the !gneto&!u$e. Therefore# di$ch!rging current$ flo% vi! electric field-!ligned current$ (Birkel!nd current$) into the !uror!l region$ of the iono$&here on the orning $ide !nd out of the iono$&here on the evening $ide. The electric circuit i$ clo$ed %ithin the iono$&heric d'n! o region (!)out 1** to 2** k !)ove the ground). The$e current$ !re the FH1 current (the !uror!l electro(et) !nd the &ol!r FH2 current. Their !gnetic !nife$t!tion$ c!n )e o)$erved on the ground. Youle he!ting due to the v!r'ing electric current$ he!t$ the neutr!l g!$ of the ther o$&here c!u$ing ther o$&heric di$tur)!nce$.A11B AeditB?l!$$ific!tion of !gnetic field$ Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (9e&te )er 2*11) 9che !tic vie% of the different current $'$te $ %hich $h!&e the :!rth5$ !gneto$&here <eg!rdle$$ of %hether the' !re vie%ed !$ $ource$ or con$e>uence$ of the !gneto$&heric field $tructure# electric current$ flo% in clo$ed circuit$. Th!t !ke$ the u$eful for cl!$$if'ing different &!rt$ of the !gnetic field of the !gneto$&here# e!ch !$$oci!ted %ith ! di$tinct t'&e of circuit. 7n thi$ %!' the field of the !gneto$&here i$ often re$olved into 1 di$tinct &!rt$# !$ follo%$. The intern!l field of the :!rth (6 !in field6) !ri$ing fro electric current$ in the core. 7t i$ di&ole-like# odified )' higher h!r onic contri)ution$. The ring current field# c!rried )' &l!$ ! tr!&&ed in the di&ole-like field !round :!rth# t'&ic!ll' !t di$t!nce$ 3N. <: (le$$ during l!rge $tor $). 7t$ current flo%$ (!&&ro-i !tel') !round the !gnetic e>u!tor# !inl' clock%i$e %hen vie%ed fro north. (A $ !ll counterclock%i$e ring current flo%$ !t the inner edge of the ring# c!u$ed )' the f!ll-off in &l!$ ! den$it' !$ :!rth i$ !&&ro!ched.) The field confining the :!rth5$ &l!$ ! !nd !gnetic field in$ide the !gneto$&heric c!vit'. The current$ re$&on$i)le for it flo% on the !gneto&!u$e# the interf!ce )et%een the !gneto$&here !nd the $ol!r %ind# de$cri)ed in the introduction. Their flo%# !g!in# !' )e vie%ed !$ !ri$ing fro the geo etr' of the !gnetic

field (r!ther th!n fro !n' driving volt!ge)# ! con$e>uence of 6A &ire5$ l!%6 (e )odied in ,!-%ell5$ e>u!tion$) %hich in thi$ c!$e re>uire$ !n electric current to flo% !long !n' interf!ce )et%een !gnetic field$ of different direction$ !ndOor inten$itie$. The $'$te of t!il current$. The !gnetot!il con$i$t$ of t%in )undle$ of o&&o$itel' directed !gnetic field (the 6t!il lo)e$6)# directed e!rth%!rd$ in the northern h!lf of the t!il !nd !%!' fro :!rth in the $outhern h!lf. 7n )et%een the t%o e-i$t$ ! l!'er (6&l!$ ! $heet6) of den$er &l!$ ! (*.3-*.1 ion$Oc 3 ver$u$ *.*1-*.*2 in the lo)e$)# !nd )ec!u$e of the difference )et%een the !d(oining !gnetic field$# )' A &ire5$ l!% !n electric current flo%$ there too# directed fro d!%n to du$k. The flo% clo$e$ (!$ it u$t) )' follo%ing the t!il !gneto&!u$e^ &!rt over the northern lo)e# &!rt over the $outhern one. The Birkel!nd current field (!nd it$ )r!nche$ in the iono$&here !nd ring current)# ! circuit i$ !$$oci!ted %ith the &ol!r !uror!. Pnlike the 3 &receding current $'$te $# it doe$ re>uire ! con$t!nt in&ut of energ'# to &rovide the he!ting of it$ iono$&heric &!th !nd the !cceler!tion of !uror!l electron$ !nd of &o$itive ion$. The energ' &ro)!)l' co e$ fro ! d'n! o &roce$$# e!ning th!t &!rt of the circuit thre!d$ ! &l!$ ! oving rel!tive to :!rth# either in the $ol!r %ind !nd in 6)ound!r' l!'er6 flo%$ %hich it drive$ (u$t in$ide the !gneto&!u$e# or )' &l!$ ! oving e!rth%!rd in the !gnetot!il# !$ o)$erved during $u)$tor $ ()elo%). AeditB,!gnetic $u)$tor $ !nd $tor $ Thi$ $ection doe$ not cite !n' reference$ or $ource$. (9e&te )er 2*11) :!rlier it %!$ $t!ted th!t# 6if &l!$ ! i$ &u$hed h!rd enough# it gener!te$ electric field$ %hich !llo% it to ove in re$&on$e to the &u$h# often (not !l%!'$) defor ing the !gnetic field in the &roce$$.6 T%o e-! &le$ of $uch 6&u$hing6 !re &!rticul!rl' i &ort!nt in the !gneto$&here. The TH:,79 i$$ion i$ ! "A9A &rogr! to $tud' in det!il the &h'$ic!l &roce$$e$ involved in $u)$tor $. The ore co on one occur$ %hen the north-$outh co &onent BJ of the inter&l!net!r' !gnetic field (7,F) i$ !&&reci!)le !nd &oint$ $outh%!rd. 7n thi$ $t!te field line$ of the !gneto$&here !re rel!tivel' $trongl' linked to the 7,F# !llo%ing energ' !nd &l!$ ! to enter it !t rel!tivel' high r!te$. Thi$ $%ell$ u& the !gnetot!il !nd !ke$ it un$t!)le. Plti !tel' the t!il5$ $tructure ch!nge$ !)ru&tl' !nd violentl'# ! &roce$$ kno%n !$ ! !gnetic $u)$tor . ,!gnetic reconnection in the ne!r-:!rth !gnetot!il# &roducing ! di$connected 6&l!$ oid6 @ne &o$$i)le $cen!rio (the $u)(ect i$ $till de)!ted) i$ !$ follo%$. A$ the !gnetot!il $%ell$# it cre!te$ ! %ider o)$t!cle to the $ol!r %ind flo%# c!u$ing it$ %idening &ortion to )e $>ueeJed ore )' the $ol!r %ind. 7n the end# thi$ $>ueeJing )re!k$ !&!rt field line$ in the &l!$ ! $heet (6 !gnetic reconnection6)# !nd the di$t!nt &!rt of the $heet# no longer !tt!ched to the :!rth# i$ $%e&t !%!' !$ !n inde&endent !gnetic $tructure (6&l!$ oid6). The ne!r-:!rth &!rt $n!&$ )!ck e!rth%!rd$# energiJing it$ &!rticle$ !nd &roducing Birkel!nd current$ !nd )right !uror!$. A$ o)$erved in the 19+*$ )' the AT9 $!tellite$ !t 2.2 <:# %hen condition$ !re f!vor!)le th!t c!n h!&&en u& to $ever!l ti e$ ! d!'. 9u)$tor $ gener!ll' do not $u)$t!nti!ll' !dd to the ring current. Th!t h!&&en$ in !gnetic $tor $# %hen follo%ing !n eru&tion on the $un (! 6coron!l !$$ e(ection6 or ! 6$ol!r fl!re6^det!il$ !re $till de)!ted# $ee ,9HF) ! f!$t- oving &l!$ ! cloud hit$ the :!rth. 7f the 7,F h!$ ! $outh%!rd co &onent# thi$ not onl' &u$he$ the !gneto&!u$e )ound!r' clo$er to :!rth (!t ti e$ to !)out h!lf it$ u$u!l di$t!nce)# )ut it !l$o &roduce$ !n in(ection of &l!$ ! fro the t!il# uch ore vigorou$ th!n the one !$$oci!ted %ith $u)$tor $. The &l!$ ! &o&ul!tion of the ring current !' no% gro% $u)$t!nti!ll'# !nd ! not!)le &!rt of the !ddition con$i$t$ of @t o-'gen ion$ e-tr!cted fro the iono$&here !$ ! )'-&roduct of the &ol!r !uror!. 7n !ddition# the ring current i$ driven e!rth%!rd (%hich energiJe$ it$ &!rticle$ further)# te &or!ril' odif'ing the field !round the :!rth !nd thu$ $hifting the !uror! (!nd it$ current $'$te ) clo$er to the e>u!tor. The !gnetic di$tur)!nce !' dec!' %ithin 1N3 d!'$ !$ !n' ion$ !re re oved )' ch!rge e-ch!nge# )ut the higher energie$ of the ring current c!n &er$i$t uch longer. AeditB@ther )odie$ ,!r$# %ith little or no !gnetic field i$ thought to h!ve lo$t uch of it$ for er oce!n$ !nd !t o$&here to $&!ce in &!rt due to the direct i &!ct of the $ol!r %ind. Ienu$ %ith it$ thick !t o$&here i$ thought to h!ve lo$t o$t of it$ %!ter to $&!ce in l!rge &!rt o%ing to $ol!r %ind !)l!tion.A12B Fue to the $iJe of Yu&iter5$ !gneto$&here there i$ ! &o$$i)ilit' of ver' %e!k !nd ver' )rief $e!$on!l he!d-t!il inter!ction )et%een :!rth5$ !nd Yu&iter5$ !gneto$&here$Acit!tion neededB. The !gneto$&here$ of the outer g!$ &l!net$ !' %e!kl' inter!ct# !lthough their !gneto$&here$ !re uch $ !ller th!n Yu&iter5$. AeditB9ee !l$o At o$&heric $cience$ &ort!l :!rth $cience$ &ort!l Hh'$ic$ &ort!l

7o5$ inter!ction %ith Yu&iter5$ !gneto$&here 7ntern!tion!l ,!gneto$&heric 9tud' ,!gnetic $!il for !&&lic!tion$ in $&!cecr!ft &ro&ul$ion Hl!$ ! &h'$ic$ /i$t of &l!$ ! (&h'$ic$) !rticle$ AeditB<eference$ Z Ak!$ofu# 9'un-7chi (23 Augu$t 2*11). 6The 9cientific /eg!c' of 9'dne' ?h!& !n6. :o$ 92 (30)8 2.1N2.2. Bi)code 2*11:@9Tr..92..2.1A. doi81*.1*29O2*11:@30***1. Z A-ford# ;. 7.# 6Fi$covering the :!rth5$ ,!gneto$&here6 (19.2) Adv!nce$ in 9&!ce <e$e!rch# v. 2# 7$$ue 1# &. 11-12. Z I!n Allen# Y! e$ A.# @rigin$ of ,!gneto$&heric Hh'$ic$# 9 ith$oni!n 7n$titution Hre$$ (19.3) 79B" *-.+0+090*-9 Z Gold# T. (1919)# ,otion$ in the ,!gneto$&here of the :!rth# Y. Geo&h'$. <e$.# 20(9)# 1219N1220# doi81*.1*29OY_*20i*11&*1221 Z H!rk$# George D. (1991). 616. Hh'$ic$ of 9&!ce Hl!$ !$8 An 7ntroduction. Addi$on-;e$le'. 79B" *-2*11*.21-0. Z Br!ndt# H.?.; ,itchell# F.G.; <oelof# :.?.; Dri igi$# 9.,.; H!r!nic!$# ?.H.; ,!uk# B.H.; 9!ur# Y.; Fe,!(i$tre# <. (2**1). 6:"A 7 !ging8 9eeing the 7nvi$i)le6. Yohn$ Ho&kin$ AH/ Technic!l Fige$t 22 (2)8 103N111. <etrieved 2+ 9e&te )er 2*11. Z 6"A7 i !ging8 $cience )!ckground6. 7,AG:8 7 !ger for ,!gneto&!u$e-to-Auror! Glo)!l :-&lor!tion. 9outh%e$t <e$e!rch 7n$titute. <etrieved 9e&te )er 2*11. Z 6T%o ;ide-!ngle 7 !ging "eutr!l-!to 9&ectro eter$6. 9outh%e$t <e$e!rch 7n$titute. <etrieved 9e&te )er 2*11. Z =uirin 9hler eler (3 ,!rch 2**1). 69ol!r %ind h! er$ the oJone l!'er6. n!turene%$. doi81*.1*3.One%$*1*22.-12. <etrieved 2+ 9e&te )er 2*11. Z After Her!tt# A. /.# 6Adv!nce$ in "u eric!l ,odeling of A$tro&h'$ic!l !nd 9&!ce Hl!$ !$6 (1922) A$tro&h'$ic$ !nd 9&!ce 9cience# v. 202# 7$$ue 1O2# &. 93-123. Z Ioll!nd# H!n$#(19..)# 6At o$&heric Tid!l !nd Hl!net!r' ;!ve$6# Dlu%er# Fordrecht Z 6Hol!r 9u)$tor 6. "A9A 9cience "e%$. 2**9-*3-*2. <etrieved 2*1*-12-2.. ;!lt# ,!rtin# 7ntroduction to Geo !gnetic!ll' Tr!&&ed <!di!tion# ?! )ridge Pniver$it' Hre$$ (1990) 79B" 9+.-*-121-21211-9 ?!rlo%icJ# ,. !nd <. /o&eJ# 9tor $ fro the 9un# "!tion!l Ac!de ie$ Hre$$ (2**2) 79B" 9+.-*-3*9-*+202-1 He$$# ;il ot ". (192.). The <!di!tion Belt !nd ,!gneto$&here. Bl!i$dell Hu). ?o.. F. H. 9tern# ,. Heredo (2**0-*9-2.). 6The :-&lor!tion of the :!rth5$ ,!gneto$&here6. "A9A. <etrieved 2**2*.-22. Ioll!nd# H!n$# At o$&heric :lectrod'n! ic$# Dlu%er# Fordrecht# 19.0 AeditB:-tern!l link$ P9G9 Geo !gneti$ Hrogr! Auror! )ore!li$ 9tor $ fro the 9un - The : erging 9cience of 9&!ce ;e!ther ,!gneto$&here8 :!rth5$ ,!gnetic 9hield Ag!in$t the 9ol!r ;ind Hh'$ic$ of the Auror! 63F :!rth ,!gnetic Field ?h!rged-H!rticle 9i ul!tor6 Tool dedic!ted to the 3d $i ul!tion of ch!rged &!rticle$ in the !gneto$&here.. AI<,/ Hlug-in <e>uiredB 6:-&lor!tion of the :!rth5$ ,!gneto$&here6# :duc!tion!l %e) $ite )' F!vid H. 9tern !nd ,!uricio Heredo AhideB v t e ,!gneto$&heric$ 9u) !gneto$&here Geo$&here :!rth5$ !gnetic field Auror! Hol!r %ind At o$&heric circul!tion Yet $tre! :!rth5$ !gneto$&here 7ono$&here Hl!$ !$&here ,!gneto$&here ,!gneto&!u$e ,!gneto$&here &!rticle otion <ing current I!n Allen r!di!tion )elt Birkel!nd current ,!gneto$he!th ,!gneto$&here chronolog' 9ol!r %ind 7nter&l!net!r' !gnetic field Helio$&here Helio&!u$e 9ol!r fl!re Geo !gnetic $tor ?oron!l !$$ e(ection Helio$&heric current $heet 9&!ce %e!ther 9!tellite$ Full li$t ?lu$ter Fou)le 9t!r G:@TA7/ 7,AG: ,,9 (l!unch due 2*10) Hol!r TH:,79 I!n Allen Hro)e$ ;7"F <e$e!rch &ro(ect$

HAA<H 9u&erFA<" 9HA<: (Pn%in <!d!r) @ther !gneto$&here$ Her i!n Yovi!n G!n' edi!n 9!turni!n Pr!ni!n "e&tuni!n <el!ted to&ic$ Hl!net!r' ring$ (Yu&iter 9!turn Pr!nu$ "e&tune) G!$ toru$ Flu- tu)e /un!r 9%irl$ Iie% &!ge r!ting$ <!te thi$ &!ge ;h!t5$ thi$d Tru$t%orth' @)(ective ?o &lete ;ell-%ritten 7 ! highl' kno%ledge!)le !)out thi$ to&ic (o&tion!l) 9u) it r!tin