Chapter 9

Controlling Distortion

Wise men learn from other mens mistakes,
fools by their own.
H.G. Bohn

Introduction
Since welding processes expose the workpiece to high temperatures, weld-
induced distortion is always present. We will investigate how distortion
affects workpieces and present several methods to reduce its effects. These
methods are often simple, but without them many workpieces would be
ruined.

How Expansion & Contraction Cause Distortion
What happens to the dimensions of a metal cube evenly heated to a
temperature below its melting point and then allowed to cool gradually
back to room temperature?
Because no metal in the cube is restrained, as the temperature rises it expands
at the same amount in all three dimensions. Increases in length are
proportional to temperature. The metal cube returns to its preheat dimensions
when it cools to room temperature. Regardless of its shape, a metal object will
return to its original dimensions on returning to room temperature if it is not
restrained and gradually heated and cooled. See Figure 91.
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Elevated
Temperature Outline
Room
Temperature Outline

Figure 91. Exaggerated three-dimensional changes in unrestrained metal
cube on flat surface.
What happens to the dimensions of a solid metal cube restrained in one
dimension (as between the jaws of a very rigid vice) when evenly heated
from room temperature to a temperature below its melting point and
then allowed to cool back to room temperature?
As the temperature rises, the metal expands and the volume of the cube
increases. See Figure 92. Since the cube cannot move horizontally (the X
direction) due to the restraints of the immovable vice jaws at either end, the
cube must expand more in the Y and Z dimensions. The amount of expansion
in the Y and Z directions is greater than the elastic properties of the metal.
When yield strength is exceeded, the metal has plastic and permanent flow.
We say the metal of the cube has been upset. On returning to room
temperature it is permanently fatter in the unrestrained dimension and
permanently shorter in the restrained dimension.
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After Heating (Back at Room Temperature)
Heated
Before Heating
Y
X
Z

Figure 92. Exaggerated three-dimensional changes in a metal cylinder
restrained in one dimension.
What happens to the dimensions of a metal cylinder partially restrained
by adding a spring between the metal cylinder and the vise jaw and then
temperature cycled as described in the question above?
Partial restraint produces dimensional changes between the no-restraint case
and the complete-restraint case. After temperature cycling the bar is fatter and
shorter, but does not show as much dimensional change as in the complete-
restraint case. See Figure 93.
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After Heating (Back at Room Temperature)
Heated
Before Heating

Figure 93. Exaggerated three-dimensional changes in metal solid with partial
restraint from spring in one dimension.
What effect will raising the maximum temperature have on the size of the
permanent changes in dimension seen in Figures 92 and 93 and why?
Most carbon steels rapidly loose strength above 600F (316C). Tensile
strength falls to 30 to 40 percent of its room temperature value at 1100F
(593C). Although the steel is far below its melting point (2750F or 1510C),
it is greatly weakened. For this reason, the higher the peak temperatures
experienced by the steel under stress by expansion forces, the greater the
deformation. Also, since expansion is proportional to temperature, higher
temperatures cause more expansion. For these reasons, the effects of exposure
to high temperatures seen by the metal during welding can be severe and
cause complications in making a satisfactory part.

What is the result of heating one edge of a piece of sheet metal with a
torch to a red heat?
Before it is heated the sheet metal is square and flat. As one edge of the plate
heats, it expands and softens while the cool edge does not. When the sheet
cools back to room temperature, most wrinkles disappear, but the sheet is
permanently shorter along the once-heated edge. Uneven heating of the plate
and the restraint offered by its cooler side cause a dimensional change called
upsetting. Upsetting will be even more severe if a water spray cools the sheet
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rapidly and prevents the unheated edge from heating and expanding as the
heat flows across the plate. Note that what happens during the cooling period
is seldom what happens during the heating period. See Figure 94.

Figure 94. Sheet metal before heating (left) and while hot (right).
What happens to the shape of a plate after a partial cut is made in it with
OFC?
Because of differential heating and the restraint offered by the uncut portion
of the plate, the hinge effect occurs, see Figure 95. If two parallel cuts were
made simultaneously, the metal between the cuts would show little distortion,
as heating and expansion would be balanced. Dual torches are available to
make such cuts.

Figure 95. Hinge effect in partially cut plate.
How can the term distortion be summarized?
Distortion is the permanent change in shape and dimension of metal caused
by expansion and contraction. Certain welding and cutting processes are
sources of distortion. It is a result of residual stress left by uneven heating
that causes permanent shape changes. This stress not only can ruin the shape
of a part, it can weaken it too. Even through the part bears no external load,
the residual stress acts as an initial load on top of what is externally imposed
and reduces the total load the part can withstand.
Weld Bead Distortion
Based on the distortion examples above, what will happen to a long,
straight steel bar when a single weld bead is laid lengthwise along its
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side?
See Figure 96. As the bead is applied, one side of the bar is heated and
expands. When the bar and the filler metal on top of it cool, they contract
much more than the cooler metal on the bars opposite side. Applying the
weld bead makes the bar bend toward the side of the weld bead.

Figure 96. Effect of applying a weld bead on one side of a steel bar. Straight
bar, no bead applied (left). Bar bends toward bead side with weld bead
applied when cool (right).
What are the residual stresses and shape changes caused by welding in a
V-groove butt weld?
There are residual stresses both along the weld axis (longitudinally) and
across the weld (transversely), Figure 97 (left). When cooled, the weldment
has permanent deformation away from the side where heat was applied along
the weld line. Because this is a V-groove butt joint that has more filler metal
at its top than at its root, there is more shrinkage along the top of the joint in
both directions. This makes the plate dish or bend upwards, Figure 97
(right).
L
T

Figure 97. Butt weld longitudinal, L, and transverse, T, residual stresses
(left) and resulting deformation (right).
What residual stresses occur in a T-joint and what deformation do they
produce?
See Figure 98 (left) showing both longitudinal and transverse stresses in the
weld bead. There is a second weld bead on the back side of the T-joint.
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Because the longitudinal stresses on each side of the joint balance each other,
the vertical member of the T-joint remains straight. See Figure 98 (right) for
the distortion these residual stresses cause.
L
T

Figure 98. Longitudinal and transverse stresses in a T-joint (left) and the
distortion they cause (right).
Controlling Distortion
How can we eliminate the effects of distortion from welding?
There are several steps that can reduce its effect, but we can never completely
eliminate distortion.

What is a simple way to reduce the effects of distortion that pulls a butt
joint or V-groove joint out of alignment?
First, preset the parts. Then tack weld the parts slightly out of position and let
residual forces bring them into proper position. See Figure 99 showing how
a T-joint and V-groove joint are handled.
Tack Weld Plates
in This Position for
Fillet Welding Here

Figure 99. Presetting and tack welding work out of position lets weld
shrinkage bring parts back into alignment.
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How can distortion effects be reduced when making V-grooved welds?
By clamping, the use of restraints and wedges to hold the weld joint in proper
position until the weld metal cools. This approach may not produce perfect
results, but it will help reduce distortion. See Figure 910.
Weld
Wedge

Figure 910. Using tack-welded restraints and wedges to hold joint in position
while welding.
How can we limit heat flow from the weld joint to limit distortion?
Use chill bars. Chill bars consist of steel or copper bars clamped beside and
parallel to the weld bead. They draw heat away from the weld and reduce its
flow to the rest of the part. They also limit distortion to upsetting metal close
to the weld line and eliminate ripples completely by exerting a clamping force
which prevents ripples from forming when the work is hot, see Figure 911.
A groove in the lower chill bar permits the weld itself to remain hot and not
have its heat drained away by the chill bar. This groove could be flooded with
shielding gas for GTAW.
Chill Bars
Work
Chill Bar

Figure 911. Chill bars reduce distortion by confining heat to the weld area
and by preventing work from forming ripples when hot.
Excellent part alignment is needed. How can this be accomplished?
Use prestressing. Use clamps to bend the joint members in opposite direction
to the weld forces and let weld-shrinkage forces bring the parts back into
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position. This method works well when a jig or fixture can be used and test
runs are made to determine the amount of prestress needed. See Figure 912.
Span
Leg

Figure 912. Prestressing weld joint to compensate for residual stress.
How can distortion forces be used to reduce distortion?
Use equal distortion forces to balance each other by using two (or more) weld
beads. This could be done by putting a fillet weld on both sides of a T-joint or
using a double V-groove butt joint. See Figure 913.

Figure 913. Initial joint designs (left) and balanced force designs (right).
How can we reduce total weld distortion forces as well as balance them?
Use chain intermittent or staggered intermittent weld beads. Intermittent
beads not only balance one another, but also by reducing the total amount of
weld bead, reduce total residual force, see Figure 914. Even a single
intermittent weld bead will have less distortion than a single continuous weld
bead and often the strength of a continuous bead is not needed.
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Figure 914. Using chain intermittent (left) or staggered intermittent welds
(right) to balance forces and reduce total weld bead metal.
How can joints be redesigned to reduce distortion?
Use a V-groove and a fillet weld in place of a fillet weld alone to balance
residual stress. See Figure 915.


Figure 915. Redesigned joint can balance residual stress and reduce
distortion.
What method can be used to reduce the distortion in a long continuous
bead?
Use backstep welding. Apply short increments of beads in the direction
opposite of the end point of the weld. When applying multiple passes, start
and stop the beads of each layer at different points. See Figure 916.
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Direction
of Travel
of
Electrode
Average
Length
8 to 10
Inches
4 3 2 1
Direction
of Welding

Figure 916. Backstep welding sequence.
When making a long continuous bead, weld shrinkage forces the plates
together reducing the weld root. What should be done?
Use wedges ahead of the weld to control joint spacing. See Figure 917.
Wedge Placed Approximately
18 Inches Ahead of Weld
Direction of Welding
Direction of Contraction

Figure 917. Controlling joint spacing with a wedge.
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What are some other ways to reduce distortion effects?
Preheating base metalRaising the temperature of the entire part before
welding reduces temperature differences, residual stress, and distortion.
PeeningHammering the weld metal, usually with an air hammer,
slightly reshapes the metal and redistributes concentrated forces. In a
multipass weld this is done between each pass. This method can be
helpful, but depends on the skill and judgment of the weldor: peening
consistency is difficult to control.
Stress relieving heat treatmentUsing an oven or electric heating coil,
the entire part or the weldment area is heated high enough to remove
weld-induced stress. This is commonly done in structural steel work.
Brazing or soldering instead of weldingSince brazing and soldering
expose the workpiece to much lower temperatures than welding, these two
processes can be used when the strength of welding is not required.