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2.
3.
UMTS CODES 3.1 Channelisation and Scrambling 3.2 Channelisation Codes 3.3 OVSF Codes 3.4 Scrambling Codes 3.5 Derivation of Scrambling Codes
4.
MULTIPATH EFFECTS AND THE RAKE RECEIVER 4.1 Multipath Propagation 1 Multipath Delay 4.2 Multipath Propagation 2 Fast Fading 4.3 The Rake Receiver POWER CONTROL 5.1 Near-Far Effect 5.2 Power Control Requirements 5.3 Open Loop Power Control 5.4 Closed Loop Power Control and Outer Loop Power Control CELL COVERAGE AND HANDOVERS 6.1 Soft and Softer Handover 6.2 Macro Diversity in Soft Handover 6.3 Cell Breathing 6.4 Multi-User Detection 6.5 Advanced Antennas
5.
6.
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Transmitted Signal 2 Transmitted Signal 1 f Transmission Bandwidth APPLY SPREADING CODE 1 APPLY SPREADING CODE 2
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Time
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Chip rate = 3.84 Mcps Bandwidth = 5Mhz Frame Length = 10ms Specified to utilise advanced receivers
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FDD
t
f 5MHz 5MHz
Harmonised Chip rates Frame lengths Modulation
TDD
Guard Period
f 5MHz
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0 xor 1 = 1 0 xor 0 = 0
In de-spreading, the same X-OR function is applied to the transmitted signal using the same spreading code as was used to spread the data. This recovers the original data, and returns the rate of change of the data (i.e. the bandwidth) to its pre-spreading value.
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Symbol Period
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De-spreading
10
Spreading
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Symbol Period
+1 Data
Spreading Code
-1
Transmitted Signal -1
Spreading Code
-1 +1
Retrieved Data
-1
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+1 Data 1 -1
X
+1 Code 1 -1 +1 Spread Data 1 -1 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 +1 Spread Data 2 -1 +1 Code 2 -1 +1 Data 2 -1 Combined Signal
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X
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+2 -1 Transmitted Signal -1 -2 X +1 Code 1 -1 +2 -1 De-spread -1 -2 +4 +3 +2 +1 Integrated -1 -2 -3 -4 Decision Gives Original Data Symbol Period Decision Re-set Integrator
Processing Gain
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Original
De-spread
Processing Gain
a
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+2 +1 0 -1 -2 +1 Code -1 +2 +1 De-spread 0 -1 -2 +6 +5 +4 +3 +2 +1 Integrated -1 -2 -3 -4 Recovered Data Symbol Period Interference Resultant Transmitted Signal
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1 3 2
3 2 1
Noise Level With More (or Higher Data Rate) Users Noise Level
3
Capacity limited by Number of users Higher data rates Note: Noise level varies depending on which signal is being despread (As the wanted signal is despread, its contributions to the overall system noise level need not be considered with respect to the despread signal)
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3. UMTS CODES
3.1 Channelisation and Scrambling
The discussion so far has looked at the spreading process and use of spreading codes from a generic standpoint. In UMTS there are actually two sets of codes applied in sequence. The first of these are the channelisation codes, and then follows the scrambling code. Both codes use the same chip rate, and so strictly it is only the first application which results in spreading by imposing a change in the symbol rate of the signal. At the receiver end of course, the codes are applied in the reverse order, scrambling first, channelisation afterwards.
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Channelisation Codes
Scrambling Codes
Transmission
Reception
Channelisation Codes
Scrambling Codes
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Used to separate transmissions from a single source (from UE in uplink, from Node B in downlink) Uplink code lengths: 4 to 256 Downlink code lengths: 4 to 512 Code lengths are 2N, derived using the OVSF scheme Generate spreading
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i. The Code Tree 00000000 0000 00001111 00 00110011 0011 00111100 0 01010101 0101 01011010 01 01100110 0110 Chiplength: SF=1 SF=2 SF=4 01101001 SF=8
ii. Code Clashes 00000000 0000 00001111 00 00110011 0011 00 Select 01 Clash 00111100 0 01010101 0101 01011010 01 01100110 0110 01101001
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Used to separate signals from different sources Uplink: millions of codes Downlink: limited to up to 512 codes Spreading factor defines the number of channelisation codes per scrambling code Scrambling doesnt change the chip rate
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Pseudo Noise (PN) Sequences Long codes are Gold Codes, truncated to 38400 chip lengths (in 10ms frames) downlink uplink Short codes are S(2) Codes, length 256 uplink only
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Delay Cancellation
Result is Fast fading 7.5cm = half wavelength at 2GHz (equivalent to 0.00025s)
dB 0
30 Distance
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In
Finger 1
Out
Combiner
Delay is achieved by delaying despreading code generation in each finger by appropriate time
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5. POWER CONTROL
5.1 Near-Far Effect
Assuming two mobile stations transmit with the same original power, the power received from the mobile close to the base station will be much higher than that received from the mobile further away. Since all users continuously transmit over the whole bandwidth, a user close to the base station will therefore create a lot of interference to the weaker signals from more distant users. This may make reception impossible even after processing gain and, in severe cases, a single high power user close to the base station could entirely block a cell. This is the near-far effect which, if not addressed, could severely limit the capacity of a cell. In order to overcome this, and achieve the optimum capacity for the system, power control functions aim to achieve a situation whereby users are received by the base station with the same average power, regardless of how far away they are. So this means turning down the transmit power from nearby users, and increasing the transmit power from those at the edge of a cell.
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Mobile 1 (Near)
Mobile 2 (Far)
Signal
Received Signal
Receiver
De-spread Signals
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Uplink: counteract the near-far effect Downlink: minimise interference with adjacent cells Compensate for Fading Two types: Open Loop & Closed Loop (with Outer Loop)
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Downlink
Uplink
Adjust Power
Used on initial access to the Radio Access Network Large separation of U/L and D/L frequencies
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5.4 Closed Loop Power Control and Outer Loop Power Control
Closed Loop power control measures the signal to interference ratio of a known signal and sends commands to the transmitter at the other end to adjust the transmission power. So, to take the uplink example, the following procedure happens: i. the receiver (base station) estimates both the received signal power (after Rake recombination) and the interference power once per slot. These slots occur at a 1.5kHz sampling rate i.e. power is sampled 1,500 times every second. Hence the term fast closed loop. ii. this signal/interference ratio (SIR) is calculated and compared to a target SIR, which will depend on factors such as cell type and location. There will be maximum and minimum power levels specified for this target. iii. the receiver sends a request for the required adjustment in power from the mobile. iv. the mobile power adjusts, in steps of 0.25 to 1.5dB. This measure-command-react cycle of 1.5kHz operates faster than changes in path loss and fading are likely to happen, at least for low or moderate mobile speeds. Also related to closed-loop power control is outer loop power control. This is used to adjust the target SIR in the base station, according to changing needs. For example this may include variations in the mobile speed or the received multipath profile. Clearly setting this SIR target to a worst-case scenario (e.g. fast-moving mobiles) would mean that in any other more favourable situations, excessive power was being used and background interference was thus more than it need be. This would in turn result in capacity being wasted. Therefore the target SIR is allowed to float around some minimum value that just fulfils the required quality, with this value able to vary over time. Outer loop control is usually implemented within the Radio Network Controller (RNC), by means of performing checks on some form of frame quality indicator which is tagged along with the user data to indicate when error rates become unacceptable.
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Receive Request
Calculate SIR
Adjust
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Node B RNC
Node B2
RNC Node B
Sector 2
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Node B1
Rake Receiver
Node B2
Also applies to softer handover (known as micro diversity)
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e.g. 2 Users
Interference Estimation
User 2 Cancellation Signal User 1 Cancellation Signal User 2 Rake RX + User 1 + User 2
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Beam
BT T NE LL CE NU ME
T NE LL CE NU ME
BT
3 2 1 3 2 1 4 7 5 8 0 6 9 4 7 5 8 0 6 9
BT
T NE LL CE NU ME BT T NE LL CE NU ME 3 2 1 4 7 5 8 0 2 1 4 7 5 8 0 6 9 3 6 9 BT
T NE LL CE NU ME
3 2 1 4 7 5 8 0 6 9
BT
T NE LL CE NU ME
3 2 1 T NE LL CE NU ME 4 7 5 8 0 6 9
BT
3 2 1 4 7 5 8 0 6 9
Cell
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