1

ME2143/ME2143E Sensors and Actuators ME2143/ME2143E Sensors and Actuators

Review of Electrical Circuits Review of Electrical Circuits Theory Theory
Chew Chee Meng
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
N ti l U i it f Si N ti l U i it f Si National University of Singapore National University of Singapore
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Outline Outline
Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoffs Laws Kirchhoff s Laws
Method of Superposition
Equivalent Circuits
Practical Considerations
3
Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
All mechatronic and measurement ec at o c a d easu e e t
systems contain electrical circuits and
components components
Typical elements of electrical circuits
Introduction Introduction
4
Introduction Introduction
Basic mechanical quantities as c ec a ca qua t t es
Displacement
Velocity Velocity
Force
What about electrical domain?
5
Introduction Introduction
Basic electrical quantities Basic electrical quantities
Charge
Current
Voltage g
6
Introduction Introduction
Charge
Fundamental electric quantity q y
Unit: coulombs (C)
Atomic structure of matter: Atomic structure of matter:
Consists of a nucleus (neutrons and
protons) surrounded by electrons protons) surrounded by electrons
Elementary charges
A proton has a charge of 1.6 10
-19
C
An electron has a charge of -1.6 10
-19
C
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Electrical current (charge in motion)
ti t f fl f l t i l h th h d t time rate of flow of electrical charge through a conductor or
circuit element
unit: amperes, A (or C /s)
( )
( )
dq t
i t =
q(t) : quantity of charge flowing through a cross section of the
( ) i t
dt
q(t) : quantity of charge flowing through a cross-section of the
circuit element.
Electrons Electrons
Current flow direction
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Direct Current vs Alternating Current ect Cu e t s te at g Cu e t
direct current (dc): constant with time.
alternating current (ac): varies with time alternating current, (ac): varies with time,
reversing direction periodically (typically
sinusoidal) sinusoidal).
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Current Measurements Cu e t easu e e ts
How to measure current in a circuit? How to measure current in a circuit?
Refer to:
htt // t b / t h? 34SY77 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_o34SY77yo
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Voltage (potential difference, electromotive
force (emf)) force (emf))
difference in electrical potential between 2 points
SI unit: volt V (or J/C) SI unit: volt, V (or J/C)
Let V
a
be the electrical potential at point A
and V at point B then the voltage across A and V
b
at point B, then the voltage across A
and B, V
ab
(A wrt B) is
V =V V V
ab
=V
a
-V
b
Also, V
ba
=-V
ab
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Notations otat o s
When v
ab
is positive
ab
(negative), electric
potential at a is higher
(l ) th th t t b (lower) than that at b
When v is positive
(negative), electric (negative), electric
potential at arrow end
is higher (lower) than
that at the non-arrow
end
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
How to measure voltage?
A
V
ab
4.889V
V
+
V
ab
ve
-
B
Voltmeter
-ve
+ve
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t0Zzoz4nM0I&amp
Introduction Introduction
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Introduction Introduction
Digital Multimeter (DMM) can be used g ta u t ete ( ) ca be used
to measure:
Voltage Voltage
Current
Resistance
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Ground
Typical reference for electric potential
Symbol
Voltage at point A, V
a
= 3.8V means potential at
point A is 3.8V with respect to ground potential
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
When current flows through an element and
voltage appears across the element, energy
is transferred.
When positive charge or current enters
through positive (negative) polarity into an
l t i b b d ( li d) b th element, energy is absorbed (supplied) by the
element
Energy Energy
+
supplied
by the
absorbed
by the
+
element element
+
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Introduction Introduction Introduction Introduction
Power and Energy o e a d e gy
Power absorbed by an element:
( ) ( ) ( ) p t v t i t =
*
*Remark: Note this formula is based on convention that current i is flowing
across element by entering through positive polarity of element. If inverse is
true computed value for p is negative and it means that element actually
Energy absorbed from time t to t :
true, computed value for p is negative and it means that element actually
supplies power to rest of circuit.
Energy absorbed from time t
1
to t
2
:
2
( )
t
d
}
1
( )
t
w p t dt =
}
t
1
< t
2
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Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements
A l t i l i it i i t ti f An electrical circuit is an interconnection of
electrical elements and energy sources.
Energy sources
Voltage source (V
s
), current source (I
s
)
Ideal energy sources: Contain no internal
resistance, inductance, or capacitance.
Three basic passive* electrical elements
Resistors (R), capacitors (C) , inductors (L)
*Passive elements: Require no additional power supply
( d ith i t t d i it (IC )) (compared with integrated circuits (ICs))
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Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements
Ideal voltage source (V ) Ideal voltage source (V
s
)
Ideal independent voltage source
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Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements
Ideal voltage source (V ) Ideal voltage source (V
s
)
Ideal dependent voltage source (rhomboidal shape
symbol) symbol)
Depends on a current or voltage that appears
elsewhere in the circuit
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Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements
Ideal current source (I ) Ideal current source (I
s
)
Ideal independent current source Ideal independent current source
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Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements Basic Electrical Basic Electrical Elements Elements
Ideal current source (I ) Ideal current source (I
s
)
Ideal dependent current source
Depends on a current or voltage that appears p g pp
elsewhere in the circuit
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Resist Resistor or Resist Resistor or
A dissipative element: Converts electrical p
energy into heat
Symbol Symbol
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Resist Resistor or Resist Resistor or
Ideal resistor
Voltage-current characteristics defined by
Ohms law:
A
v
R
i
A
=
v
i
R = v / i
i
R v / i
where R is a constant called resistance (SI Unit:
i
(
Ohm, O)
Resistor Resistor
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Resistor Resistor
Method of reading resistors value of wire- Method of reading resistor s value of wire
lead resistors
c
(%) 10 tolerance ab R
c
=
10 kO5% 10 kO5%
Resistor Resistor
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Resistor Resistor
Variable resistors a ab e es sto s
Potentiometer (pot)
Trim pot Trim pot
Three terminals
Schematic symbols
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Resist Resistor or Resist Resistor or
Resistance related to physical parameters p y p
E.g. Resistance of a homogeneous material of length L
and with uniform cross-sectional area, A:
A
L
R

=
A
is called the resistivity
f which is a property of the
material
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wUgJgK2aTG0&feature=related
How to measure resistance?
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Capacit Capacitor or Capacit Capacitor or
A passive element that stores
energy in the form of an electric
field
Conducting plates
Dielectric
i
+
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
Symbol:
material +
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
Current flow* results in
opposite charge built up
on the conducting plates
Dielectric material (an insulator): increases capacitance
on the conducting plates
*Strictly, current does not flow through a capacitor
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Capacitor Capacitor Capacitor Capacitor
Capacitor and its fluid-flow analogy Capac to a d ts u d o a a ogy
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Capacit Capacitor or Capacit Capacitor or
d
v(t)
+
Cv q =
dt
dv
C i =
+
-
i(t)
or
dt
C
where
q (unit: coulombs, C): amount of accumulated charge
i h it l t appearing on each capacitor plate
C (unit: farads, F (coulombs/volts)): capacitance
v: voltage across the capacitor v: voltage across the capacitor
i : current flowing into the positive polarity of the capacitor
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Capacit Capacitor or Capacit Capacitor or
Voltage across a capacitor cannot g p
change instantaneously (why?)
Can be used for timing purposes in electrical Can be used for timing purposes in electrical
circuits (e.g. RC circuit)
V
V
in
V
in
V
Used in low-pass filter
V
c
Used in low pass filter
With DC sources, capacitor
behaves like an open circuit during behaves like an open circuit during
steady state condition
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Capacit Capacitor or Capacit Capacitor or
Capacitance: A property of p p p y
dielectric material
plate geometry and separation plate geometry and separation
Typical values: 1pF (picofarads,
10
-12
) to 1000F (microfarads,
10
-6
))
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Capacit Capacitor or Capacit Capacitor or
Primary types of commercial capacitors: y yp p
Electrolytic (polarized, have a positive and
negative ends) negative ends)
Tantalum
C i di k Ceramic disk
Mylar
Capacitance codes:
Three-digit code e g 102 implies 10x10
2
Three-digit code, e.g. 102, implies 10x10
pF = 1 nF
Two digit code e g 22 implies 22 pF Two-digit code, e.g. 22, implies 22 pF
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Inductor Inductor Inductor Inductor
A passive energy storage A passive energy storage
element that stores energy in the
form of a magnetic field. form of a magnetic field.
Symbol:
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Inductor Inductor Inductor Inductor
I d t h t i ti Inductors characteristics
governed by Faradays law
f i d ti of induction:
dt
d
t V

= ) (
where = total magnetic flux
dt
Fig 2.10, p15 of Alciatore and Histand, 2003
where total magnetic flux
(webers, Wb) through the
coil windings due to the coil windings due to the
current
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Inductor Inductor Inductor Inductor
For ideal coil, ,
Li =
hence,
( )
di
( )
dt
di
L t v =
where L is the inductance (henry H (=Wb/A)) of the where L is the inductance (henry, H (=Wb/A)) of the
coil.
( ) ( ) ( )
1
t i dt t v t i
t
+ =
}
or
> C t t h i t t l
( ) ( ) ( )
0
0
t i dt t v
L
t i
t
+ =
}
=> Current cannot change instantaneously
Note: With DC sources, Inductor behaves like a short circuit during steady state condition
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Inductor Inductor Inductor Inductor
Typical inductor values: 1H to 100mH yp ca ducto a ues to 00
Present in motors, relays, power
s pplies oscillators circ its etc supplies, oscillators circuits, etc
Fuel injector Electric motors
Source: http://www.wikipedia.org/
Fuel injector Electric motors
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Branches, Nodes and Loops Branches, Nodes and Loops , p , p
Branch: Any portion of a
circuit with two terminals
Circuit
elements
circuit with two terminals
connected to it
Node: Junction of two or
more branches
Node
Loop: Any closed connection
of branches
Loop 1
Loop 2
Loop 3
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Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws Kirchhoff s Circuit Laws Kirchhoff s Circuit Laws
Analysis of circuits: calculate voltages a ys s o c cu ts ca cu ate o tages
and currents anywhere in a circuit
*Kirchhoffs circ it la s essential for *Kirchhoffs circuit laws: essential for
analysis of circuits which involve various
electrical elements ranging from basic
elements to semiconductor components p
like transistors, op amps, etc
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) Kirchhoff s current law (KCL)
Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL)
*Named after Gustav Kirchhoff (1824-1887)
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Kirchhoffs Current Law Kirchhoffs Current Law Kirchhoff s Current Law Kirchhoff s Current Law
Sum of currents flowing into a node is
zero:

N
I 0

=
=
i
i
I
1
0
Eg:
I
1
+I
2
-I
3
= 0
(I
3
has negative sign
because it is flowing
away from the node) away from the node)
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Kirchhoffs Current Law Kirchhoffs Current Law Kirchhoff s Current Law Kirchhoff s Current Law
Alternatively, the sum of the currents entering a
node equals to the sum of the currents leaving node equals to the sum of the currents leaving
the node
Eg:
I
1
+I
2
= I
3
(Sum of currents
entering node)
(Sum of currents
leaving node)
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Kirchhoff s Voltage Law Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
Sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero: Sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero:

=
N
i
V 0

= i
i
V
1
0
Start from a node (e g Start from a node (e.g.
A) and end at the same
node node
Either clockwise or Either clockwise or
anti-clockwise is fine
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Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Kirchhoffs Voltage Law Kirchhoff s Voltage Law Kirchhoff s Voltage Law
Eg: Eg:
Loop 1: -v + v
b
+ v = 0 Loop 1: v
a
+ v
b
+ v
c
0
Loop 2: -v
c
v
d
+ v
e
= 0
Loop 3: v v
b
+ v
d
v = 0 Loop 3: v
a
v
b
+ v
d
v
e
0
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Analysis of circuits Analysis of circuits Analysis of circuits Analysis of circuits
Procedure:
First, assign current variable to each branch and assume its flow
direction.
Then assign appropriate polarity to the voltage across each passive
element (current entering into +ve polarity).
Apply KVL for loops or apply KCL for nodes to generate sufficient Apply KVL for loops or apply KCL for nodes to generate sufficient
equations together with constitutive equations of the elements (eg. Ohms
law) to solve the unknown current and voltage variables
+ v
B
- - v
D
+
-
v
A
-
v
E
Passive
l
+
v
C
i
1
i
2
i
3
A
+
E
+
element
v
C
-
45
Systematic Circuits Analysis Methods Systematic Circuits Analysis Methods Systematic Circuits Analysis Methods Systematic Circuits Analysis Methods
For resistive circuits
Node-voltage method
Mesh-current method
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Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit
Circuit: R
1
and R
2
connected in series with a voltage source V
s
To find: I, V
R1
and V
R2
(need three equations to solve)
Apply KVL to the closed loop
starting from node A (clockwise):
?
-V
s
+V
R1
+V
R2
= 0
Constitutive equations, Ohms
l
?
law:
V
R1
= IR
1
V IR
Fig213 p18 Alciatoreand
?
?
V
R2
= IR
2
=> -V
s
+IR
1
+IR
2
= 0
Fig 2.13, p18, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
s 1 2
Hence, I = V
s
/(R
1
+R
2
) , V
R1
= IR
1
, V
R2
= IR
2
47
Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit
Since V
s
= I(R
1
+R
2
)=IR
eq
where R
eq
=R
1
+R
2
Since V
s
I(R
1
R
2
) IR
eq
where R
eq
R
1
R
2
I
V
s R
eq
+
-
Fig 2.13, p18, Alciatore and
-
g , p ,
Histand, 2003
i.e. the two resistors can be
replaced by a single resistor R
eq
f l R R of value R
1
+R
2
.
48
Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit
In general, N resistors connected in
series is equivalent to a resistor with
resistance:
N

=
N
i eq
R R

= i
i eq
1
where R
i
is the resistance of i
th
resistor connected in series
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Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit
Voltage divider g
1
1
1
1 2
R s
R
V IR V
R R
= =
+
2
2
2
1 2
R s
R
V IR V
R R
= =
+
Fig 2.13, p18,
Alciatore and Histand,
1 2
R R +
,
2003
In general, voltage across the resistor R
i
of N series
connected resistors branch is given by:
i
V
R
V =
s
N
j
j
R
V
R
V
i

=
=
1
i R
R V
i

and,
j
50
Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit Series Resistance Circuit
Voltage divider : Create different reference g
voltages by selecting appropriate resistors.
Question: Question:
Given a 12 V battery, is it appropriate to use the
voltage divider to directly create a voltage source or g y g
supply of say, 5 V, for a device directly?
V
in
=12V
R
1
V
out
R
2
51
Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit
Circuit: R
1
and R
2
connected in parallel with a voltage source V
s
?
To find: I, I
1
and I
2
(need three equations to solve)
Applying KCL at node A:
I - I
1
- I
2
= 0
Constitutive equation Ohms law:
?
?
?
Constitutive equation, Ohm s law:
I
1
= V
s
/R
1
I
2
= V
s
/R
2
Fig214 p20 Alciatoreand
?
?
2 s 2
V V
Fig 2.14, p20, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
=>
1 2
1 2
s s
V V
I I I
R R
= + = +
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Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit
s
s
s s
V
V
V V
I
|
|
|

|
+ = + =
1 1
Since where
1 1 1
R R R
= +
eq
s
R R R R R
|
.

\ 2 1 2 1
I
1 2 eq
R R R
V
s R
eq
+
Fig 2.14, p20, Alciatore and
Histand, 2003
s R
eq
-
i.e. the two resistors can be
replaced by a single resistor R
eq
of p y g
eq
value =
1 2
1
1 1
R R
R R
=
| |
+
1 2
1 2
1 1 R R
R R
| |
+
+
|
\ .
53
Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit
In general N resistors connected in In general, N resistors connected in
parallel is equivalent to a resistor of
resistance R given by: resistance, R
eq
, given by:
1 1
N
1 1
R R
=

1 i
eq i
R R
=
where R
i
is the resistance of
i
th
resistor
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Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit Parallel Resistance Circuit
Current divider
1 2
1 2
S eq
R R
V IR I
R R
= =
+
2 S
V R
Fig 2.14, p20,
1 2
R R +
2
1
1 1 2
S
V R
I I
R R R
= =
+
Alciatore and Histand,
2003
1
2
S
V R
I I
R R R
= =
+
2 1 2
R R R +
That is, and
1 2
I R
2 1
I R
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Series Capacitors/Inductors Circuit Series Capacitors/Inductors Circuit Series Capacitors/Inductors Circuit Series Capacitors/Inductors Circuit
By applying KVL, it can be shown that:
L
1
L
2
C
1
C
2
C
1
C
2
C C
In general
N
I l
2 1
L L L
eq
+ =
2 1
2 1
C C
C C
C
eq
+
=
1
1 1
N
i
eq i
C C
=
=

In general
1
N
eq i
i
L L
=
=

In general
56
Parallel Capacitors/Inductors Circuit Parallel Capacitors/Inductors Circuit Parallel Capacitors/Inductors Circuit Parallel Capacitors/Inductors Circuit
By applying KCL, it can be shown that:
C
2
L
2
C
2
C
1
L
1
N
N
2 1
C C C
eq
+ =
2 1
2 1
L L
L L
L
eq
+
=
1
N
eq i
i
C C
=
=

In general
1
1 1
N
i
eq i
L L
=
=

In general
57
Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition
For a linear system: For a linear system:
Input u
Output y
Input Output
Given:
System
Input, u
1
Output, y
1
au
1
+ bu
2
ay
1
+by
2
System
Input, u
2
Output, y
2
where a and b are some
constants
System
Apply to linear circuits (for example those Apply to linear circuits (for example, those
which consist of ideal sources and passive
) elements)
58
Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition Principle of Superposition
If more than one independent voltage or
current source is present in any given circuit,
each branch voltage and current is the sum each branch voltage and current is the sum
of the independent voltages or currents
which would arise from each voltage or which would arise from each voltage or
current source acting individually when all
th th i d d t * the other independent sources are zero*.
*To zero a source, current source replaced by
open circuit and voltage source by short circuit open circuit and voltage source by short circuit.
59
Example: Superposition Example: Superposition p p p p p p
V
To find I
I
I1
: Portion of I
i i f I
R I
2
I
1
I
?
arising from I
1
I
I2
: Portion of I
arising from I
2
R
(a)
(b)
? arising from I
2
I
V
: Portion of I
arising from V
R I
2
R
I
1
I
I1
( )
2
I
I2
V
(c)
Ans: I=I +I +I
R
I
V
Ans: I I
I1
+I
I2
+I
V
=I
1
-I
2
V
60
Equivalent Circuits Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent circuits Equivalent circuits
Portion of circuit to
be replaced with an
Equivalent circuit
p
equivalent circuit
61
Equivalent Circuits Equivalent Circuits
Equivalent circuit - one that has identical Equivalent circuit - one that has identical
V-I relationship as viewed from a given
pair of terminals pair of terminals
II
I
V
V
P ti f i it t
Equivalent circuit
Portion of circuit to
be replaced with an
equivalent circuit
62
Thvenin Equivalent Thvenin Equivalent Thvenin Equivalent Thvenin Equivalent
Thvenins theorem: Given a pair of
terminals in a linear resistive network, the
network may be replaced by an independent
voltage source V in series with a voltage source V
OC
in series with a
resistance R
TH.
:
I
R
TH
I
R
1
Linear
V
V
OC
V
V
in
R
2
Linear
resistive
t k
R
2
network
V
OC
- Thvenin voltage
R
TH
- Thvenin resistance
63
Thvenin Equivalent (procedures) Thvenin Equivalent (procedures) Thvenin Equivalent (procedures) Thvenin Equivalent (procedures)
Thvenin voltage - open circuit voltage Thvenin voltage open circuit voltage
across the terminals.
Thvenin resistance equivalent Thvenin resistance equivalent
resistance across the terminals when
independent oltage so rces are independent voltage sources are
shorted and independent current
l d b i it sources are replaced by open circuit.
(Applicable only if there is no dependent ( y
sources in the circuit)
64
Example Example:: Thvenin Equivalent Thvenin Equivalent pp qq
Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit as seen from terminals
A d B A and B
Solution:
V
in
R
1
Find V
OC
by voltage divider
A
R
2
R
Find V
OC
by voltage divider
formula,
A
V
OC
2
R R
R
V V
in oc
+
=
B
2 1
R R +
65
Example Example:: Thvenin Equivalent Thvenin Equivalent pp qq
Solution (cont):
Find R
TH
across the terminals A &
( )
R
1
B after replacing the voltage
source with a short circuit:
A
R
2
1 2
||
R R
R R R
A
1 2
1 2
||
TH
R R R
R R
= =
+
B
66
Example Example:: Thvenin Equivalent Thvenin Equivalent pp qq
Thvenin Equivalent:
R
A
V
OC
R
TH
+
V
in
R
1
A
A
V
OC
R
2
B
B
67
Norton Equivalent Norton Equivalent Norton Equivalent Norton Equivalent
Norton equivalent: Linear resistive network can be
replaced by an independent current source I and replaced by an independent current source I
SC
and
Thevenin resistance R
TH
in parallel with the source.
I
Linear
I
I
SC
R
TH
V
Linear
resistive
V
network
I
SC
- Norton current
R Thevenin resistance R
TH
- Thevenin resistance
68
Norton Equivalent (procedures) Norton Equivalent (procedures) Norton Equivalent (procedures) Norton Equivalent (procedures)
I
SC
- current that would flow through the terminals if
they were shorted together they were shorted together.
To convert to Thevenin equivalent circuit, we can
compute Thevenin voltage V
OC
as follows: compute Thevenin voltage V
OC
as follows:
TH SC OC
R I V =
I
R
TH
I
TH SC OC
I
SC
R
TH
V
V
OC
V
Thevenin equivalent
Norton equivalent
69
Example Example:: Find Find Norton Equivalent Norton Equivalent circuit across A and B circuit across A and B
V
o
R
1
A
V
o
I
o
R
2
B
First, find the short circuit current (I
SC
) across AB:
R
1
A
X
V
o
I
o
R
2
I
SC
A l i KCL t d X
V V
B
Applying KCL at node X:
1
0
o X
o SC
V V
I I
R

+ =
o
o
SC
I
R
V
I + =
1
(since V
X
= 0)
70
Example Example -- Norton Equivalent (cont.) Norton Equivalent (cont.)
Next, find the Thevenin resistance:
Replace voltage source with short circuit and current source with Replace voltage source with short circuit and current source with
open circuit and inspect the equivalent resistance across the
terminals.
R
1
A
R
2
BB
R
TH
= R
AB
= R
1 TH AB 1
Thus the Norton equivalent circuit would be:
A
R
1
o
o
I
R
V
+
B
R
1
Practical Considerations Practical Considerations
71
Practical Considerations Practical Considerations
Breadboard eadboa d
For prototyping circuits
Instruments for powering
and making
t i i it measurements in circuits
Points are internally connected as shown y
Practical Considerations Practical Considerations
73
Practical Considerations Practical Considerations
Impedance (AC concept of resistance) matching
M i t i i Maximum power transmission
In order to transmit maximum power to a load from a source, the
loads impedance should match the sources impedance (see p p (
textbook for proof).
For example, when you select speakers, the audio amplifier
output impedance should be considered for maximum power output impedance should be considered for maximum power
transmission to a load (speaker).
Practical Considerations Practical Considerations
74
Practical Considerations Practical Considerations
Grounding
V i t t t id d d fi i Very important to provide a common ground defining a common
voltage reference among all instruments and voltage sources used
in a circuit or system.
Not to confuse the signal ground with the chassis
ground. The chassis ground is internally connected
to the ground wire on the power cord and may not
be connected to the signal ground (COM).
75
Review of Electrical Circuits Review of Electrical Circuits Theory Theory
Introduction
Basic Electrical Elements
Kirchhoffs Laws
Principle of Superposition
Equivalent Circuits qu a e t C cu ts
Practical Considerations