Water Application Methods

Irrigation water may be applied to crops by flooding it on the field surface, by applying it
beneath the soil surface, by spraying it under pressure or by applying it in drops.

The common methods of irrigation are:

Irrigation Methods











Perforated pipe
Surface Sub-surface Sprinkler Drip
Border Check basin Furrow Rotating head
Straight Contour
Rectangular Contour Ring
Deep furrow Corrugation
Straight Contour
Straight Contour
Level Graded
Surface Irrigation methods:

Water is applied directly to the soil surface from a channel located at the upper reach of
the field. Water may be distributed to the crops in border strips, check basins or furrows.
The advantages are:
1. Minimum capital investment, simple and inexpensive equipment
2. Generally lower energy cost if system is efficient
The disadvantages are:
1. Less efficient than pressurized systems
2. Generally in lower areas water logging and salinity are problems
3. Land leveling is important and expensive
4. Need large flows in many cases
5. Water application is not uniform

Border Irrigation:
The border method of irrigation uses parallel ridges to guide a sheet of flowing water as
it moves down the slope. The land is divided into a number of long parallel strips called borders
that are separated by low ridges. The border strip has little or no cross slope but has a uniform
slope in the direction of irrigation.

Adaptability: Adapted to most soils where depth and topography permit the required land
leveling at a reasonable cost and without permanent reduction in soil productivity. Most suitable
to soils having moderately low to moderately high infiltration rates.

This method is suitable to irrigate all close growing crops like wheat, barley, fodder crops and
legumes.

Advantages:
1. Border ridges can be constructed economically with simple farm implements like a
bullock drawn A-frame ridger or bund former or tractor drawn disc ridger
2. Labour requirement is reduced as compared to other methods of irrigation
3. Uniform distribution and high water application efficiencies are possible if the system is
properly designed
4. Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used
5. Operation of the system is simple and easy
6. Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available

Straight and Contour Borders:
Borders may be laid along the general slope of the field (straight or down the slope
borders) or may be laid across the general slope of the field (contour borders). When fields can
be leveled to desirable land slopes economically and without affecting its productivity, graded
borders are easier to construct and operate. When land slope exceeds safe limits, fields are
undulating and leveling is not feasible, borders may be laid across the slope and are called
contour borders.

Border specifications and Stream size:
Width of border strip: Width of a border usually varies from 3 to 15 metres depending on the
size of irrigation stream available.

Border length: For moderate slopes and small to moderate size irrigation streams, the following
border lengths are suggested:
Sandy and sandy loam soils : 60 to 120 metres
Medium loam soils : 100 to 180 metres
Clay loam and clay soils : 150 to 300 metres

Border slope:
Sandy loam to sandy soils : 0.25% to 0.60%
Medium loam soils : 0.20% to 0.40%
Clay to clay loam soils : 0.05% to 0.20%

Size of irrigation stream: Size of irrigation stream depends on the infiltration rate of the soil and
the width of the border strip.






Table: Some typical values of stream sizes to suit varying soil characteristics and border slopes

Soil type Border slope,
%
Flow per metre width of
border strip, litres per
second
Sandy soil, infiltration rate 2.5 cm per hr 0.20-0.40
0.40-0.65
10-15
7-10
Loamy sand, infiltration rate 1.8 to 2.5 cm per
hr
0.20-0.40
0.40-0.60
7-10
5-8
Sandy loam, infiltration rate 1.2 to 1.8 cm per
hr
0.20-0.40
0.40-0.60
5-7
4-6
Clay loam, infiltration rate 0.6 to 0.8 cm per hr 0.15-0.30
0.30-0.40
3-4
2-3
Clay, infiltration rate 0.2 to 0.6 cm per hr 0.1-0.2 2-4

Hydraulics of Border Irrigation:

The dominant variables influencing the border irrigations are:
1. Size of irrigation stream
2. Shape of the land
3. Infiltration characteristics of soil
4. Resistant to flow offered by soil surface vegetative cover

Recession Flow: After the irrigation stream is cut off the tail water recedes downstream. The rate
of recession of the tail water is determined by noting the times at which water just disappears
from the upstream end and recedes downstream past the border strip. An accurate description of
flow involves the use of unsteady state flow equations.

Infiltration Opportunity Time (Time of Ponding): The difference between the time of water front
reaches a particular point along the border (or furrow) and the time at which the tail water
recedes from the same point is the infiltration opportunity time or time of ponding.


Design of border irrigation
Design a border irrigation system for 10 ha area for sandy loam soil having infiltration equation
applicable as
y = 0.9 t
0.5

Where, y = cumulative infiltration, cm
t = Time, min
Assumptions:
1. The volume of water delivered is adequate to cover the border area
2. The intake opportunity time at the head of the border is equal to the time necessary for
the soil to absorb the desired depth of water
3. During the course of vertical recession water continues to move out in the same quant ity
as during the period of water supply
Calculations:
The irrigation slope for sandy loam soil with infiltration rate of 1.2 to 1.8 cm/hr is 0.4 to
0.6 percent and stream size for per metre width of border strip being 4 to 6 litre/second.
Assume
i. Irrigation slope = 0.4%
ii. Flow per metre width of border = 5 litre/sec=0.005m
3
/sec
iii. Length of border = 120 meter
iv. Width of the border = 10 meter
Assume that the root zone depth for wheat = 1 m
Bulk density = 1.6 g/cc
Field capacity = 18%
Wilting point = 8%
Available moisture content (w) = 18%- 8% = 10%
We know, d/D = . w
Where, d = depth of water to be applied
D = root zone depth
W = available moisture content
Desired depth of application,
y = 0.5d = 0.5 x (1.6 x 0.1)
= 1.6 x 0.1 x 0.5 = 8 cm

Volume of water that recedes during vertical recession per unit width =
2
0
2
d
S

Where, S = bed slope in metre per metre
Based on assumption 3, vertical recession time,
q s
d
t
o
v
2
2
=

Where, q = stream size per unit width
d
0
= normal depth of water flow at the upstream end when stream was cut-off
From Mannings formula,

( )
( )
2 1
2 1
3 2
3 2
0
1
5
2
3
0
5
3
0 1
2
3
5
0 1
2
0.6
0
0.5
2 2
0
1
1
0.005 0.15
0.07
0.004
0.07
122.5sec
2 2 0.004 0.005
V
R S
V d S
n n
q a v d S
n
q n
d
S
q n
d
S
d metre
d
t onds
s q
= =
= =
(

(
=
(

(

(
=
(

(
= =
(

= = =


Now, the intake opportunity time is calculated from given equation

| |
0.5
0.5
2
2
0.9
8 0.9
8
8.888 79.012min 4740sec
0.9
y t
t
t utes onds
=
=
(
= = = =
(


Now, water application time = 4740-122.5 = 4617.5
We know, the formula for application efficiency is,
( )
V
L y
E
q t t

Where, L = length of border (m)
So,
120 0.08
41.58%
0.005 4617.5
E

= =

As this efficiency is too less, we proceed further by reducing the stream size.

Assume stream size, q = 0.004 m
3
/sec

3
5
0 1
2
q n
d
S
(

(
=
(


0.5
0.004 0.15
0.061
0.004
metre

(
= =
(



2 2
0
0.061
116.28sec
2 2 0.004 0.004
V
q
d
t onds
S
(
= = =
(



Application time = (t - t
V
) = 4740 - 116.28 = 4623.72 second
Application efficiency,
120 0.08
51.9%
0.004 4623.72
E

= =

Results:
1. Length of border = 120 m
2. Width of border = 10 m
3. Number of border for 10 hectare plot = 833/10 = 83.3
4. Stream size = 4 litres per second
5. Irrigation slope for border = 0.4%

Conclusion: It is seen that the calculated application efficiency is still less. This is due to less
length of border since in sandy loam soil we can not increase the length of border more than 120
meter.








Check Basin Irrigation:
This is the simplest in principle of all methods of irrigation. There are many variations in
its use, but all involve dividing the field into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level
surface. Bunds or ridges are constructed around the areas forming basins within which the
irrigation water can be controlled. The basins are filled to the desired depth and the water is
retained until it infiltrates into the soil.
Basins may be either level or graded types. In level basins, water is introduced as rapidly
as possible and then held until it infiltrates or is drained away. High application efficiency is
possible primarily because runoff losses are minimized. Graded basins are constructed with two
levees parallel and two perpendiculars to field contours. Water enters graded basins along the
upper contour and flows to the lower contour until the irrigation is complete.
Adaptability: Check basin irrigation is suited to smooth gentle and uniform land slopes and for
soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates. Both row crops and close growing crops are
adapted to be used with basins as long as the crop is not affected by temporary inundation or is
planted in beds so that it will remain above the water level. Especially adapted to irrigation of
grain and fodder crops in heavy soils where water is absorbed very slowly and is required to
stand for a relatively long time to ensure adequate irrigation.
This method is suitable to irrigate crops like cotton, grains including paddy, maize,
orchards, pastures etc. The vertical interval between contour ridges usually varies from 6 to 12
cm in case of upland crops like wheat and 15 to 30 cm in case of low land irrigated crops like
rice. The size of basins in rice fields varies with the size of the irrigation stream available and
the size of the land holding.

Advantages: Water covers the basin rapidly to ensure good uniformity.
Disadvantages:
1. Ridges interfere with the movement of animal drawn or tractor drawn implements for
interculture or harvesting of crops.
2. Precise land grading and shaping are required.
3. Labour requirements in land preparation and irrigation are much higher.




Hydraulics of Check Basin Irrigation:
The hydraulics of flow in check basins may be considered to comprise of four stages.
1. Initial spreading of the entrance stream to cover the full width of the basin and
simultaneous advance of the irrigation stream.
2. Advance of the water front after the initial spreading.
3. Rise of water level after the advancing stream reaches the downstream end.
4. Subsidence of water after the irrigation stream is stopped.

The essential differences in the phenomenon are in the initial spreading of the entrance
stream to cover the full width of the basin and in the characteristics of the recession flow.
The problem of efficient irrigation by check basin consists essentially of having the right size of
basin to suit the available stream size for a particular set of soil and crop conditions.
i. Spreading the entrance stream in a check basin. The water front advance in a check
basin differs from borders in the initial stages at the upstream end of the basin. The
entrance stream spreads on either side as it advances forward till the entire width of the
basin is covered. When water is introduced into a check basin from an orifice or other
inlets, the flow is non-linear. In non-linear, the paths of flow may diverge or converge
along the flow line.
ii. Water front advance in check basins. The dominant variables are the same as in borders,
namely, entrance stream size, infiltration characteristics of the soil, hydraulic resistance
offered by the soil surface and vegetation, water surface slope and elapsed time.
iii. Water storage and rate of rise in check basins. Ponding occurs after the water front
reaches the down stream end of the check basin. The volume of storage above the soil
surface in a given time period is equal to the difference between the volume of water
admitted into the basin during the period and the volume infiltrated into the soil.

s s s s c s
V qt I t A d = =

In which,
V
s
= volume of water stored in a given time t
s
, cm
3

q = average size of the entrance stream, cm
3
/min
t
s
= storage time, min
I
s
= average infiltration rate during the storage time, cm/min
A
c
= area of check basin, cm
2

d
s
= depth of storage during t
s
, cm

iv. Recession of water in check basins. Recession of check basin may be taken as the
subsidence of water due to infiltration.

Furrow Irrigation:
The furrow method of irrigation is used in the irrigation of row crops with furrows
developed between the crop rows in the planting and cultivating processes. The size and shape
of the furrow depends on the crop grown, equipment used and spacing between crop rows.
Water is applied by running small streams in furrows between the crop rows. Water infiltrates
into the soil and spreads laterally to irrigate the areas between the furrows. In areas where
surface drainage is necessary, the furrows can be used to dispose off the runoff from rainfall
rapidly.

Adaptability: Furrow irrigation can be used to irrigate all cultivated crops planted in rows like
maize, sorghum, sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, groundnut, potatoes including orchards and other
vegetables. It is well adapted to irrigation crops which are subject to injury from ponded surface
water or susceptible to fungal root rot. Furrow irrigation is suitable to most soils except sands
that have a very high infiltration rate and provide poor lateral distribution of water between
furrows.

Advantages:
i. Water in the furrows contacts only one-half to one-fifth of the land surface, thereby
reducing puddling, and crusting of the soil and evaporation losses.
ii. Earlier cultivation is possible which is a distinct advantage in heavy soils.
iii. Reduces labour requirements in land preparation and irrigation compared to check
basin method.

In general, small plants require small furrows and larger plants permit large furrows.
Furrows of 7.5 to 12.5 cm depth are appropriate for vegetables, while some row crops and
orchards require much deeper furrows.
Irrigation furrows may be classified into two general types based on their alignment. They are:
i. Straight furrows
ii. Contour furrows
Based on their size and spacing, furrows may be classified as deep furrows and corrugations.
Straight furrows: Straight furrows like borders are laid down the prevailing land slope. They are
best suited to sites where the land slope does not exceed 0.75 percent. In areas of intense rainfall,
the furrow grade should not exceed 0.5 percent so as to minimize the erosion. In fine textured
soils having very low infiltration rates, the furrows are usually level lengthwise. With level
furrows, the same stream size is maintained until the required amount of water is applied. The
water is ponded in the furrows until it is absorbed by the soil.

Contour furrows: A contour furrow is similar to graded and level furrow methods in that the
irrigation water is applied in furrows. But the furrows carry water across a sloping field rather
than down the slope. These are curved to fit the topography of the land. The furrows are given a
slope along its length as in the case of graded furrows. The limitations of straight furrow
irrigation are overcome by contouring to include sloping lands. Light soils can be irrigated
successfully across slopes upto 5 percent. These are installed annually for row crops. But in
orchards and other permanent contour plantings, the same furrows and ditches are used every
year. These furrows are used on most soil types except on light sandy soils and soils that crack.
In heavy rainfall areas the length of furrows should be short enough to dispose off the runoff
safely without breaking the furrows.

Corrugation Irrigation: It consists of running water in small furrows, which direct the flow
down the slope. It is commonly used for irrigating non-cultivated, close growing crops such as
small grains and for pasture growing on steep slopes. Corrugations may be used in conjunction
with border irrigation on lands with relatively flat slopes to help in obtaining uniform coverage
with water. The corrugations can be made with a simple bamboo corrugator or cultivators
equipped with small furrowers or other similar implements. Corrugations are V-shaped or U-
shaped channels about 6 to 10 cm deep spaced 40 to 75 cm apart. This method of wetting the
soil minimizes the crusting effect on the surface soil which may be a problem when the entire
surface is flooded. It is most suitable in loamy soils in which the lateral movement of water
takes place rapidly. This method is not recommended on saline soils or when the irrigation water
has a high salt content. The permissible length of corrugations varies from about 50 m in light
textured soils with slopes of 2 to 4 percent to about 150 m in heavy textured soils upto 2 percent
slope.

Furrow Irrigation Hydraulics: Efficient water application in furrow irrigation depends on the
hydraulics of flow in furrows. Like in border, the flow phenomenon in furrow irrigation is a case
of unsteady open channel flow with decreasing discharge. Furrow irrigation differs from borders
and basins in the pattern of wetting the soil, because the water which soaks into the soil spreads
laterally to the adjacent areas. The dominant variables influencing the rate of flow in furrows are
the entrance stream size, infiltration rate, size and shape of wetted section of furrow, furrow
slope and hydraulic resistance. The hydraulic resistance to flow may be due to the combined
effect of the roughness offered by the wetted surface of the furrow and the resistance offered by
the crop.

Evaluation of Furrow Irrigation: Infiltration of water into the furrow is the most important
variable affecting the characteristics of flow in furrows. The infiltration rates in furrows may be
determined by the gravimetric method, furrow infiltrometer or inflow-outflow method.

In the inflow-outflow method, the furrow is divided into a number of sections and parshall
flumes or suitable water measuring devices are installed at each station to measure the flow rate.
The furrow spacing is measured from the centre of the furrow to the centre pf the adjacent
furrow. The average value of the wetted perimeter multiplied by the length of the test section
gives the wetted area.
Accumulated infiltration = Accumulated inflow - Accumulated storage (volume)
Accumulated infiltration (depth) = Accumulated infiltration (volume) / Wetted area of test
section
The maximum non-erosive flow rate in furrows is estimated by

0.60
m
q
s
=

In which, q
m
= maximum non-erosive stream, litres per second
s = slope of furrow (%)







The average depth of water applied during irrigation is estimated by,


360 q t
d
w L

=

In which, d = average depth of water applied, cm
q = stream size, litres per second
t = duration of irrigation, hours
w = furrow spacing, metres
L = furrow length, metres