814

TURKS berdi, writing under the pseudonym Sakka Caghatay (d. ca. 1558) composed poetry in Turkish. Mir Muhammad, the brother-in-law of Akbar's wet-nurse, Djidji-anaga, was a renowned art lover who not only supported poets but also composed verses both in Persian and Turkish under the takhallus "Ghaznawl". He is supposed to have written a great number of poems, but nothing has so far been found from his oeuvre. Well known is the poetic achievement of the Turkmen statesman Bayram Khan [q.v.], whose Persian and Turkish diwdn has been published. His son, cAbd al-Rahlm Khan, Khan-i Khanan [q.v.], following his father's footsteps, acted as both a generous patron of outstanding literary talents and a dedicated poet who was able to compose poetry in several languages including various dialects of Turkish. The mushd'iras [q.v], meetings of poets organised at his court, were attended by poets who excelled in Turkish poetry as well. Reference should be made here to Kalb-i CA1I, a Turkmen from the Baharlu tribe, Siyanl Hamadanl, or the Aleppo-born Turkish poet Darwlsh Mithll. Though their complete poetical works do not seem to have survived, a few of their couplets in Turkish are preserved in our sources. One of the most honoured poets of the 17th century, Mlrza Sa'ib Tabriz! [q.v] who received the title of malik al-shu'ara' or laureate from Shah c Abbas II, was also attracted to the Mughal court. He is famous for his Persian poetry that set a trend which was followed even in Ottoman Turkey, but one should not forget that he was an equally gifted poet in Turkish. This side of his poetic talent almost faded into oblivion because only a handful of the manuscripts of his Persian diwdn contain Turkish pieces. At some point during the reign of Awrangzlb, there migrated to Hindustan Husayn Farldun Isfahan!, whose Persian diwdn has preserved a couple of Turkish lines as well. Dlwall Singh (d. 1896) a well-known poet and a great stylist in Persian, became famous under his takhallus "Katll". Following the practice of members of the Mughal elite in the 17th-18th centuries, he also learnt Turkish and wrote two short stories in this tongue. His famous work on Persian style titled Car sharbat contains a sketchy Turkish grammar explained in Persian. In a multi-ethnic society like India, it is not considered an extraordinary feat if someone learns several languages, but even in such an environment the achievements of Insha-allah Khan "Insha" [q.v] earned him fame. Born to a family of Turkish immigrants from Nadjaf, he not only spoke Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Kashmiri, Purbi, Pashto and Turkish but was also able to compose poetry in these tongues. His Turkish output consists of a couple of kasidas, mukhammas, a few bayts in his Shikdr-ndma and a prose diary entitled Turki ruzndmca. One of his most intimate friends and fellow poet was Sacadat-yar Khan "Rangm" [<7-y.], whose father Tahmasp Beg Khan Ttikad-Djang arrived in India with the army of Nadir Shah and later wrote his memoirs, the Ahmad-ndma. Rangln spent most of his life in Lucknow in the service of Mirza SulaymanShukuh. His works in Turkish includes a TurkishUrdu vocabulary titled Msdb-i turki and a few Turkish lines in his Ma^mu'a-yi Rangm. It should be noted, however, that contemporary chronicles and tadhkiras are full of references to poets of Turkish origin whose literary achievements in their mother-tongue have not yet come to light. There is further the fact that libraries, mainly throughout the former British Indian Empire, preserve manuscripts written in or on Turkish whose authors are either

ex-Soviet Muslim states. Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Tajikistan, London 2001; D. Shapira, Miscellanea judaeo-turkica. Four JudaeoTurkic notes. IV, in JSAI, xxvii (2002), 475-96. (G. HAZAI) III. LITERATURE. 6. (m) Turkish l i t e r a t u r e in Muslim India. The constant stream of Turkish migrants started pouring on to Indian soil from the 5th/llth century onwards, but hardly anything is known of the role Turkish language played in the Ghaznawid, Ghurid and Sultanate periods. Turkish seems to have been used mainly as a medium of communication in the army, but also in court circles (see Amir Khusraw Dihlawl, Nuh sipihr, ed. Muhammad Wahid Mirza, Oxford 1950, 173). The hitherto unearthed sole remnants of Turkish from this period are the Turkish words contained in a Persian dictionary, the Farhang-i zufdn-guyd wa dj_ahdn puyd (see R. Dankoff, The Turkish vocabulary of the Farhang-i zqfdn-guya, Bloomington 1987). The Tlmurid conquest and then the establishment of the Mughal dynasty altogether changed this situation. The Tlmurids and their Turkish military elite arrived in India with a cultural legacy that included support for and cultivation of a Turko-Persian literary tradition which was in a sense founded and elaborated by the activities of CA1I Shir Nawa3! [<7-^.]. Tlmurids in India remained true to their Central Asian Turkish legacy till the 19th century, and it was a custom for Mughal princes to be trained in Turkish as well as in the other great Islamic languages. The last member of the family whose skills in Turkish grammar, lexicography and poetry were well known in Hindustan was Mirza 'Alf-bakht GurganI "Azfarl"

[}..].

Timurid and thus also Mughal rulers and princes were not only passive patrons of culture but also played an active role in literary life (see Muhammad Khalidl, Gulistdn-i Timun, Lakhnaw 1973). Quite a few of them displayed outstanding literary skills but only some of them are known to have contributed to Turkish literary output in India. Except for the first generation of Indian Tlmurids, the sources do not yield much information on possible Turkish works by members of the royal family. The Turkish oeuvre of Babur [q.v.] is, of course, well known, and some Turkish lines by Humayun [q.v.] and a full diwdn by Kamran [q.v.] have been preserved. Due to the ruler's political aims and policies, Turkish seems to have been pushed into the background in court circles during the reign of Akbar [q.v]. Nevertheless, later rulers seem to have been able at least to appreciate Turkish poetry, as was the case with Shah cAlam II (176088, 1788-1806; see Azfan, Wakfat-i Azfan, ed. T. Chandrashekharan, Madras 1957, 17). Turkish manuscripts copied in India indicate that Nawa'i was the most often read author, but contemporary sources remain silent on these rulers' literary activities in Turkish. The benefits which the Mughal empire could offer in its heyday attracted many immigrants from the neighbouring lands. Soldiers, poets and scholars flocked to Hindustan to try their luck by entering imperial service or by being employed at one of the numerous noble courts. Many of these came from regions inhabited by Turkish peoples. Though contemporary sources do not devote much space to achievements in Turkish, their references being random, it is still possible to draw a fairly detailed picture of those persons who cultivated Turkish. The brother of the historian Bayazfd Bayat, Shah-

TURKS AL-TUSI not mentioned in historical sources or literary anthologies, or even when contemporary records provide some information on them, their knowledge of Turkish is not mentioned. One should mention here Kaplan Beg, Yolkuli Beg "Anlsl" Shamlu, Mulla Shayda'I Tekkelii, Ustad Mfrza CA1I Kipcakl and also Plr Muhammad "Aghar Khan" an Uzbek from the Aghar tribe who distinguished himself in the wars of Awrangzlb's reign. He composed verses filling a full diwan that is preserved in an Indian institution, but contemporary sources remain silent on his contribution to IndoTurkish literature. Beside being a medium for artistic expression Turkish was also used for more mundane purposes in Mughal India up to the 19th century, as a language quite common in court circles, in the army and in diplomatic correspondence, mainly with Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Bibliography: H.K. Hofman, Turkish literature. A bio-bibliographical survey, Utrecht 1969; S.A. Garriev (ed.), Turkmen edebiyatinlng tarikhl, i, Ashgabat 1975, 351-93; M. Fuat Koprulii, art. Qagatay edebiyati, in L4, iii, 270-323; A. Schimmel, Tiirkisches in Indien, in Scholia. Beitrdge zur Turkologie und ^entralasienkunde. Annemarie von Gabain ^um 80. Geburtstag am 4. Juli 1981 dargebracht von Kollegen, Freunden und Schiilern, Wiesbaden 1981, 156-62; A.F. Bilkan, Hindistan kutiiphanelennde bulunan turkfe el yazmalan, in Turk Dili (Nisan 1996), 1096-1105; B. Peri, A tordk irds- es szobeliseg nyomai a mogul-kori Indidban: Mirzd cAll-baxt Gurgdm Azfari Mi^dn at-turki cimu grammatikai ertekezese es ami korulotte van ("Traces of Turkish language use in Mughal India. The Mlzan at-turkl by Mlrza c All-bakht Gurganf Azfarl and its background"), Ph.D. diss., Budapest 2000, unpubl. (B. PERI) AL-TUSI, C ALA 3 AL-DlN C ALI b. Muhammad, i m p o r t a n t religious scholar of the 9th/15th century. He grew up in Iran (in Samarkand, according to al-Suyutf [</.&.]), where he also finished his studies. During the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Murad II [q.v.] (probably in the second phase of his rule, i.e. between 850/1446 and 855/1451), he came to Anatolia and was appointed as a teacher at the madrasa al-sultdniyya in Bursa [q.v.]. After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453, Mehemmed II [q.v.] assigned him to a professorship, first in Istanbul, afterwards in Edirne [q.v.]. It was around this time that the contest between al-Tusf and Khodja-zade [q.v.] took place. Both had been summoned by the sultan to compose a work of advice on the famous discussion between al-Ghazall [q.v] and the philosophers. A jury classified al-Tusf's treatise as the one of lesser interest. As a consequence, he renounced his academic post in Edirne and returned, via Tabriz [q.v], to Samarkand. He is said to have returned there to live as a Sun", allegedly under the guidance of cUbayd Allah Ahrar
[see AHRAR, KHWADJA CUBAYD ALLAH, in Suppl.]. He is

815

Tashkopriizade and Hadjdji Khalifa [q.vv.]). Notwithstanding the above-mentioned failure, recorded in several sources, al-TusI was able to compose a considerable number of scientific works. As was the case with many scholars of the 9th/15th century, al-Tusi's writings deal with the various disciplines that were taught at the madrasa [q.v.]. His works can be divided into the following categories: Kur'dn exegesis: superglosses on the glosses of alDjurdjanf [q.v] on the al-Kashshdf of al-Zamakhsharl Fikh: glosses on the commentary of al-Taftazam [q.v] on al-Mahbubl's Tawdih, and also glosses on the commentary of al-Idjf [q.v] on the Alukhtasar muntahd al-su'dl of Ibn al-Hadjib [q.v.]', Kaldm: glosses on al-Djurdjanf's commentary on alIdji's al-Mawdkif as well as on al-Djurdjanl's commentary on al-Idji's al-Akd'id] Logic and philosophy, superglosses on al-Djurdjanl's glosses on Kutb al-Dfn al-Tahtanl's commentary on Siradj al-Dln al-Urmawf's Matdlf al-anwdr ji 'l-mantik, as well as the above-mentioned treatise on the discussion between al-Ghazali and the philosophers, which has become known under the title al-Dhakhira (Ji 'lmuhdkama bayna al-Gha^dli wa 'l-hukamd3). Several of these texts have survived in manuscript (see Brockelmann, IP, 261-2, S II 279, 292a). So far, however, only the Dhakhira has appeared in print (Haydarabad 1899; recently also under the title Tahdfut alfaldsifa, ed. R. Sacada, Beirut 1990; cf. the Turkish translation by R. Duran, Ankara 1990). The work shows that al-TusI, following al-Ghazall, tried to combine classical doctrines of Sunn! theology with philosophical concepts. Among other things, he underlines that the rules of logic and the results of mathematics and astronomy are incontestable; should the statements of revelation be in contradiction with them, they must be interpreted allegorically. In the doctrine on the soul, too, al-TusI is a representative of philosophical notions (the soul lives on after death; spiritual enjoyments have precedence over physical pleasures, in both this world and the hereafter). In the question of causality, on the contrary, he insists that the occasionalistic theory of the early Ashcan theologians is correct. Bibliography. Laknawl, al-Fawd^id al-bahiyya, Cairo 1906, 145-6; Suyutl, Na&n al-cikdn, ed. P. Hitti, New York 1927, 132; Tashkopruzade, al-Shakd'ik al-nucmaniyya, Ger. tr. O. Rescher, ConstantinopleStuttgart 1927-34, repr. Osnabruck 1978, 58-60; Brockelmann, II2, 261-2, S II, 279; Hacjjdjf Khalifa, Kaskf al-g.unun, ed. . Yaltkaya and R. Bilge, Istanbul 1941-3, 497, 513, 825, 1144, 1479, 1856, 1892; Miibahat Tiirker, Uf tahafut bahmmdan felsefe ve din miinasebetleri, Ankara 1956; Mustafa S. Yazicioglu, Le, kaldm et son role dans la societe turco-ottomane aux XVe et XVIe siecles, Ankara 1990; T. Nagel, Geschichte der islamischen Theologie, Munich 1994, 203-4. (U. RUDOLPH)

[?];

reported to have died in Samarkand in 877/1472 (according to al-Suyuti) or in 887/1482 (according to