Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems

1
Signal Conditioning Circuits
:Power Supplies

Measurement and Instrumentation
Electronic measurement system Electronic measurement system
Transducer
Power
supply
Conditioning
circuits
Amplifier
Recorder
Data
processor
For engineering analysis For engineering analysis
-- Graphs or Tables Graphs or Tables
Controller
Command
generator
Process control Process control
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
2
Power Supplies
Some transducers need the power supply in order to convert the
sensed information from the sensor into the electrical signal.
Power supplies for instruments
1. Battery supplies
Transducer
Power
supply
Signal Conditioning Signal Conditioning
2. Line voltage supplies
Battery supplies
widely used and inexpensive
voltage declines after used
voltage regulating circuit required
Voltage regulating circuits
Output voltage = Zener voltage
E
batt.
E
o
Simple voltage regulator
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
3
Zener diode
is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward
direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the
voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener
voltage

(Breakdown voltage)
P
N
Line voltage supplies
take the (high) voltage from a wall outlet and lower its into the desired
(low) voltage. The (low) alternating voltage is converted to direct voltage and
is then regulated.
Rectifier Transformer Regulator
Power line
220 Vac at 50 Hz
Low voltage
Vac
Unregulated
Vdc
Regulated
Vdc
V
a
c
2
2
0
V
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
4
Transformer Transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another through inductively coupled conductors The transformers coils.
Vs
Vp
Ns
Np
=
Step-up transformer
Step-down transformer
Ns
Np
1 >
Ns
Np
1 <
Rectifier Rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC),
which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which is in
only one direction
V
dc
=V
av
=2V
p
/
V
rms
=V
p
/2
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
5
Voltage regulator Voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically
maintain a constant voltage level
Three pin 12 V DC voltage regulator IC.
Signal Conditioning Circuits
:Bridge Circuits

Measurement and Instrumentation
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
6
Bridge circuits
have been devised for measuring capacitance, inductance, and
most often for measuring resistance. A purely
resistance bridge, called a Wheatstone bridge, provides a
means for accurately measuring resistance, and for detecting
small changes in resistance.
Galvanometer
Bridges analysis Bridges analysis
The basic arrangement for a bridge circuit is shown in the figure below. A
dc voltage is applied as an input across nodes A to D, and the bridge forms a
parallel circuit arrangement between these two nodes. The currents flowing
through the resistors R
1
to R
4
are I
1
to I
4
, respectively. Under the condition
that the current flow through the galvanometer, I
g
= 0, the bridge is in a
balanced condition.
For a balanced bridge:
R
2
R
4
R
1
R
3
=
If the resistor R1 is a transducer, a change in
resistance, associated with a change in some
physical variable, causes an unbalance of the
bridge.
1 3
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
7
1. Null Method
Bridges analysis
R
1
is the resistance of the transducer R
1
is the resistance of the transducer
R
2
is the resistance of the adjustable resistor
R
1
Principle: If the resistance R1 varies
with changes in the measured variable,
I
g
= 0
one of the other arms of the bridge can
be adjusted to null the circuit and
determine resistance.
1. Null Method
Transducer
Wheatstone bridge
ll h d
M
R
1
R
2
The resistance R
2
must be calibrated such that the adjustments
directly indicate the value of R
1
Transducer
Null Method (unknown) (known)
Advantages:
1. no need to know the input voltage.
2. current detector required (Galvanometer) to detect I
g

Disadvantages: Disadvantages:
1. sensitivity depending on the galvanometer
2. uncertainty in the measured resistance depending on the input
voltage
Uncertainty, u
R
1/E
i
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
8
2. Deflection Method
Bridges analysis
R
1
is the resistance of a transducer R
1
is the resistance of a transducer
R
1
Principle: a voltage measuring device is used
to measure the voltage unbalance in the bridge
(the voltage drop from B to C) as a n indication
of the change in resistance of the change in resistance.
E
o
= E
i
_
R
1
R
1
+R
2
-
R
S
R
S
+R
4
]
2. Deflection Method
Transducer
Wheatstone bridge
Deflection Method
M
R
E
o
R
1
R
1
= R
2
= R
3
= R
4
= R
E E
o
For identical resistors,
Under balanced conditions (I
g
= 0),
E = 0
oE
o
E
i
=
oRR
4 +2(oRR)

o
In an unbalanced condition,
E
o
= 0
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
9
Advantage: can be used to measure time-varying signals, but the voltage
measuring device must have the frequency response not less than that of
the sensor.
Disadvantage: Disadvantage:
1. high capability of the galvanometer required.
2. known and regulated input voltage required.
In case of the low impedance galvanometer, R
g
oRR
I
g
= E
i
oRR
4(R + R
g
)

E
o
= E
i
oRR
4(1 + RR
g
)

A certain temperature sensor experiences a change in electrical resistance
with temperature according to the equation
Example 1 Null method
R = R
o
|1 +o(I -I
o
)]
o
| (
o
)]
where R = sensor resistance []
R
0
= sensor resistance at the ref. temperature T
0
[]
T = measuring temperature [C]
= constant = 0.00395 C
-1
Given: Given:
1) R
3
= R
4
= 500
2) R
0
= 100 at T
0
= 0C
Determine the value of R2 that would balance the bridge at 0 C
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
10
R
1
R = R = 200
Solution
Under balanced condition,
R
2
= R
1
(R
4
/R
3
) = R
1
R
3
R
4
200
120
140
160
R
2
60
80
100
0 20 40 60 80 100
Temperature [C]
Example 2 Deflection method
Consider a deflection bridge, which initially has all arms of the bridge equal to 100 ohms,
with the temperature sensor described in Example 1. The input voltage to the bridge is
10V. If the temperature of R1 is changed such that the bridge output is 0.569 V, what is
the temperature of the sensor? How much current flows through the sensor and how
much power must it dissipate?
Solution
At deflection state,
E = 0 569 V
oE
o

E
i
=
oRR
4 +2(oRR)

A change in the resistance of the sensor can be

obtained from
E
o
= 0.569 V
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
11
We obtain
Therefore, the temperature of the sensor is
R = 25.67 ohms
R
1
= R
u
+oR = R
u
|1 +u.uuS9S(I -I
u
)]
By Kirchoffs law, the current flowing through R1 is
given by
1uu + 2S.67 = 1uu|1 + u.uuS9S(I - u)]
I = 6S
The power dissipated from the sensor is
I
1
= E
i
1
(R
1
+oR) +R
2
= 44.S mA
P
1
= I
1
2
(R
1
+oR) = u.2S w
R
1 R
E E
o
Solution
Under balanced condition,
oE
o
E
i
=
oRR
4 +2(oRR)

R = R
u
+oR = R
u
|1 +u.uuS9S(I -I
u
)]
0.6
0.8
1.0
0


[
V
]
E
i
= 10 V
R R
R R
u
+oR R
u
|1 +u.uuS9S(I I
u
)]
0.0
0.2
0.4
0 20 40 60 80 100

E
0
Temperature [C]
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
12
Signal Conditioning Circuits
:Amplifiers

Measurement and Instrumentation
Amplifiers
Is a device that scales the magnitude of an analog input signal according to
the relation
Input voltage, Vi Output voltage, Vo
Supply voltage, Vs
Vo = G x Vi where G =Gain
1
1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 2 4 6 8 10
t
v
o
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 2 4 6 8 10
t
v
i
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
13
Types of amplifier
1. Single-ended amplifiers
are amplifiers which amplify a single input signal. Both input and output
signal voltages are referenced a common connection in the circuit called
ground (used for potentiometer circuits) ground. (used for potentiometer circuits)
2. Differential amplifiers
are amplifiers which amplify two input signals. All voltages are referenced to
the circuit's ground point. (used for bridge circuits)
Vs Vs
Vi Vo
G
Vi,2 Vo
G
Vi,1
Vo = G x Vi
Vo = G (Vi,1- Vi,2)
Single-ended amplifiers Differential amplifiers
Operational Amplifiers (op-amp)
An op-amp is a high-gain electronic voltage amplifier with a differential
input and, usually, a single-ended output.
Characteristics of op-amps
1. High internal gain G = 10
5
to 10
6
2. High input impedance Zi > 10
7

3. Low output impedance Zo < 100

4. two input ports, a noninverting and an inverting input, and one output port
Non-inverting terminal
(+5V)
Inverting terminal
Non-inverting terminal
Vo = G (V
non-inv
- V
inv
)
(-5V)
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
14
Summing amp
Inverting amp.
Non-inverting amp.
Summing amp.
Integrator
Differentiator
Voltage Follower
Inverting Amplifier:
R
f
Circuit analysis
R
f
R
1 V
i
V
o
V
a
i
f
A
i
1
+ i

= i
o
Sum of currents at Node A
R
a
i
1
i
a A
0
c
=
I
o
I
i
-
R

R
1

=
I
o
-I
o
R

i
o
=
I
o
R
o

i
1
=
I
i
-I
o
R
1

Output voltage of the inverting amplifier
:
o
= -
I
o
0

Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems

15
Non-inverting Amplifier: 0
c
=
I
o
I
i
1 +
R

R
1

I
o
= -R

_
I
i,1
R
1
+
I
i,2
R
2
+
I
i,S
R
S
] Summing Amplifier:
0
c
=
I
o
I
i

0
1 +0

I = -
1
_ I
t
Jt
I
o
= -R

C
1
JI
i
Jt

Voltage follower:
Differentiator:
Integrator:
***
I
o
= -
R
1
C

_ I
i
u
Jt Integrator:
Signal Conditioning Circuits
:Filters

Measurement and Instrumentation
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
16
Filters
In many instrumentation applications, the (dynamic) signal from the
transducer is combined with noise or some other parasitic signal. These
undesired signals can be eliminated with a filter that is designed to attenuate
th i i l b t t it th t d i l ith t di t ti the noise signals but transmit the transducer signal without distortion.
Two filters that utilize passive components and are commonly employed in
signal conditioning include (1) High-pass RC filter and (2) Low-pass RC filter
R
C
RC filter circuits
C
R
Filters
High High--pass filter pass filter
Unfiltered signal with low frequency
variation and high frequency noise
High-pass filter employed to
remove low frequency variation
Low Low- -pass filter pass filter
Filtered signal Filtered signal
Low-pass filter employed to remove
high frequency noise
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
17
High-pass RC filters
High-pass filter permits only frequencies above the cutoff frequency to pass.
Consider a summation of voltage drops around the loop
I
o
=
RC

|I
i
|c
]t+
I
i
-
q
C
-Ri = u
If and I
i
= |I
i
|c
]t
q = _ i
t
u
Jt
The output voltage Vo is
High pass
Passband
I
o
1 +(RC)
2
|I
i
|c
=
n
2
-ton
-1
(RC)
where
I
o
~ u if 0
Stopband
Low-pass filters
Low-pass filter permits only frequencies below the cutoff frequency to pass while
blocking the passage of frequency information above the cut off frequency.
where
The output voltage is
I
o
=
1
1 +(RC)
2
|I
i
|c
]t-

Passband
I
o
~ u
= ton
-1
(RC)
Stopband
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
18
Cut-off frequency
is defined as the frequency at which the ratio of the amplitudes of the output to the
input has a magnitude of 0.02 (2% error).
For examples,
(1) Hi-pass filter
(2) Lo-pass filter
|V
o
|/|V
i
| =
C
RC/[1+(
C
RC)
2
]
1/2
=0.02
C
= 5/RC f
C
= 5/(2RC)
|V
o
|/|V
i
| = 1/[1+(
C
RC)
2
]
1/2
=0.02
C
= 0.203/RC f
C
= 0.203/(2RC)
Active filters
Operational amplifiers are employed to construct active filters where select
frequencies can be attenuated and the signal amplified during the filtering
process process.
741
+
-
R
1
R
2
C
2
V
i
V
741
+
-
R
1
R
2
V
i
V
C
1
i
V
o
i
V
o
Low-pass active filter High-pass active filter

c
=
1
2nR
2
C
2

c
=
1
2nR
1
C
1

Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems

19
Signal Conditioning Circuits
:Modulators and Demodulators

Measurement and Instrumentation
Amplitude Modulators
Amplitude modulation is a signal conditioning process in which the
signal from a transducer is multiplied by a carrier signal of constant
frequency and amplitude.
Transducer signal Transducer signal
(sinusoidal, transient, or random) (sinusoidal, transient, or random)
Carrier signal Carrier signal
(sinusoidal, transient, or random) (sinusoidal, transient, or random)
x
I
i
(t) = :
i
sin(
i
t) I
c
(t) = :
c
sin(
c
t)

c
~ 1u - 1uu
i

Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
20
I
o
= (I
i
sin
i
t)(I
c
sin
c
t)
I
o
=
I
i
I
c
2
|cos(
c
-
i
)t -cos(
c
+
i
)t]
Modulated signal
2

c
= 4uuu Ez
In general, noise signals occur at 50-Hz

m
= S9Su Ez onJ 4uSu Ez

i
= Su Ez
Amplitude Modulators
Advantages
(1) Stability
(2) Low power (2) Low power
(3) Noise suppression
Demodulation is the process that the transducer signal is separated from
the carrier signal.
Rectifier Rectifier Filter Filter
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
21
Assignment #3
1. Shown that the output voltage of the summing amplifier be expressed by the
equation
2. Consider the Wheatstone bridge. Suppose R3 = R4 = 200 , R2 = variable
calibrated resistor, and R1 = transducer resistance = 40x + 100
a) When x = 0, what is the value of R2 required to balance the bridge?
I
o
= -R

_
I
i,1
R
1
+
I
i,2
R
2
+
I
i,S
R
S
]
b) If the bridge is operated in a balanced condition in order to measure x,
determine the relationship between R2 and x.
Fundamental of Sampling, Data
Acquisition and Digital Devices

Measurement and Instrumentation
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
22
Sampling concepts
Conversion of analog signals to digital code is extremely important
in any instrument system that involves digital processing of the analog
output signals from the signal conditioners. p g g
Continuous
Signal
Discrete
Signal
discrete time series
Discrete time series
Suppose the transducer signal is measured repeatedly at successive
sample time increments t
{y(rot)] = y(t)o(t - rot) r = 1 2 S N {y(rot)] = y(t)o(t - rot) r = 1, 2, S, , N
total sample period
sample rate
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
23
f
s
= 1/t [Hz]
Sample rate
The sample rate has a
significant effect on perception
and reconstruction of the
continuous analog signal in the
time domain
f 2 f
f
m
= 10 Hz (sine wave analog signal) f
s
= 100 Hz
f
s
> 2 f
m

*** s =sampling
m =measuring
f
s
= 27 Hz f
s
= 12 Hz
t < 1/(2 f
m
)
Alias Frequencies
When the sample rate is less than 2f
m
, the higher frequency content
of the analog signal will take on the false identity of a lower frequency in the
resulting discrete series A false frequency is called an alias frequency resulting discrete series. A false frequency is called an alias frequency .
sample rate 12 Hz
Original signal
10 Hz 2 Hz
Interpreted signal
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
24
is the diagram that is used to
find the alias frequency.
Folding Diagram
Example
f =10 Hz
fN = 6 Hz
[f/fN]
y-axis
= 10/6 =1.67
[f/fN] 0 33 Hz
1.67
0.33
[f/fN]
x-axis
= 0.33 Hz
f
alias
= 0.33 x fN =2 Hz
Nyquist frequency and Anti-Aliasing
Nyquist frequency is the highest frequency that can be coded at a
given sampling rate in order to be able to fully reconstruct the signal,
Anti-aliasing is a process that remove signal content at and above Nyquist
frequency by use of a low-pass filter prior to sampling and use an appropriate
f
N
= 0.5 f
s

frequency by use of a low pass filter prior to sampling and use an appropriate
sample rate for the signal
Signal = Signal
[f < f
N
]
+ Signal
[f > f
N
]

Anti-aliasing filter
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
25
Example
Consider a complex periodic signal in the form
y
m
(t) = 1usin(Sunt) +u.Ssin(1Sunt) +1.2sin(2Sunt)
0
5
10
15
y
(
t
)
ym
10sin()
0.5sin()
1.2sin()
15
10
5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t
Example (cont.)
If the signal is sampled at 100 Hz
f = 0 5 f = 0 5 x 100 Hz = 50 Hz
Observe all frequency content in the sampled signal
f
N
0.5 f
s
0.5 x 100 Hz 50 Hz
y
m
(t) = 1usin(Sunt) +u.Ssin(1Sunt) +1.2sin(2Sunt)
f
1
= 25 Hz f
2
= 75 Hz f
3
= 125 Hz
f
N
< f
m

Alias frequency
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
26
Example (Cont.)
Sampled signal
y
s
(rot) = 1usin(Sunrot) +u.Ssin(Sunrot) +1.2sin(Sunrot)
0
5
10
15
t
)
ys
ym
10sin ()
Alias frequency =25 Hz
15
10
5
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
y
(
t
t
Example (cont.)
Use a low-pass filter with the cut-off frequency > 50 Hz
y
A
(rot) = 1usin(Sunrot)
0
5
10
15
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
y
(
t
)
ym
yA=10sin()
15
10
5
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
t
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
27
Amplitude Ambiguity
The sampling signal can be completely reconstructed from a discrete
time series, if
(1) Total sample period remains an integer multiple of the fundamental
period, T
1

(2) Sample rate meets the sampling criterion
mT
1
= Nt
(2) Sample rate meets the sampling criterion.
f
s
> 2 f
m

Note: N =2
M
: M =#of sample points
Example
Amplitude = 10
Fundamental period T =1/ 100 s
y(t) = 1ucos(2n1uut)
(8-bit)
f =(N t)
-1
=f
s
/N =39 Hz
Fundamental period T
1
=1/ 100 s
(a) m =N t / T
1
= 2.56
(b) m =N t / T
1
= 10.24
amplitude leakage
amplitude leakage
Amplitude spectra Amplitude spectra
(c) m =N t / T
1
= 8
No leakage
amplitude leakage
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
28
Selecting sample rate and data number
For an exact discrete representation in both frequency and
amplitude of analog signal, both the number of data points
and the sample rate should be chosen based on the and the sample rate should be chosen based on the
following criteria: (1) f
s
> 5 f
m
(2) long total sample
periods (large N) and (3) use of anti-alias filter.

Data-Acquisition System (DAS)
is the portion of a measurement system that quantifies and stores
data. A typical signal flow scheme is shown in the following diagram.
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
29
Data-Acquisition System components
A/D
converter
Signal flow scheme for an automated data-acquisition system
Signal Conditioning: Filters and
Amplification
Filters
1. Analog filters are used to control the frequency content
of the signal being sampled.
Example: Anti-alias filter
2. Digital filters, which are software-based algorithms, are
effective for signal analysis after sampling effective for signal analysis after sampling
Example: moving-averaging scheme (for removing noise)
y
i
-
= (y
i-n
++y
i-1
+y
i
+y
i+1
++y
i+n
)(2n +1)
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
30
Signal Conditioning: Filters and
Amplification
Amplifiers
All DASs are input range limited; that is, there is a minimum value
and a maximum value of signal. Some transducer signals will need
amplification or attenuation prior to conversion. Most DASs contain
on-board instrumentation amplifiers.
Voltage divider
0-50 V signal 0-10 V A/D converter
for signal attenuation
R1 =40 k
R2 =10 k
Signal Conditioning: Filters and
Amplification
Shunt circuits
An A/D converter requires a voltage signal at its input. It is
straightforward to convert current signals into voltage signals
using a shunt resistor.
In general, the standard
current signal has a range of
4 20 mA
Using a shunt resistor =250
, the current signal would be
converted into the voltage
signal
1 5 V
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
31
Signal Conditioning: Filters and
Amplification
Multiplexer
When multiple input signal lines are connected by a common
throughout line to a single A/D converter, a multiplexer is used to
switch between connections, one at a time.
A/D Converters
convert the analog signals into the digital signals with conversion
rates typically up to the 1 kHz 10 MHz range . The input
resolution, Q which depends on the number of bits of the converter, , p ,
is given by
=
E
FSR
2
H

where E
FSR
= Full scale voltage range
M = resolution in bits
Example A12 bit A/D converter
with input signal range of 0-10V.
The resolution
Q =10/2
12
=2.44 mV
The amplifier permits signal
conditioning with gains from G =
M = resolution in bits
conditioning with gains from G =
0.5 to 1000
The minimum detectable voltage
when set at maximum gain is
Q =2.44 mV / 1000 =2.44 V
3-bits resolution 3-bits resolution
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
32
Analog signal input connections
Single-ended connection Differential-ended connection
Suitable only when all of the analog Allow the voltage difference between Suitable only when all of the analog
signals can be made relative to the
common ground point.
Allow the voltage difference between
two distinct input signals to be
measured
Example
V
O
+ -
signal
V
i
Strain gage (R
g
) , S =2.5V/
A signal from the strain gage with the sensitivity =2.5V/ is connected
to DAS which has the 12-bit A/D converter, an input range of 5V, and
sample rate of 1000 Hz. For an expected measurement range of 1-500
, specify appropriate G for amplifier, filter type and cut-off frequency.
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
33
Resolution =10/2
12
=2.44 mV
Amplifier
Signal Range =(1 - 500) x 2.5 V/ =2.5 V 1.25 mV
G =1000: Amplified Signal =(2.5V 1.25 mV) x 1000 =2.5mV 1.25 V
G =3000: Amplified Signal =(2.5V 1.25 mV) x 3000 =7.5 mV 3.75 V
Sample rate, f
s
=1000 Hz
Filter
s
Nyquist frequency , f
N
=1000/2 =500 Hz
*** Low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency =500 Hz required
*** Differential-ended connections required
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
34
Final Examination on OCT 8, 2011 (1300-1600)
Closed books and closed notes
Non-programmable calculators are permitted p g p
Electronic dictionaries are not permitted
7 questions (10 marks each)
Data Logger

Data logger

2

- General purpose types
- Specific devices
1. (Stand-alone)
2. (Portable)
3. 24
4. DC power
http://www.dataq.com/images/products/data-logger/gl200_500w.jpg
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
35
Data logger
Data logger Data logger
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
36
Data logger Data logger ( ( ))
Grounds, Shielding, and connecting
wires

(noise)
(< 100 mv)

1.
2 2.
3. (shield) (ground)
4.
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
37
Ground and Ground loop
Ground
Ground ( earth ground)

Ground potential ( )
(Antennae)

Ground Symbols
Signal
ground
Chassis
ground
Earth
ground
Ground Symbols
Ground loop
Ground loop ground
Ground potential
Ground loop


Signal current
Ground current
Chapter 3 Signal conditioning systems
38
ground loop
1 (single-point ground)
Isolation transformer ( 1:1 power transformer AC signal )
Shield
Shield Shield
( ground Shield )