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Deeds in themselves are meaningless unless they are for some higher purpose ~King Arthur http://www.uri.edu/research/lrc/scholl/webnotes/Motivation_Sources.htm
Richard W. Scholl, 2002 Schmidt Labor Research Center University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI 02881
There are a number of theories that attempt to capture types or sources of motivation affecting organizational members. For instance, in discussing internal and external causes of behavior, deCharms (1968) suggested the dichotomy of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation to characterize the different loci of causality. Intrinsically motivated behaviors (i.e., those behaviors that occur in the absence of external controls) are said to represent internal causality, whereas behaviors that are induced by external forces are said to represent external causality. Deci (1975) explored the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation and in doing so, tried to shed some light on the meaning of intrinsic motivation. He suggested that intrinsically motivated behaviors fall into two categories. The first category includes behaviors that individuals engage in to seek out challenging situations. These challenges represent incongruities between stimuli and comparison standards. The second category includes behaviors aimed at reducing these incongruities (i.e., overcoming challenges). Thus, intrinsically motivated behavior, according to Deci, is conceptualized as a continual process of seeking and overcoming challenges. Another understanding of intrinsic motivation is offered by Katz and Kahn (1978). They argue that the bases of motivation can be categorized in terms of legal compliance, external rewards (i.e., instrumental satisfaction), and internalized motivation. Internalized motivation is further broken down into self-expression, derived directly from role performance and internalized values, resulting when group or organizational goals become incorporated into the value system of the individual. Etzioni (1975) takes a similar view when arguing that organizations induce involvement from their members by one of three means: alienative, calculative, or moral. Alienative and calculative involvement are explained by exchange processes. Moral involvement is more complex. According to Etzioni, there are two kinds of moral involvement, pure and social. Pure moral involvement is the result of internalization of norms, while social involvement results from sensitivity to pressures of primary groups and their members. Moral involvement is not based on expected satisfaction of needs and may even demand the denial of need satisfaction and the sacrifice of personal pleasure. For example, military personnel who serve in the armed forces demonstrate the value of serving one's country to the point of risking
their lives, and the individual who works a double shift for a friend who needs the night off demonstrates the value of friendship. In these instances, the consequence of acting in line with one's internalized values is not a sense of pleasure or need fulfillment, but rather a sense of affirmation attained when the person abides by his or her moral commitments. In addition to the modes cited above numerous theories have been proposed attempting to capture the various sources of motivation energizing individual behavior. These content theories all propose a limited set of motivational sources, some arranged in a hierarchy, others are viewed as developmental stages and still others theorizing no basic process of transition from one source to another. These models differ with respect to the degree to which they theorize a dominant source of motivation. Some of these models are listed below. The table is designed to match each of the "sources" models with the Five Sources of Motivation Model.
Self Self Goal Concept: Concept: Identification External Internal Intrinsic External Regulation Introjected Integrated Identified Motivation Regulation Regulation Regulation Task Pleasure Extrinsic Interpersonal Intrinsic: Intrinsic: Challenges Outcomes Maslow Physiological, Safety Social, Ego Ego, Self Actualization Alderfer Existence Relatedness Growth McClelland Power Affiliation, Achievement Power Etzioni Alienative, Social Moral v Pure Moral Calculative Janis & Utilitarian Gains or Approval or Self Utilitarian Mann losses for Self Disapproval Approval or Gains or form Disapproval losses for Significant Significant Others Others
Intrinsic Process
Instrumental
Heterogeneous Impulsive
Interpersonal Principled Social system Interpersonal Institutional InterIndividual Self Internalized Expression values Self Concept Achievement, growth
Herzberg
Work conditions
status, recognition
Income
Barnard
Material Inducements
Social Inducements
Bandura deCharms
Intrinsic
affiliation and need for power. The individual continually strives to earn the acceptance and status of reference group members. This status orientation usually leads to an ordinal standard of self evaluation, that it is important for the individual to be first, best, or other indicators of superiority over others. 4. Internal Self Concept-based Motivation- Self concept motivation will be internally based when the individual is primarily inner-directed. Internal self concept motivation takes the form of the individual setting internal standards that become the basis for the ideal self. The individual tends to use fixed rather than ordinal standards of self measurement as he/she attempts to first, reinforce perceptions of competency, and later achieve higher levels of competency. This need for achieving higher levels of competency is similar to what McClelland (1961) refers to as a high need for achievement. The motivating force for individuals who are inner-driven and motivated by their self concept is task feedback. It is important to these individual that their efforts are vital in achieving outcomes and that their ideas and actions are instrumental in performing a job well. It is not important that others provide reinforcing feedback as is true for other-directed individuals. 5. Goal Internalization- Behavior is motivated by goal internalization when the individual adopts attitudes and behaviors because their content is congruent with their value system. The individual believes in the cause, and as such is willing to work towards the goals of an organization supporting this cause.
2. 3. 4. 5.
Safety or Security Needs Social Needs Ego or Esteem Needs Self Actualization Needs
1. Utilitarian gains and loses for self (Income, enjoyment, attainment of preferences...)- The instrumental effects of the decision on the individual's personal objectives. 2. Utilitarian gains and loses for significant others (Social status for family, helping needy, developing school system...)- The instrumental effects of the decision on the needs and goals of people other than the decision. These range from immediate family and friends, to co-workers, to members of the greater community. 3. Self-approval or disapproval (Moral considerations, ego ideal, self image...)This category includes moral standards and ideal images of personal attributes. It involves the anticipation of affective reaction (feelings) of not living up to personal standards and ideals, and non-affirmation of self perceived attributes. 4. Social approval or disapproval (From family, friends, peers...)- The basis of this category is the potential approval or disapproval of the decision by reference groups. It involves the anticipation of the likelihood and affective consequences of social feedback (praise, ridicule, respect, criticism) regarding the decision itself, the individual's values and/or the individual's competencies.
Source: Kegan, R. 1982. The evolving self: Problem and process in human development. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Impulsive- Pleasure and pain Imperial- Personal goals and agendas Interpersonal- Interpersonal connections and mutual obligations Institutional- Personal standards and value systems Inter-Individual- Community as a whole
1. Income 1. Maintaining a minimum sustenance level of existence 2. Achieving some higher level or group standard 2. Expenditure of time and energy 1. Something to do 2. A way of filling the day or passing time 3. Identification and status 1. Source of self-respect 2. Way of achieving recognition or respect from others 3. Definition of role 4. Association 1. Friendship relations 2. Peer-group relations 3. Subordinate-superordindate relations 5. Source of meaningful life experience 1. Gives purpose to life 2. Creativity; self-expression 3. New experience 4. Service to others
deCharms: Intrinsic-Extrinsic
Source: deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation: The internal affective determinants of behavior. New York: Academic Press.