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John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NewYork Chichester Weinheim Brisbane Singapore Toronto
Contents
Chapter 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 Introduction
The Systematic Identification of Organic Compounds: The Need for Organic Qualitative Analysis Suggestions to Students and Instructors Laboratory Safety and First Aid
1 3 5
Chapter 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10
Identification
of U n k n o w n s
8 12 12 12 13 13 14 14, 17 21 22
Preliminary Examination Physical Constants Molecular Weight Determination Molecular Formula Determination Solubility Tests Infrared and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, and Spectra Analyses Classification Tests Preparation of a Satisfactory Derivatives Mixtures Report Forms
Chapter 3
P r e l i m i n a r y E x a m i n a t i o n , P h y s i c a l P r o p e r t i e s , and P u r i t y
34
Determination
3.1 Preliminary Examination 3.1.1 Physical State 3.1.2 Color 3.1.3 Odor 3.1.4 Ignition Test 3.1.5 Summary and Applications Determination of Physical Properties 3.2.1 Melting Points 3.2.2 Boiling Points 3.2.3 Specific Gravity 3.2.4 Index of Refraction of Liquids Introduction to Chromatography 3.3.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography 3.3.2 Gas Chromatography Optical Rotation 3.4.1 Preparation of the Solution 3.4.2 Filling the Polarimeter Tube 3.4.3 The Use of the Polarimeter 3.4.4 Expression of Results 3.4.5 Enantiomeric Excess (Optical Purity) and Resolution Recrystallization 35 35 35 35 36 37 37 37 44 50 56 58 59 63 71 71 71 72 74 75 78
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
Contents D e t e r m i n a t i o n of M o l e c u l a r F o r m u l a 82 83 83 90 90 93
Qualitative Elemental Analysis 4.1.1 Fusion of Organic Compounds with Sodium Quantitative Elemental Analysis 4.2.1 Combustion and Related Analyses 4.2.2 Formula Determination by Mass Spectrometry
Chapter 5 5.1
Classification
of O r g a n i c C o m p o u n d s by S o l u b i l i t y
5.2
Solubility in Water, Aqueous Acids and Bases, and Ether 5.1.1 Determination of Solubilities 5.1.2 Theory of Solubility 5.1.3 Theory of Acid-Base Solubility 5.1.4 Solubility in Water 5.1.5 Solubility in 5% Hydrochloric Acid Solution 5.1.6 Solubility in 5% Sodium Hydroxide and 5% Sodium Bicarbonate Solutions 5.1.7 Solubility of Amphoteric Compounds 5.1.8 Solubility in Cold, Concentrated Sulfuric Acid 5.1.9 Borderlines Between Solubility Classes Solubility in Organic Solvents
Spectrometric Methods
Mass Spectrometry Infrared (IR) Spectrometry Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectrometry Ultraviolet Spectrometry Problems
Chapter 7
C h e m i c a l Tests for F u n c t i o n a l G r o u p s
200 204 211 213 228 236 238 253 255 264 265 266 270 275 276 283 284
7.1 Acid Anhydrides 7.2 Acyl Halides 7.3 Alcohols 7.4 Aldehydes 7.5 Amides 7.6 Amines and Amine Salts 7.7 Amino Acids 7.8 Carbohydrates 7.9 Carboxylic Acids 7.10 . Esters 7.11 Ethers 7.12 Halides 7.13 Hydrocarbons-Alkanes 7.14 Hydrocarbons-Alkenes 7.15 Hydrocarbons-Alkynes 7.16 Hydrocarbons-Aromatic
Contents 7.17 7.18 7.19 7.20 7.21 Ketones Nitriles Nitro Compounds Phenols Sulfonamides, Sulfonic Acids, Sulfonyl Chlorides xi 289 290 291 294 299
Chapter 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 8.10 8.11 8.12 8.13 8.14 8.15 8.16 8.17
T h e P r e p a r a t i o n of D e r i v a t i v e s
301 304 314 319 325 331 339 345 348 359 360 364 369 372" 375 380 381 385
Carboxylic Acids, Acid Anhydrides, Acid Halides Alcohols Aldehydes and Ketones Amides Amines Amino Acids Carbohydrates Esters EthersAliphatic EthersAromatic HalidesAlkyl HalidesAromatic HydrocarbonAromatic Nitriles Nitro Compounds Phenols Sulfonic Acids, Sulfonyl Chlorides, Sulfonamides
Chapter 9
Structural Problems-Solution
Methods and E x e r c i s e s
391
Compounds with Structures Previously Described in the Literature Determination of the Structures of New Compounds Not Described in the Chemical Literature Problems
C h a p t e r 10
S e p a r a t i o n of M i x t u r e s
441
10.1 10.2
Preliminary Examinations of Mixtures Distillation and Sublimation 10.2.1 Distillation 10.2.2 Steam Distillation 10.2.3 Sublimation 10.3 Extractions: Separations Based Upon Salt Formation 10.3.1 Extraction of Water Insoluble Mixtures 10.3.2 Extraction of Water Soluble Mixtures 10.4 Chromatography 10.4.1 Column Chromatography 10.4.2 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) 10.4.3 Gas Chromatography
442 444 444 449 451 452 454 457 461 463 471 474
xii
Contents Chemical Literature 477 478 479 480 481 482 483
Appendix I
484 485 486 486 487 488 489 489 490 491
Composition and Properties of Common Acids and Bases Composition of Common Buffer Solutions Pressure-Temperature Nomograph for Vacuum Distillations Elution Solvents for Chromatography Salt-Ice Mixtures for Cooling Baths Liquid Media for Heating Baths Solvents for Extraction of Aqueous Solutions Drying Agents for Organic Solvents More Powerful Dehydrating Agents for Organic Liquids
A p p e n d i x II
492 492 492 492 493 493 493 494 494 494 495 495 496 497 497 498 498 499
Apparatus Individual Desk Equipment Suggested Locker Equipment Suggested Supplementary Kit Suggested Supplementary Microscale Kit General Laboratory Equipment Special Laboratory Equipment Items Obtained on Temporary Loan from Instructor or Stockroom Waste Containers Needed in the Laboratory Chemicals Needed in the Laboratory Organic Compounds Inorganic Compounds Acids and Bases Solutions Indicators Other Items Unknowns
T a b l e s of D e r i v a t i v e s
Contents
Alcohols (Liquids) Alcohols (Solids) Aldehydes (Liquids) Aldehydes (Solids) Amides (Liquids) Amides (Solids) Amines-Primary and Secondary (Liquids) Amines-Primary and Secondary (Solids) Amines-Tertiary (Liquids) Amines-Tertiary (Solids) Amino Acids Carbohydrates Carboxylic Acids (Liquids) Carboxylic Acids (Solids) Esters (Liquids) Esters (Solids) Ethers-Aromatic (Liquids) Ethers-Aromatic (Solids) Halides-Alkyl, Cycloalkyl, and Aralkyl (Liquids) Halides-Aromatic (Liquids) Halides-Aromatic (Solids) Hydrocarbons-Aromatic (Liquids) Hydrocarbons-Aromatic (Solids) Ketones (Liquids) Ketones (Solids) Nitriles (Liquids) Nitriles (Solids) Nitro Compounds (Liquids) Nitro Compounds (Solids) Phenols (Liquids) Phenols (Solids) Sulfonamides Sulfonic Acids Sulfonyl Chlorides
xiii
511 515 517 520 523 524 541 545 556 559 561 563 565 567 576 593 600 602 603 605 606 607' 608 609 613 618 623 631 632 634 636 646 650 653