000000000001005414

Modeling of the Different Mechanisms of Contact Voltage Generation That Involve the Residential Electrical, Plumbing, and Drain
Systems
Technical Report
Modeling of the Different Mechanisms of Contact Voltage Generation that Involve the Residential Electrical, Plumbing, and Drain Systems
1005414
Interim Report, November 2002
EPRI Project Manager R. Kavet
EPRI 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 USA 800.313.3774 650.855.2121 askepri@epri.com www.epri.com
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM: (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR (B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT. ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT Enertech Consultants
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Orders and Conferences, 1355 Willow Way, Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2 or internally x5379, (925) 609-9169, (925) 609-1310 (fax). Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Copyright 2002 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
CITATIONS
This report was prepared by Enertech Consultants P.O. Box 770 Lee, MA 01238 Principal Investigators J. P. Daigle L. E. Zaffanella This report describes research sponsored by EPRI. The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner: Modeling of the Different Mechanisms of Contact Voltage Generation that Involve the Residential Electrical, Plumbing, and Drain Systems, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2002. 1005414.
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REPORT SUMMARY
Residential neighborhoods contain electric power delivery facilities that include distribution lines and their associated neutral and ground pathways. Neighborhoods also may have high-voltage transmission lines (HVTLs) in their proximity. These outdoor facilities added to electrical usage within residences produce magnetic fields across the living space and residential contact voltages associated with ground and neutral connections. Background Epidemiologic research over the past 20 years has reported an association between childhood leukemia and residential magnetic fields above 0.3 - 0.4 T (3 - 4 mG). Scientists question, however, whether the magnetic fields themselves are responsible; magnetic fields do not cause leukemia in rodent bioassays, and there is no biophysical explanation for biological effects due to such low magnetic fields. EPRI research has developed an hypothesis that the epidemiologic association may be explained by exposure to contact current. This exposure occurs when a person touches two surfaces at different electrical potentials. A possible scenario of interest concerns the voltage between the residential water pipe and earth, which can produce a contact voltage in the bathtub and sink. Objectives To construct a computer model of a neighborhood that represents the layout of municipal streets and blocks with a substation, electrical distribution lines, residential and commercial loads, and a water system. To compute the magnetic field from all current sources, including HVTLs and water-pipe-toearth and other voltages associated with the grounding and neutral system. Approach A program was created to simultaneously solve network equations that compute residential magnetic fields and voltages in grounding and neutral systems. The software permits calculation of electrical quantities due to the secondary system (residential and commercial loads), the primary distribution system, HVTLs, and all combined. The model allows users to select ranges for random assignment of residential loads (net load and total load), polarity of net load, phase of distribution transformers and laterals, resistance of house grounds, side of the street where lines are located (for Street Line models), street width, lot size, house side, location and size of commercial loads, and load of distribution feeders entering the study area. The model also contains a substation with its own ground resistance.
Results The models report consistently positive associations between magnetic fields and the voltage from water pipe to earth. The model allows users to analyze effects of various factors. For example, transmission lines produce higher magnetic fields as expected, but because of phasing relationships, could possibly produce a decrease in voltage. Higher voltages also were reported for nonconductive as compared to conductive water mains. In all cases, magnetic fields and water-pipe-to-earth voltages were higher near substations than at other model locations. EPRI Perspective The computer model described in this report provides a capability to simulate a vast array of operating conditions that may exist on an electrical system within an extended neighborhood. These conditions encompass the location of distribution lines relative to the residence (for example, backyard vs. street location), residential density, water main conductivity, and the presence or absence of HVTLs. The model calculates magnetic fields and potentials in neutral/grounding systems that could lead to contact current exposure. Previous EPRI research has reported that a leading source of exposure may occur as a result of the voltage between conductive water fixtures and conductive drains, a voltage driven by the voltage from the residential water pipe to earth. If exposure to contact current is a viable explanation for the association between magnetic fields and childhood leukemia, then one requirement is that the higher levels of the contact current exposure source strength must be associated with the higher levels of residential magnetic fields. In the various models run for this report, positive associations were uniformly observed between the residential magnetic field and the voltage from water pipe to earth. The model offers the opportunity to continue exploring exposure to electric and magnetic quantities expected in communities under a great variety of conditions. Although real world measurements are critical, they require great resources. This model provides an opportunity to characterize many more situations than could be measured. Keywords Magnetic field Exposure modeling
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ABSTRACT
This study was conducted to model the different mechanisms of contact voltage generation that involve the residential electrical, plumbing, and drain systems. The approach for this research consists of building different types of computer models of large sections of residential neighborhoods. Each model accounts for all the physical parameters that affect magnetic fields and contact voltages. These parameters include, the streets, the blocks, the residences, the substation, the distribution lines, the distribution transformers, the service drops, the transmission lines, the water mains, the water lines, and the house grounds. There are different mechanisms of contact voltage generation, all of them associated also with the generation of magnetic fields. These mechanisms produce a voltage between the residential water pipes and earth. The results of this study indicate a positive association between average residential magnetic field and the voltage between water pipes and earth in all the models of residential areas that were studied. Previous research suggests that the association between magnetic fields and childhood leukemia may be explained by exposure to contact current, which can result from voltages at different points within the grounding system. The results of these modeling analyses will help assess the plausibility of this hypothesis.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge the EPRI Project Manager, Dr. R. Kavet, for the guidance, support and encouragement which he provided throughout this research project and the preparation of this technical report.
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1-1 2 DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL......................................................................................... 2-1 Systems Simulated - Strategy for the Selection of System Parameters .............................. 2-1 Layout of the Study Area .................................................................................................... 2-1 Street Parameters .............................................................................................................. 2-2 Block Parameters ............................................................................................................... 2-2 Residence Parameters ....................................................................................................... 2-5 Substation Parameters ....................................................................................................... 2-5 Distribution Lines and Transformers ................................................................................... 2-7 Service Drop Parameters ................................................................................................... 2-8 Transmission Line Parameters ........................................................................................... 2-9 Water Main Parameters...................................................................................................... 2-9 Water Line Characteristics ................................................................................................. 2-9 House Grounds .................................................................................................................. 2-9 3 METHOD FOR CALCULATION OF RESIDENTIAL MAGNETIC FIELD AND NEUTRAL VOLTAGES .......................................................................................................... 3-1 Description of Software for Calculation of Induced Currents............................................... 3-1 Currents Induced in the Grounded Conductor Network by Distribution Line Primaries with Multi-Grounded Neutrals ............................................................................................. 3-3 Currents Induced in the Grounded Conductor Network by Distribution Line Secondary Loads ................................................................................................................................. 3-6 4 INPUT AND OUTPUT PARAMETERS ................................................................................ 4-1 Layout of Study Area.......................................................................................................... 4-1 Input Parameters................................................................................................................ 4-1 Output Parameters ............................................................................................................. 4-5
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5 RESULTS ............................................................................................................................ 5-1 Example of a Study Area.................................................................................................... 5-1 Results for Different Model Types - Scatter Plots ............................................................... 5-4 Results for Different Model Types Complete Tables ........................................................ 5-9 Results for Different Model Types Descriptive Statistics Table .......................................5-16 Odds Ratio Contour Lines .................................................................................................5-18 Effect of Parameters..........................................................................................................5-25 Effect of Reversing Transmission Line Power Flow ...........................................................5-26 Effect of Proximity to a Substation.....................................................................................5-27 Effect of Not-Grounded Distribution Lines..........................................................................5-28 6 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. 6-1 7 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 7-1 A CALCULATION OF TERMINATING IMPEDANCE OF DISTRIBUTION LINE NEUTRALS AND OF WATER MAINS.................................................................................... A-1
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Contact Voltage in a Closed Loop Caused by the Magnetic Flux Generated by a Magnetic Field Source ............................................................................................. 1-3 Figure 1-2 Contact Voltage between Appliance Frame and Water Pipe System Generated by the Current in the Grounding Wire............................................................. 1-3 Figure 1-3 Contact Voltage between Drain and Spout Caused by the Distribution System Current Flowing in the House Ground ............................................................................. 1-4 Figure 1-4 High Water-to-Drain Voltages are Possible near Transmission Lines..................... 1-4 Figure 2-1 Residences and Lots within a Block ....................................................................... 2-4 Figure 2-2 Example of Distribution Line Layout for a 2 X 3 Block Study Area and Line in the Street......................................................................................................................... 2-6 Figure 2-3 Example of Distribution Line Layout for a 2 X 3 Block Study Area and Backyard Lines................................................................................................................ 2-6 Figure 2-4 Three Phase Distribution Line Configuration .......................................................... 2-7 Figure 3-1 Current Induced in a Conductive Loop by a Power Line......................................... 3-1 Figure 3-2 Independent Loops and Branches of a Network of Grounded Conductors Connected to the Secondary of a Distribution Line - Connections to Ground are not Considered...................................................................................................................... 3-2 Figure 3-3 Independent Loops and Branches of a Network of Grounded Conductors Connected to the Secondary of a Distribution Line - Including Connections to Ground ............................................................................................................................ 3-3 Figure 3-4 Example of Grounded Conductor Network Connected to a Distribution Line with Multi-Grounded Neutral ............................................................................................ 3-4 Figure 3-5 Currents in the Grounded Network Induced by the Loads of Residence Group #3 ......................................................................................................................... 3-5 Figure 3-6 Example of Loop and Branch Currents in the Grounded Network Induced by a 1A Load of Residence Group #3 ..................................................................................... 3-6 Figure 3-7 Example of Grounded Network Associated with the Secondary Wires ................... 3-7 Figure 3-8 Example of Currents in the Grounded Network Induced by a Residential Load of 1A in a Hot Leg of a Residence ................................................................................... 3-8 Figure 5-1 Example of Study Area, Backyard Lines Run 1 (65 Homes)................................ 5-1 Figure 5-2 Example of Results of One Run of Model Type Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Main........................................... 5-3 Figure 5-3 Example of Results of One Run of Model Type Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Main........................................... 5-4
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Figure 5-4 Base Case: Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)....................................................................... 5-5 Figure 5-5 Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences) ........................................................................................ 5-5 Figure 5-6 Street Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)................................................................................................... 5-6 Figure 5-7 Street Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)................................................................................................... 5-6 Figure 5-8 Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, NonConductive Water Main (379 Residences)....................................................................... 5-7 Figure 5-9 Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, NonConductive Water Main (379 Residences)....................................................................... 5-7 Figure 5-10 Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, High Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (209 Residences) ......................................................................................... 5-8 Figure 5-11 Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, High Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (209 Residences) ......................................................................................... 5-8 Figure 5-12 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains ......................5-18 Figure 5-13 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, A Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains ........................5-19 Figure 5-14 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Street Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains ........................5-20 Figure 5-15 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Street Lines, A Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains ........................5-21 Figure 5-16 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Water Mains ................5-22 Figure 5-17 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, A Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Water Mains ................5-23 Figure 5-18 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, High Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains .......................5-24 Figure 5-19 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, A Transmission Line, High Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains .......................5-25 Figure 5-20 Effect of Substation Resistance on the Relation between Contact Voltage and Residential Magnetic Field Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Main (The Data are Shown on Arithmetic Scales for Visual Purposes; the Regression Line, However, is Based on Log-transformed Values, and therefore Appears Curvilinear.) ........................................5-26
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Figure 5-21 Effect of Changing the Transmission Line Power Flow (The Data are Shown on Arithmetic Scales for Visual Purposes; the Regression Line, However, is Based on Log-transformed Values, and therefore Appears Curvilinear.) ...................................5-27 Figure 5-22 Effect of Grounding of Neutral at One Point Only ................................................5-29 Figure A-1 Equivalence for the Calculation of Termin.............................................................. A-2
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4-1 Model Type Input Parameters ................................................................................ 4-1 Table 4-2 Model Run Output Parameters................................................................................ 4-6 Table 5-1 Result Example: Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - 3 x 2 Block Study Area - Run 1...................................... 5-2 Table 5-2 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line ............................................... 5-9 Table 5-3 Detailed Results for Model Type: Street Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line .............................................5-11 Table 5-4 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line ......................................5-13 Table 5-5 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, High Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line ..............................................5-15 Table 5-6 Descriptive Statistics of Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipeto-Earth Voltage for all the Model Types.........................................................................5-17 Table 5-7 Effect of Proximity to Substation - Median Values for Groups of Houses Near and Away from the Substation........................................................................................5-28
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1
INTRODUCTION
The issue whether magnetic fields produced by the electric power system cause adverse health effects has been the object of concerns for more than twenty years. Intensive investigations conducted worldwide on several fronts have failed to provide a convincing explanation of why epidemiological studies have consistently found an association between residential magnetic fields and childhood leukemia. No physically plausible mechanism that could result in a causal relationship between exposure to magnetic field and heath effects has been found. The magnetic field issue has evolved in the past few years toward finding other possible explanations for the association that is found consistently in the epidemiological studies. Recently, exposure to contact current has been proposed as an explanation (Kavet and Zaffanella, 2002). At first, the attention of researchers was focused on the currents that may flow in the body as a result of contacts with appliances (Kavet et al., 2000). In fact, a voltage, VP-W, may develop between the conductive frame of appliances, which are at the same potential as the electrical panel, and the water pipes as a result of the residential ground current, the same current that is a major source of residential magnetic fields (Zaffanella, 1993). Measurements performed in a sample of 36 homes in Pittsfield, MA confirmed an association between the contact voltage VP-W and the residential ground current (Zaffanella, unpublished) but found a weak association with the magnetic field (Kavet and Zaffanella, 2002). It was found that the average residential magnetic field was associated with the voltage, VW-E, between the residential water pipes and earth. The voltage between water pipes and earth produces a voltage, VW-D, between a faucet (or spout) and a drainpipe that has a conductive path (such as a cast iron drain pipe) to earth. Therefore, the contact voltage VW-E is indicative of exposure to contact current for situations such as a person in a tub of water and contacting the faucet (or spout) with wet hands, a child who is being bathed in a sink and is grabbing the faucet (or spout), and a person in a shower with the feet on a metallic drain and the hands on the faucet. The Pittsfield measurements showed VW-E values (median = 121 mV, 90th percentile = 642 mV) much larger than VP-W (median = 35 mV and 90th percentile = 111 mV), particularly for homes near high voltage transmission lines. VP-W has a relatively weak relationship to the magnetic field and relatively low values. Furthermore, VP-W has limited opportunity to cause contact currents in a small child because this necessitates a reach from a water fixture to an appliance frame, a reach that could often extend beyond a childs physical dimensions. These factors added to the high resistance associated with dry skin contact reduce the possibility that this voltage may be an important source of contact current exposure. In this sense, the prior work (Kavet et al., 2000) overlooked the more relevant source of exposure while addressing the research effort to the issue of contact currents.
1-1
Introduction
Kavet and Zaffanella (2002) calculated that the dose to bone marrow (in terms of electric field in bone marrow) resulting for a faucet to drain contact may be two or more orders of magnitude greater than the dose associated with biological effects relevant to cancer and is several orders greater than the dose resulting from direct action of residential magnetic fields. The possibility, therefore, exists that the association between residential magnetic field and childhood leukemia found by epidemiological studies results from a much stronger association between water pipe-to-earth voltage (a parameter that was not measured during past epidemiological studies) and childhood leukemia. Following the realization that contact current could explain the association between high residential fields and childhood leukemia, research has been directed on the following activities: Calculation of the current density and electric field in bone marrows following a contact (Dawson et al., 2001) Measurements of contact voltages in a large sample of homes in Denver, CO, where the early epidemiological studies were made (Wertheimer, 1979, Savitz, 1988) Modeling of the different mechanisms of contact voltage generation that involve the residential electrical, plumbing, and drain systems
This report is an account of the work on the third activity. Previous work on modeling was directed at individual sources and simple situations. It was shown that there are different mechanisms of contact voltage generation all of them associated also with the generation of magnetic fields: (1) inductive coupling between a magnetic field source and a loop formed by conductive elements that may be closed by the body of a person (see Figure 1-1), (2) contact voltage between appliance frames and water pipe system caused by current in the grounding conductor (see Figure 1-2), contact voltage between conductive drains and faucets or spouts connected to metallic water pipes caused by distribution system currents flowing in the house grounds (see Figure 1-3), and contact voltage between conductive drains and faucets or spouts connected to the water pipe system caused by currents in the house grounds induced by a high voltage transmission line (see Figure 1-4). While it is possible to show how high contact voltages may be associated with high residential magnetic fields for each individual mechanism, the analysis of simple situations is not sufficient to draw general conclusions. For this purpose it is necessary to model more complex and realistic situations where all the above mechanisms may coexist and interact with each other and with other mechanisms that may have been overlooked. The approach used in this study consists in building different types of computer models of large sections of residential areas. Each model accounts for all the physical parameters that affect magnetic fields and contact voltages. These parameters are those that describe the layout of the study area, the streets, the blocks, the residences, the substation, the distribution lines, the distribution transformers, the service drops, the transmission lines, the water mains, the water lines, and the house grounds. The size of the study area is set so that from several tens up to more than one hundred houses could be included. For each model the following results were calculated for each house: the magnetic field at different points, the contact voltages VW-E, VP-W, and VP-E, and the ground current. In addition to calculating the combined effect of all sources of magnetic field and contact voltages, the results were calculated separately by source (distribution line primary loads, secondary loads, and transmission lines). 1-2
Introduction
Ic
V = 2 f A rea B av
Figure 1-1 Contact Voltage in a Closed Loop Caused by the Magnetic Flux Generated by a Magnetic Field Source
Ic
Equipm ent grounding conductor
Electrical panel
G rounding wire
Zw
Ig
V = Z w * Ig
Figure 1-2 Contact Voltage between Appliance Frame and Water Pipe System Generated by the Current in the Grounding Wire
1-3
Introduction
Service Drop from Distribution Line
Spout
Drain
Electrical Panel Sewer Pipe
Rg
Ig
Figure 1-3 Contact Voltage between Drain and Spout Caused by the Distribution System Current Flowing in the House Ground
2.7 V
Emf induced in distribution line neutrals Relatively high neutral-to-earth voltages Water pipe connected to neutral Drain connected to earth
1 ,0 00
250
00 ft
1.8 V
0f t
1.8 V 4.3V 150
1,
100
00
0.9 V
250 50
1 ,0
250
0.9 V
6V
250
0.01 V
50
00 0 ft
ft
0.04 V
150
1,
7.5 V 1.0 V
50 50
900 ft
EHV Line 345 kV 1000 A
250
100 ft
Figure 1-4 High Water-to-Drain Voltages are Possible near Transmission Lines
1-4
Introduction
The models general feature considered in most calculations was a 3 by 2 block study area with rectilinear streets, containing 50 to 100 houses. The following different types of models were considered: Backyard Lines: backyard distribution lines, low housing density, and conductive main. This type of model was treated as the base case. Backyard Lines with a Transmission Line: same as the previous model type but with the addition of a transmission line adjacent to one side of the study area. Street Lines: same as base case except distribution lines are in the streets rather than in the backyard. Street Lines with a Transmission Line: same as the previous model type but with the addition of a transmission line adjacent to one side of the study area. High Housing Density: same as base case except for high housing density. High Housing Density with a Transmission Line: same as the previous model type but with the addition of a transmission line adjacent to one side of the study area. Non-Conductive Main: same as base case except for non-conductive water mains. Non-Conductive Main with a Transmission Line: same as the previous model type but with the addition of a transmission line adjacent to one side of the study area. Within each model type individual models were built varying at random some parameters of the model such as: residential loads (net load and total load), polarity of net load, phase of the distribution transformers and laterals, resistance of house grounds, side of the street where lines are located (for Street Line models), street width, lot size, house side, location and size of commercial loads, and load of distribution feeders entering the study area. The reason for choosing parameters at random was to generate more realistic models and obtain results that are not tied by chance to the particular choice of parameter values. In order to provide results that are characteristic of a particular model type, calculations were performed separately for several individual study areas of that type and then all the results were combined, as in an epidemiological study in a metropolitan area involving several different but similarly constructed neighborhoods.
1-5
2
DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
Systems Simulated - Strategy for the Selection of System Parameters
The object of the calculation is the set of residences belonging to a study area. Different models of the study area were constructed within some overall criteria. Each model is defined by a model type and by an identification number (run number) within that type. The overall criteria specify a rectangular study area with no terrain constraint and with two sets of rectilinear streets orthogonal to each other, the X streets (parallel to the Y axis, i.e. in the South-North direction), and the Y streets. Buildings in each block are placed along the X streets only. The model includes at least one major artery for each set of streets. All blocks are residential, except that commercial buildings may be located along major arteries. Distribution lines start from a substation placed at the South-West corner of the study area. The model may or may not include transmission lines. Transmission lines, if any, are placed along the west side of the periphery of the study area. The model type is defined by the characteristics of its components: blocks, residences, distribution lines, and transmission lines. For instance, a model type may have the distribution lines in the backyard, while another type may have the distribution lines in the streets. A model type may have a high housing density and another type a low housing density. Due to the combination of several possible component characteristics, there are many possible model types. The model type parameters constitute the input parameters for each set of calculations and are listed in Section 4 (Table 4-1). Calculations were performed for a few selected types. Within a model type, the parameters of each individual component are chosen at random within ranges that are specific to the model type. For instance, when calculations for a specific model type are performed for the first time (run 1), the size of each residence is chosen at random within the range of sizes specific to the model type. The same model type can be exercised another time and the size of each residence will be different but still within the range of values specified for that type. While the magnetic field and contact voltages for individual houses will be different for different runs, the type of association between magnetic field and contact voltages may be a characteristic of the model type and not of the run number.
Layout of the Study Area

Although the layout of the study area may be considered a variable parameter characterizing the model type, calculations were performed only for one type of layout consisting of a rectangular study area (defined by X and Y coordinates) with a reticulate system of streets (X streets, defined by their X coordinate, and Y streets, defined by their Y coordinate), and with no terrain constraint (lakes, rivers, parks, hills, etc). 2-1
Description of the Model
The size of the study area is a characteristic of the model type. The X and Y dimensions of the study area are input parameters that can be set by the user. The size of the study area combined with the distance between streets determines the number of full rectangular blocks, for instance a study area could be defined as a 3 by 4 block area. Magnetic field and contact voltages are calculated only for the residences within the full blocks, even though the study area includes also half and quarter blocks. The study area is served by a distribution substation located on the periphery of the study area along the first X street. The rules used to define streets, distribution lines, and residences were developed specifically for this type of study area. An example of study area is shown in Section 5 (Figure 5-1).
Street Parameters
Streets are running west to east (Y streets) and south to north (X streets). The Y streets are characterized by the X coordinate of the center of the street and the X streets are characterized by the Y coordinate of the center of the street. The street width, including sidewalks, can be set independently for the X and Y streets. The user may select the range of values within which the street width will be randomly selected. The distance between streets, which defines the block size, can be set independently for the X and Y streets. The user has the choices of selecting a range of values or of selecting a constant block size. Both the X streets and the Y streets contain at least one major artery. A major artery is larger than the other streets (by an amount defined by the user), has a three-phase distribution line, has a fixed setback for the residences, and may have commercial loads. Commercial loads are placed randomly with a 50% probability on blocks along the major arteries in the Y direction. When commercial loads are present on a block side, three-phase transformers are placed every 75 m. Each transformer has a random current chosen at random within the 8-30 A range and with 20% variability between phases. The user can specify the minimum distances between major arteries in the two directions. Regardless of what these distances are set to, the first X street and the Y street where the substation is located are always major arteries.
Block Parameters
To simplify the geometry of the model, residences are located only along the X streets. To each residence is associated a rectangular lot. One side of the lot is the frontage and the other is the property depth. For each block there are two property depths, one for each of the two Y streets (see Figure 2-1). The property depth is based on the residence setback. The setback selection is based on the street width and is the same for all residences on both sides of the same street. For major arteries the setback is fixed (set at 9 m). The selection criteria are expressed by equations [2-1] and [2-2]. 2-2

( Street Width -1) 6.6
Setback = 1.5 + 6 2.5
[2-1] [2-2]
Left Property Depth Left Setback = Right Property Depth Right Setback
For instance, with reference to Figure 2-1, if the street widths are W1 = 12 m and W2 = 15 m, and the block size is Bx = 100 m, Equations [2-1] and [2-2] give: S1 = 14.2 m and S2 = 20.8 m (setbacks), and D1 = 40.6 m and D2 = 59.4 m (property depths). The average lot size, Zav, is selected according to Equation [2-3]. Average Lot Size = ( Property Depth) 2 K [2-3]
where K is a random number between 1 and 2. The average lot size is also bound between two user-selected values: the minimum lot size Zmin, and the maximum lot size Zmax. For instance, with reference to Figure 2-1, assume K = 1.5 for both the left and right sides of the block, Zmin = 0.2 acre, and Zmax = 2 acres. Equation [2-3] gives for the left side of the block D1 = 40.6 m and Zav = 1100 m2 = 0.27 acres and for the right side of the block D1 = 59.4 m and Zav = 2350 m2 = 0.58 acres. The target average frontage on a side of the block is equal to the average lot size divided by the property depth. For instance, in the previous example the target average frontage on the left side of the block is T1 = 27.1 m and on the left side T2 = 39.6 m. The number of residences on each side of the block is set equal to the closest integer to the ratio between block length along the Y street and target average frontage. With reference to the example, assuming By = 200 m, the number of residences on the left side is N1 = 8 and on the left side N2 = 6. The actual average frontages are then F1 = 25 m and F2 = 36.7 m. The property lines are set at the locations determined on the basis of the average frontage plus a random segment, in the Y direction calculated with Equation [2-4].
Random Segment = 0.2 F K
[2-4]
where k is a random number between -S and S. (The calculations described in this report were performed with S = 0. This resulted in all the lots and houses on the same side of the same block being equal.)
2-3
S1
Floors
Floors
S2
By
2
W1
W2
2 2 2 2
D1 Bx
Figure 2-1 Residences and Lots within a Block
D2
Assume, for example, that S = 1 and that the 7 random numbers associated with the 8 residences on the left side of the block are 0.3, -0.6, -0.4, 0.1, 0.9, 0.2, and -0.4. The property lines are then located at the following Y distances from the beginning of the block: 0, 26.5, 47, 73, 100.5, 129.5, 151, 173, and 200 m. The frontages of the 8 residences are: 26.5, 20.5, 26, 27.5, 29, 21.5, 22, and 27 m. The lot size varies from residence to residence: 0.27, 0.21, 0.26, 0.28, 0.29, 0.22, 0.22, and 0.27 acres.
2-4
Residence Parameters
Only single-family houses are considered. Houses may have either one or two floors. The user selects the percentage of one-floor houses. That is the probability that the software will assign the one-floor status to each residence inserted in the model. In the example of Figure 2-1 there are 3 one-floor houses and 5 two-floor houses on the left side of the block. The houses always have a square footprint. The side of the house is selected on the basis of the lot size and number of floors according to Equation [2-5].
Side = 5.5 + 610 e -0.02 L K f
[2-5]
L is the lot size expressed in acres. Kf is a multiplier equal to 1.1 for one-floor houses and to 0.9 for two-floor houses. For the example of Figure 2-1 the sides of the 8 houses on the left side of the block are: 9, 7.7, 8.3, 8.5, 9.4, 7.8, 8.4, and 8.5 m. In addition to Equation [2-5] the house side complies with the following constraints: the minimum side is 7.6 m for one-floor houses and 6.1 m for two-floor houses and the side cannot exceed 80% of the frontage. Finally the side cannot exceed a maximum value set by the user. The net load of each residence has a random value from a distribution with a given median and a given geometric standard deviation. A median of 4.34 A and a geometric standard deviation equal to 1.87 are values suggested by the data from EPRI 1000 Home Study (Zaffanella, 1993). The net current is considered in phase with the secondary voltage of the distribution transformer. The secondary voltage is in phase with the phase-to-ground voltage for transformers connected between one high voltage phase and neutral and with the phase-to-phase primary voltage for transformers connected between two phases of the primary. The net current is assigned a random + or sign. The total load current of a residence is selected at random between 5 and 15 A, but must always be greater than the absolute value of the net load current. The average value of about 10 A is suggested by the data from EPRI 1000 Home Study (Zaffanella, 1993).
Substation Parameters
The model contains one distribution substation. The substation is located in the bottom left corner of the study area (see Figures 2-2 and 2-3). The user specifies the substation ground resistance value.
2-5
Substation
Figure 2-2 Example of Distribution Line Layout for a 2 X 3 Block Study Area and Line in the Street
Substation
Figure 2-3 Example of Distribution Line Layout for a 2 X 3 Block Study Area and Backyard Lines
2-6
Distribution Lines and Transformers

The model contains distribution line feeders and laterals. The feeders are three-phase lines that are located along the main arteries (for distribution system layouts with lines on the street) or in the backyards of blocks next to main arteries (for layouts with backyard lines). The laterals are single-phase lines derived from the feeders. The feeder voltage is assumed to be 4160 V, i.e. 2400 V phase-to-ground. The distribution transformer ratio is 10, giving a low voltage of 240 V. This is the voltage between the two hot wires of the service drop. The voltages between the two low-voltage hot wires and the neutral are +120 V and 120 V. All single-phase transformers are assumed connected between phase and ground. All distribution lines are overhead. The user can set the geometry of the feeders. For the calculations of this report a flat configuration was used, with 1.5 m phase spacing and 7.6 m height above ground. The neutral is placed 1.5 m below the center phase. This is shown in Figure 2-4. The neutral is placed in a location with minimal induction from the three phase currents, when these are balanced.
Figure 2-4 Three Phase Distribution Line Configuration
The laterals are single-phase lines with the phase at 7.6 m above ground and the neutral 1.5 m below the phase. The transformers are connected between phase and neutral.
2-7
The neutral is common to primary and secondary. The electrical characteristics of the neutral are: GMD = 16 mm and resistance equal to 0.124 m/m. The neutral of distribution lines are assumed all connected, even when primary wires are interrupted. The neutral is grounded to a pole butt ground at the location of each distribution transformer. The resistance of these grounds, however, is much larger than the resistance to ground of the water lines and is not considered. The distribution lines are laid out in the study area according to special rules. Lines are located at the edge of the street. The side of the street where the line is located is selected at random. Three-phase feeders form a tree whose root is the substation. In a study area with two sets of streets perpendicular to each other each node may have up to three feeders. In case of lines in the streets, feeders are in the first Y street, in the first X street, and in any X street that is a major artery. In case of backyard lines feeders are in the first Y street and in the first backyards after the first X street and any X street which is also a major artery. Lateral lines are connected to feeders in such a way to minimize the current paths. Examples of distribution line layouts for street and backyard lines are shown for a study area of 3 by 2 blocks in Figures 2-2 and 2-3, respectively. Feeders are assumed to continue outside the study area on the North, East, and West sides. At each point where a feeder exits the study area, there is a balanced set of currents selected at random in a specified range (for instance 10 to 100 A). When a line extends outside the study area, its neutral is considered grounded through a terminating impedance, which is calculated assuming that the neutral proceeds for a long distance and is grounded through a 20 resistance every 30 m. The termination impedance is then the series of a resistance of 0.625 and of a reactance of 0.3 (see Appendix A). Commercial loads may be placed along the main arteries in the Y direction. The probability for one block side to have commercial loads is set to 50%. When one block side is designated as commercial, three-phase transformers are connected to the commercial loads every 76 m. Each transformer loads is chosen at random within a set range (for instance 8 to 30 A) with a 20% random variation in the currents of each phase.
Service Drop Parameters

The service drop is assumed to be perpendicular to the street. The service drop attachment point is at the southern corner of the house closest to the distribution line at a height of 3.05 m for onefloor houses and 5.5 m for two-floor houses. The service entrance point (electrical panel) is assumed to be directly below the attachment point at a depth of 0.9 m. The three wires of the service drop are assumed to be twisted together, so they do not generate magnetic field except for the net current. The neutral of the service drop has the following electrical characteristics: GMD = 8 mm and resistance equal to 0.494 m/m.
2-8
Transmission Line Parameters

The study area may or may not contain one transmission line. If a transmission line is present, the line is assumed to be a 345 kV running in the Y direction for the entire length of the study area and located on the western border of the study area. The line characteristics are as follows: flat configuration, 9-m phase spacing, 16-m average height above ground, and 500-A balanced current. The center of the line is located 24 m from the edge of the first Y street of the study area.
Water Main Parameters

The water mains are placed in the center of the streets at a depth of 1.1 m. The water mains are in all the streets and are all interconnected. The resistance to ground along the main is assumed to be much larger than the resistance to ground of the water lines attached to the main and, therefore, is not considered. The water main electrical characteristics are: GMD = 10 mm and resistance equal to 3.5 m/m. This resistance accounts also for the resistances of the joints every each 6 m section of water main. The water mains are assumed all connected. A water main extending outside the study area is considered grounded through a terminating impedance, which is calculated assuming that the main proceeds for a long distance and is grounded through a 20 resistance every 30 m. The termination impedance is then the series of a resistance of 1.625 and of a reactance of 0.33 (See Appendix A).
Water Line Characteristics

Water lines are assumed to be perpendicular to the Y street. They are connected to the water main (placed in the center of the street) and exit the house from a corner at the front of the house at a depth of 0.9 m. When this corner is on the North side the ground circuit path inside the house is the longest possible and when it is on the south side of the house (the same side of the service drop) the ground circuit path is the shortest possible. The selection of the path type is made at random, with the probability of the ground circuit path to be the longest possible is set to 50%. The water line has the following electrical characteristics: GMD = 23 mm and resistance equal to 0.206 m/m.
House Grounds
The neutral of the service drop is grounded through a ground rod at the electrical panel and at the water line, which is assumed to be metallic. Most of the conductance to ground is provided by the water line, which is buried in the ground for a considerable length. For the calculations all the resistance to ground is lumped at the water line exit from the house. The value of the house ground resistance is selected randomly in the 50 to 200 range.
2-9
3
METHOD FOR CALCULATION OF RESIDENTIAL MAGNETIC FIELD AND NEUTRAL VOLTAGES
Description of Software for Calculation of Induced Currents

Special software was used for the calculation of currents in a network of conductors induced by other conductors not connected to that network. The software for induction in a passive network is based on the algorithms described in EPRIs Electric and Magnetic Field Management Reference Book (EPRI, 1999). For instance, it is possible to calculate the current induced by a three-phase power line in a loop formed by service drop neutrals, grounding conductors, water pipes, and water main of two adjacent residences, as shown in Figure 3-1.
Power Line
Service drop neutral Residence #1
Service drop neutral
I loop
Grounding conductor Water Main Grounding conductor
Residence #2
Water pipes
Water pipes
Figure 3-1 Current Induced in a Conductive Loop by a Power Line
The case of Figure 3-1 is relatively simple because it involves only one loop. It is possible to calculate the currents in the branches of a network of conductors, involving several independent loops. For instance, the network formed by neutrals, grounding conductors, water pipes, and main of the neighborhood shown in Figure 3-2, involves 7 independent loops and 15 branches. For this example, the resistances to earth are assumed infinitely large and, therefore, connections to ground are not considered. The goal is to calculate the current induced in each branch. The parameters of the problem are the currents and geometry of the three-phase line, and the 3-1
Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages
geometry and electrical characteristics (resistance and geometric mean diameter) of the conductors of the network. For each independent loop the voltage drop along the loop caused by the loop currents is set equal to the voltages induced in the loop by the three-phase line currents. A system of as many equations as there are independent loops is solved and the loop currents are determined.
P o w e r L in e
B2
R e s id e n c e # 1
S e c o n d a ry N e u tra l R e s id e n c e B 6 # 3
B3 B7 L3
B1 L1
W a te r M a in
B5
L2 B13
B11 L7 B10
B12
B14 L6
B 15 L5
B9
B8
B4
L4
S e c o n d a ry n e u tra l
L 1 to L 7 : In d e p e n d e n t L o o p s B 1 to B 1 5 : B ra n c h e s
Figure 3-2 Independent Loops and Branches of a Network of Grounded Conductors Connected to the Secondary of a Distribution Line - Connections to Ground are not Considered
The network in Figure 3-2 does not include the connections to ground. In reality, there are several connections to ground: at pole mounted transformers (butt ground at the bottom of the pole), at the electrical panels (through ground rods), and at the water lines connecting residential water pipes to the water main. The latter resistance is distributed along the length of the water line. In our model this resistance is lumped at the point where the line exits the house. The ground rod resistance is combined with the resistance to ground of the water line, i.e. we consider only one lumped resistance to ground for every house, located at the water line exit from the house. This simplification has little effect on the calculation of the magnetic field because the ground currents are small. The effect on neutral to ground voltages is also small because very little current is circulating in the loop formed by the resistance to ground of the water line, the resistance of the ground rod, and the grounding wire. Water main resistance to ground is not included in the model because it is considered much greater than the others because of the tar coating. However, since the water main continues beyond the boundaries of the neighborhood, a connection to ground must be inserted at each water main termination. Each connection to ground represents an additional branch of the network, connecting a point of the conductor network with the earth. In other words, the earth is an additional node of the network. 3-2
In our model, the earth node is placed in the center of the neighborhood at a depth of 800 m. Each branch connecting a grounded electrode with the earth node is assigned a resistance equal to the ground resistance of that electrode. The geometric mean diameter assigned to the branch is 1 m. These data allow the software for induction in a passive network to perform the calculations. In practice, location of the earth electrode and geometric mean diameter of the branches converging on this electrode have very little effect on the calculated induced currents, because the impedance of these branches practically coincides with the resistance to ground, which is always much larger than the inductance. The presence of the connections to ground significantly increases the number of independent loops (from 7 to 15) and branches (from 15 to 27) that the problem must consider, as shown in Figure 3-3.
P o w e r L in e
B3 B7
L18
B2
S e c o n d a ry N e u tra l R e s id e n c e B 6 # 3
B1 L1
W a te r M a in
B5
L16
L17
L2
L3
B11 L7
B12
B13 L6
B14
B15
L13
L8 L9
B16
B17 B18
L10
B20
B10
L11
L12
L5
L14 L15
B9
B8
B19
B4
B21 B22
L4
B23
L 1 to L 1 8 : In d e p e n d e n t L o o p s B 1 to B 2 7 : B ra n c h e s
E a rth N o d e
Figure 3-3 Independent Loops and Branches of a Network of Grounded Conductors Connected to the Secondary of a Distribution Line - Including Connections to Ground
Currents Induced in the Grounded Conductor Network by Distribution Line Primaries with Multi-Grounded Neutrals
The software for induction in a passive network is designed to solve problems in which the source of induction is not electrically connected to the network where the currents are induced, such as induction problems where the source is a transmission line or a distribution line without neutral (and distribution transformers connected phase-to-phase). This, however, is not the case of the primary distribution lines that have a multi-grounded neutral and is not the case of 3-3
B24
B25
B26
B27
S e c o n d a ry n e u tra l
secondary distribution lines when the source of induction consists of the house load currents. To solve these two problems, the software for induction in a passive network was modified as illustrated in the following. The simple circuit of Figure 3-4 is used to illustrate the problem and describe the procedure for its solution. The figure shows three distribution transformers serving three groups of residences. The neutral at each transformer is grounded through all the service drop neutrals and water lines to which these are attached. For simplicity, one ground only is shown in the figure for each group of houses. The grounds of each group of residences are connected together by the water main.
S u b s ta tio n T ra n s fo rm e r
T h re e -P h a s e D is trib u tio n L in e Ia= 0 Ib= I1 Ic= I2+ I3

R e s id e n c e G ro u p # 1
I1
A B C N
S u b s ta tio n G ro u n d
I2+ I3
W a te r M a in R e s id e n c e G ro u p # 2
I2
I3
I3
E a rth N o d e
Figure 3-4 Example of Grounded Conductor Network Connected to a Distribution Line with Multi-Grounded Neutral
Assume that the load of each transformer (on the high voltage side) is known. The currents I1, I2, and I3 flow in the phase wires of the distribution line and add to each other as we proceed toward the substation. Assuming that these are the only loads, the currents in each phase wire in each line section are known. The currents in the various sections of the neutral, however, are not known, because part of the return current of each distribution transformer returns to the substation transformer through the grounded network. To calculate the grounded network currents, including the distribution line neutral currents, small modifications are made to the software for induction in a passive network. Transformer loads are considered one at a time, as if each transformer were operating alone. The grounded network currents calculated for each case are then added. Consider, for instance, only the load of the 3-4
Single-Phase Lateral
distribution transformer serving residence group #3. This case is shown in Figure 3-5. There are 8 independent loops. The problem consists in finding the 8 loop currents. Of these, the current in L0 is already known, being equal to I3. The other 7 currents are found by solving the system of 7 loop equations. This is done exercising the software as if the source consisted only of the phase wires carrying the current I3 and there were only the 7 loops L1 to L7. The loop equations are identical to those used to solve the problem of a network not connected to the source, except for the loops that have branches in common with loop L0. For these loops the voltage drops along the common branches have an additional term equal to the product of the current I3 by the impedance of the branch.
T h re e -P h a s e D is trib u tio n L in e
I3
L1
L0 L2
I3
L4
L5
L3 L6 L7
I3
I3
E a rth N o d e
Figure 3-5 Currents in the Grounded Network Induced by the Loads of Residence Group #3
The results of exercising the software for induction in a passive network with the indicated modification consist of the currents in all the branches of the grounded network. Assume, for instance that the loop currents calculated are those indicated in Figure 3-6. The values are referred to I3, which is taken equal to 1 A. The branch currents are calculated by adding the loop currents. For instance, the current in the neutral between residence groups #1 and #2 would be equal to L0 L2 = 0.97 + j 0.006 A, as indicated in the figure. The current in the water main section between residence groups #1 and #2 would be L2 L5 = 0.023 j 0.0048 A. The current into the earth can be similarly calculated. For instance the current in the ground resistance lumped at residence group #3 is L6 L7 = 0.001 j 0.0001 A. These currents are used to calculate the voltages between water pipes and earth. For instance, if the resistance to earth of all the grounds at residence #3 is 20 the voltage is about 0.02 V. This voltage varies little from residence to residence of the same group, because the voltage drops along water lines and water main of the immediate neighborhood are small. This is true because the currents that are 3-5
associated to the primary load currents and that flow in the water pipes are relatively small compared to the ground currents associated to the secondary, which will be discussed later. The knowledge of the branch currents also allows the calculation of the residential magnetic field caused by the primary currents and associated currents in the ground network. The substation ground current also is a result of the calculations. In the example of Figure 3-6, the substation ground current caused by a 1A (primary) load of residence group #3 is about 0.02 A (equal to L1). If the substation resistance is 2 the voltage is about 0.04 V.
T h re e -P h a s e D is trib u tio n L in e
1
0 .9 7 + j 0 .0 0 6
L 0= 1
L1
0 .0 2 -j 0 .0 0 6
L2 0 .0 3 -j 0 .0 0 6
1
0 .0 2 3 -j 0 .0 0 4 8
L4
-0 .0 0 7 + j 0 .0 0 1 2
L5
0 .0 0 7 -j 0 .0 0 1 2
L6
0 .0 0 6 -j 0 .0 0 1 1 1 00 .0 0 j L7 1-
L3 0 .0 2 -j 0 .0 0 4
0.
00
0 .0 0 5 -j 0 .0 0 1
E a rth N o d e
Figure 3-6 Example of Loop and Branch Currents in the Grounded Network Induced by a 1A Load of Residence Group #3
Currents Induced in the Grounded Conductor Network by Distribution Line Secondary Loads
Figure 3-7 shows a simple circuit, which is used to illustrate the problem and describe the procedure for its solution. The figure shows two residences served by the same distribution transformer. The neutral on the secondary side is grounded at the transformer and at each house. The resistance to earth of water line is much lower than the resistance to earth of the ground rod placed at the service entrance. This latter, therefore is neglected. All the resistance to earth is lumped at the water line exit from the house.
3-6
Secondary neutrals and water main are connected to ground through terminating impedances to account for the ground return provided by other residences that, although not served by the same transformer, are connected to the same network of grounded distribution line neutrals and water mains. These impedances account for the connections to ground of the secondary neutral and of the water main through other residences. Assume that the load of each residence on each hot (V=120 V) leg of the service is known. The currents I11 and I21 are the currents of the two hot legs of residence #1. The total load current of residence #1 is I11 + I21 and the power absorbed by the residence is equal to V(I11+I21). The net load current is defined as I11 - I21. This would equal the current flowing in the neutral if there were no connections to ground. In reality, part of the return current returns to the distribution transformer neutral via the ground conductor network. The currents in the branches of the network may be calculated by making an appropriate modification to the software for calculating induced currents in a passive conductor network not connected to the source. Each hot leg current of each residence is considered separately and the effects of all the loads are added. Consider, for instance, the current I11. Figure 3-8 reports the results of the calculation for a hypothetical example assuming I11=1 A. There are 8 independent loops. The problem consists in finding the 8 loop currents. Of these, the current in L0 is already known, being equal to I11=1 A. The other 7 loop currents are found by solving the system of 7 loop equations. This is done exercising the software as if the source consisted only of the phase wires carrying the current I3 and there were only the 7 loops L1 to L7. The loop equations are identical to those employed by the software for induction in a passive network, excepts for those loops that have branches in common with loop L0. For these loops the voltage drops along the common branches have an additional term equal to the product of the current I3 by the impedance of the branch.
Phase
P o w e r L in e
N e u tra l
I12 I11
Se rv ic e dr op
Se
rv
ic e
dr
op
W a te r p ip e s
G ro u n d in g c o n d u c to r
G ro u n d in g c o n d u c to r
W a te r p ip e s
W a te r M a in
E a rth N o d e
Figure 3-7 Example of Grounded Network Associated with the Secondary Wires
3-7
The results of exercising the software for induction in a passive network with the indicated modification consist of the currents in all the branches of the grounded network. Assume, for instance that the loop currents calculated are those indicated in Figure 3-8. The branch currents are calculated by adding the loop currents. For instance, the current in the neutral of the service drop of residence #1 is equal to L0 L1 = 0.8 + j 0.05 A, as indicated in the figure. The current in the water main section between residences #1 and #2 would be L1 + L4 = 0.181 +j 0.04 A. The current into the earth can be similarly calculated. For instance, the current in the ground resistance of residence #1 is L3 L4 = 0.002 A and the current in the ground resistance of residence #2 is L4 L5 = -0.001 A. These currents are used to calculate the voltages between water pipes and earth. For instance, if the resistance to ground at residence #1 and at residence #2 are 100 the voltages are about 0.2 V and 0.1 V for residence #1 and #2, respectively. The knowledge of the branch currents also allows the calculation of the residential magnetic field caused by the primary currents and associated currents in the ground network. Particularly important is the contribution to the residential magnetic field from the currents flowing in water pipes and service drops.
Phase
P o w e r L in e
N e u tra l
L7
-0 .0 0 1
Se
dr
1
rv
rv
ic e
op
dr
op
ic e
ne
L0
Se
L1
0 .2 + j 0 .0 5
ut
ra
0 .0 0 1
L2
0 .1 8 1 + j 0 .0 4
0 .0 1 7 + j 0 .0 0 1
0 .0 02
L3
W a te r M a in
0.001
-0 .1 -j 0 .0 0 1
L5
L6
0 .0 0 1
L4
-0 .0 1 9 -j 0 .0 0 1
E a rth N o d e
Figure 3-8 Example of Currents in the Grounded Network Induced by a Residential Load of 1A in a Hot Leg of a Residence
3-8
4
INPUT AND OUTPUT PARAMETERS
Layout of Study Area
Although the layout of the study area may be considered an input to be assigned by the user, calculations were performed only for one type of layout consisting of a rectangular study area (defined by X and Y coordinates) with a reticulate system of streets (X streets, defined by their X coordinate, and Y streets, defined by their Y coordinate), with no terrain constraint (lakes, rivers, parks, hills, etc). The rules used to define streets, distribution lines, and residences were developed specifically for this type of study area. This type of study area is defined also by the number of full rectangular blocks, for instance a study area could be defined as a 3 by 4 block area. Magnetic field and contact voltages are calculated only for the residences within the full blocks, even though the study area includes also half and quarter blocks.
Input Parameters
Calculations were performed for residential areas defined by the parameters listed below. Often a range of values defines an input parameter. In that case, the actual values are selected randomly within that range.
Table 4-1 Model Type Input Parameters Parameter X Size of Study Area Y Size of Study Area X Street Density Y Street Density Major Artery Density (X) Description Size of the study area along the X axis Size of the study area along the Y axis Distance between adjacent streets defined by an X coordinate. This distance is kept constant. Calculations were performed for a distance of 120 m. Distance between adjacent streets defined by a Y coordinate. This distance is kept constant. Calculations were performed for a distance of 240 m. Minimum distance between major arteries along the X axis. Calculations were performed for a distance of 300 m.
4-1
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-1 Model Type Input Parameters (Continued) Major Artery Density (Y) X Street Width Y Street Width Adder to Major Artery Width Setback Minimum distance between major arteries along the Y axis. Calculations were performed for a distance of 600 m. Street width including sidewalks. Calculations were performed for width with a random value in the range between 12 m and 18 m. Street width including sidewalks. Calculations were performed for width with a random value in the range between 6 m and 12 m. The amount by which the width of a major artery is increased over the width of a regular street. (Set to 12 m) The distance between edge of street and front of houses (setback) is the same side of the same block and is selected based on street width and other parameters using a defined rule. For major arteries it is fixed. The setback for houses along major arteries (set at 9 m). The minimum size allowed for the lot on which the residence is located 2 (set at 0.2 acres = 809 m ). The actual lot size is selected using defined rules. The maximum size allowed for the lot on which the residence is located 2 (set at 2 acres = 8090 m ). The actual lot size is selected using defined rules. This is the quantity S of equation (4). It is set to zero.
Setback for Major Artery Minimum Lot Size Maximum Lot Size Variability parameter for frontage Expected Percentage of One Floor Houses Multiplier for Side of OneFloor Houses Multiplier for Side of TwoFloor Houses Minimum Side of One-Floor Houses Minimum Side of Two-Floor Houses Maximum Side Length
The probability of a house to be a one-floor house. The determination whether a house has one or two floors is made at random. Calculations were performed with all houses having two floors. A number used to select the side of the footprint of a one-floor house. (Set at 1.1). All houses have a square footprint. Using this multiplier, one-floor houses will be slightly larger than if they were two-floor houses. A number used to select the side of the footprint of a two-floor house. (Set at 0.9). All houses have a square footprint. Using this multiplier, two-floor houses will be slightly smaller than if they were one-floor houses. The minimum side of the footprint of one-floor houses (set at 7.6 m). The actual side is selected using defined rules. The minimum side of the footprint of two-floor houses (set at 6.1 m). The actual side is selected using defined rules. The maximum side of the footprint of houses (for example 20 m).
4-2
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-1 Model Type Input Parameters (Continued) Residence Net Current Random value from a distribution with a given median and a given geometric standard deviation. A median of 4.34 A and a geometric standard deviation equal to 1.87 are values suggested by the data from EPRI 1000 Home Study (Zaffanella, 1993). The net current is assigned a random + or sign. The total load current of a residence, sum of the currents in the two hot legs. A random value between 5 and 15 A is selected, with the condition that the total load current must be greater than the net current. An average 10 A value is suggested by the data from EPRI 1000 Home Study (Zaffanella, 1993). The choice is between shortest and longest. Service drop attachment point and water line exit points are located at house corners. The shortest path is when service drop attachment point and water line exit are at the same corner of the house for street lines or at adjacent corners for backyard lines. The longest path is when service drop attachment point and water line exit are at the two different corners of the front of the house for street lines or at diagonally opposite corners for backyard lines. The ground path type is assigned randomly, with each type having a 50% chance of occurring. The side (South or North) of the house to which the service drop is attached. This side is set to be the South side. The height of the service drop attachment point. A value is assigned to one-floor houses (3 m) and another value to two-floor houses (5.4 m). The electrical panel (service entrance point) is directly below the service drop attachment point and at a depth to be assigned (0.9 m). The water line exits from a residence at a depth to be assigned (0.9 m). This is the resistance resulting from the combination of ground rod at the electrical panel and water line buried in the earth from the exit point from the house to the water main. A value between 50 and 200 is selected at random for each residence. The inductance of the ground connection is zero. Geometric mean diameter of the water line connecting the house water pipes to the water main (0.023 m). Resistance of the water line connecting the house water pipes to the water main (0.206 m/m). Geometric mean diameter of the wire connecting electrical panel neutral to water pipes (0.008 m). Resistance of the wire connecting electrical panel neutral to water (0.494 m/m). Geometric mean diameter of the service drop neutral (0.008 m).
Residence Total Current
Ground Path Type
Service Drop Attachment Point Side Service Drop Attachment Point Height Depth of Electrical Panel Depth of Water Line Exit Resistance to Ground at a Residence Neutral Water Line GMD Water Line Resistance Grounding Conductor GMD Grounding Conductor Resistance Service Drop GMD
4-3
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-1 Model Type Input Parameters (Continued) Service Drop Resistance Distribution Line Location Resistance of the service drop neutral (0.494 m/m). Line in the street (street lines) or in the backyard (backyard lines). Distribution lines are only overhead. The layout of feeders and laterals is made according to a defined procedure. Lines are located at the edge of the streets. The side is chosen at random. The 3-Phase distribution lines are assumed having a flat configuration (all the 3 phases at the same height above ground) with the neutral below the center phase. Phase spacing (1.5 m) of the three-phase distribution lines. Height above ground of the three phases (7.6 m). The vertical distance between neutral and the center phase (1.5 m). Voltage between phase and ground of the three-phase distribution lines: 2,400 V, i.e. 4160 V between phases. In this case, the ratio between secondary current and primary current is 2,400 / 240 = 10. Probability that an X street major artery block contains commercial loads. Set to 50%. Currents on the primary side of three-phase distribution transformers serving a commercial load. Set at random within the 8-30 A range. The primary load current of each phase for a commercial load is chosen at random by varying the commercial load current within a range of a given percentage (set at 20%). The distance between adjacent commercial loads on the same block side. Each load is connected to a three-phase distribution transformer.
Feeder Configuration Feeder Phase Spacing Feeder Height above Ground Vertical Offset of Neutral Distribution Line Phase-toGround Voltage Commercial Percentage Commercial Load Current Variability of Commercial Load Phase Currents Frequency of Commercial Load Transformers Lateral Height above Ground Lateral Offset of Neutral Maximum Number Of Residences per Transformer
Height above ground of the high voltage wire (7.6 m). The vertical distance between neutral and the high voltage wire (1.5 m). The maximum number of residences served by the same distribution transformer (set at 10).
4-4
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-1 Model Type Input Parameters (Continued) Substation Ground Resistance Distribution Line Neutral GMD Distribution Line Neutral Resistance Distribution Line Neutral Termination Resistance between substation transformer neutral and earth (set at 2). The inductance is zero. Geometric mean diameter of the neutral of the distribution line (0.016 m). It is the same size for both primary and secondary. Resistance of the neutral of the distribution line (0.124 m/m). It is the same for both primary and secondary. The neutral of distribution lines are assumed all connected, even when primary wires are interrupted. When a line extends outside the study area, its neutral is considered grounded through a terminating impedance, calculated assuming that the neutral proceeds for a long distance and is grounded through a 20 resistance every 30 m. The termination impedance is then the series of a resistance of 0.625 and of a reactance of 0.3 (See Appendix 1). The water mains are assumed all connected. When a water main extends outside the study area, it is considered grounded through a terminating impedance, calculated assuming that the main proceeds for a long distance and is grounded through a 20 resistance every 30 m. The termination impedance is then the series of a resistance of 1.625 and of a reactance of 0.33 (See Appendix 1).
Water Main Termination
Output Parameters
The goal of the calculations are the magnetic field at each residence of the study area and the three contact voltages: voltage between water pipes and earth, voltage between electrical panel and water pipes, and voltage between electrical panel and earth. The magnetic field is calculated at four points per floor. Each floor is divided in four rooms and the calculation points are at the center of each room at the height of 1 meter above the floor. In addition to the magnetic fields and voltages, other results and all the parameters that characterize a residence are outputted to an Excel file that can be used for statistical analyses. The results of the calculations are some general parameters describing the study area (number of blocks, number of residences, size of the study area) and an output file that contains for each residence the data listed in Table 4-2.
4-5
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-2 Model Run Output Parameters Block ID# Residence ID # within the block Residence ID # Number of floors Floor size Lot size Frontage Setback Street or backyard line Total load current The identification number of the block where the residence is located. A progressive number from zero to the total number of residences of the same block. A progressive number from zero to the total number of residences. One or two. The area of the footprint of the house. The area of the lot: frontage times property depth. The length of the side of the property along the street. The distance from the street to the front of the house. The distribution line serving the residence is in the street or in the backyard. The sum of the absolute values of the currents in the two hot legs of the service drop. Also equal to the power divided by 120 V. The difference between the currents in the two hot legs (this current is assumed in phase with the transformer voltage and it has a plus or minus sign). Phase of the distribution line high voltage wire from which the house load is derived. Shortest or longest possible length of the circuit from the service drop attachment point to the water line exit. Shortest possible or longest possible. Three-phase or single-phase. Shortest distance between a side of the residence and the closest wire of the distribution line. Type of distribution line in the side street (three-phase, single-phase, none). Yes if the residence is located at a corner of the block. Shortest distance between a side of the residence and the distribution line in the side street. Magnetic field in the North-West room of the first floor, one meter above the floor. Three separate results, one for each source, are given.
Net load current
Connected Phase Grounding circuit path type (shortest or longest) Ground Circuit Path Type Line type Distance to distribution line For corner house: side line type Corner house, Yes or No For corner house: distance to side line Magnetic field resultant at point 1 Three values: (1) due to distribution secondary, (2) due to distribution primary, and (3) due to transmission line. Magnetic field resultant at point 2
Magnetic field, North-East room, first floor.
4-6
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-2 Model Run Output Parameters (Continued) Magnetic field resultant at point 3 Magnetic field resultant at point 4 Magnetic field resultant at point 5 Magnetic field resultant at point 6 Magnetic field resultant at point 7 Magnetic field resultant at point 8 Average magnetic field due to primary currents Magnetic field, South-East room, first floor. Magnetic field, South-West room, first floor. Magnetic field, North-West room, second floor. Magnetic field, North-East room second floor. Magnetic field, South-East room second floor. Magnetic field, South-West room second floor. Average of the resultant magnetic field at the four (or eight) calculation points caused by the currents in the distribution line primaries and by the associated currents in the grounded network. Average of the resultant magnetic field at the four (or eight) calculation points caused by the net current of the service drop and ground currents caused by the secondary loads. Average of the resultant magnetic field at the four (or eight) calculation points caused by the currents in transmission lines. Average of the magnetic field calculated at all the four (or eight) points. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and earth caused by the currents in the distribution line primaries and by the associated currents in the grounded network. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and earth caused by currents associated with the secondary circuit of the distribution transformer. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and earth due to currents induced by transmission lines in the grounded conductor network. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and earth. The length of the wire that connects the neutral at the electrical panel to the water pipes. Rms value of the grounding wire current associated with the currents in the distribution line primaries. Rms value of the grounding wire current associated with the currents in the secondary circuit of the distribution transformer. Rms value of the grounding wire current caused by induction from transmission lines into the grounded conductor network.
Average magnetic field due to secondary currents
Average magnetic field due to transmission lines Average magnetic field (due to all sources) Voltage water pipe-to-earth due to primary currents Voltage water pipe-to-earth due to secondary currents Voltage water pipe-to-earth due to transmission lines Voltage water pipe-to-earth (due to all sources) Grounding wire length Current in the grounding wire due to primary currents Current in the grounding wire due to secondary currents Current in the grounding wire due to transmission lines
4-7
Input and Output Parameters Table 4-2 Model Run Output Parameters (Continued) Current in the grounding wire (due to all sources) Voltage panel-to-water pipe due to primary currents Rms value of the current in the grounding conductor. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and electrical panel caused by the currents in the distribution line primaries and by the associated currents in the grounded network. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and electrical panel caused by currents associated with the secondary circuit of the distribution transformer. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and electrical panel due to currents induced by transmission lines in the grounded conductor network. Rms value of the voltage between water pipes and electrical panel. Rms value of the voltage between electrical panel and earth caused by the currents in the distribution line primaries and by the associated currents in the grounded network. Rms value of the voltage between electrical panel and earth caused by currents associated with the secondary circuit of the distribution transformer. Rms value of the voltage between electrical panel and earth due to currents induced by transmission lines in the grounded conductor network. Rms value of the voltage between electrical panel and earth.
Voltage panel-to-water pipe due to secondary currents Voltage panel-to-water pipe due to transmission lines Voltage panel-to-water pipe (due to all sources) Voltage panel-to-earth due to primary currents
Voltage panel-to-earth due to secondary currents Voltage panel-to-earth due to transmission lines Voltage panel-to-earth (due to all sources)
4-8
5
RESULTS
Example of a Study Area
Most calculations were performed for study areas with 2 by 3 blocks and with rectilinear streets. An example of study area is shown in Figure 5-1. This figure corresponds to the first run of the base case, which has backyard distribution lines, no transmission lines, low housing density, and conductive main. There are 65 residences, two three-phase feeders and two laterals. One of the feeders is in the backyard, the other is in the street. The results of the calculations are shown in Table 5-1. The main results, i.e. the average residential field and the water pipe-to-earth voltages are highlighted. A scatter plot of these quantities for all the 64 residences of the example is shown in Figure 5-2.
800
700 3 Phase 600 Single Phase
500 Y (m)
400
300
200
100 Substation 0 0 50 100 150 200 250 X (m) 300 350 400 450 500
Figure 5-1 Example of Study Area, Backyard Lines Run 1 (65 Homes)
5-1
Results Table 5-1 Result Example: Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - 3 x 2 Block Study Area - Run 1
Number of residences Connected to Phase Ground path Connected to Floor Area (m ) Lot Size (acre) Total Load Current (A) Net Load current (A) Average Residential Field due to Primary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Secondary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Transmission Line ( T) Tot. Average Residential field ( T) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) Grounding Conductor Length (m) Ground Current due to Primary (A) Ground Current due to Secondary (A) Ground Current due to Transmission Line (A) Total Ground current (A) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Primary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Secondary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V)
2
64 A =9 Short = 30 Lateral = 46 Max 278 1 21.8 10.3 0.49 0.21 0.0 0.50 0.281 0.633 0.0 0.712 33.4 6.3 6.2 0.0 8.3 0.064 0.325 0.058 0.662 0.0 0.0 0.101 0.764
B = 22 Long = 35 Feeder = 19 90% 273 1 14.0 5.2 0.17 0.16 0.0 0.25 0.214 0.322 0.0 0.418 29.2 2.7 3.5 0.0 4.1 0.026 0.225 0.034 0.341 0.0 0.0 0.043 0.450
C = 34
75% 212 0.8 12.4 3.9 0.10 0.10 0.0 0.17 0.195 0.231 0.0 0.314 20.2 1.5 2.2 0.0 2.7 0.015 0.200 0.018 0.233 0.0 0.0 0.024 0.328
Median 108 0.4 10.3 -1.8 0.05 0.06 0.0 0.09 0.161 0.129 0.0 0.235 16.5 0.6 1.3 0.0 1.9 0.004 0.162 0.010 0.144 0.0 0.0 0.014 0.232
25% 68 0.3 7.5 -4.7 0.02 0.04 0.0 0.06 0.107 0.077 0.0 0.160 10.4 0.2 0.7 0.0 1.1 0.001 0.096 0.005 0.077 0.0 0.0 0.007 0.166
10% 68 0.3 5.9 -8.0 0.01 0.02 0.0 0.04 0.075 0.047 0.0 0.087 8.3 0.1 0.5 0.0 0.7 0.001 0.069 0.003 0.043 0.0 0.0 0.004 0.088
Min 68 0.3 5.1 -21.8 0.01 0.02 0.0 0.02 0.020 0.006 0.0 0.018 8.3 0.0 0.1 0.0 0.4 0.000 0.015 0.001 0.009 0.0 0.0 0.003 0.027
5-2
Results
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Base Case - Run 1

1 0.9 0.8 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-2 Example of Results of One Run of Model Type Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Main
The results depend not only on the model type but also of the values of a number of parameters (e.g. the house loads) that were chosen at random. Another run for the same model but with a different random choice of parameters would give different results. This is shown in Figure 5-3, which reports the scatter plot for run 2 of the same model as Figure 5-2. The results appear quite different, although with a similar trend. In order to reduce the dependency from individual parameters it was found expedient to run several cases of the same model and group the results together. This was preferable (less computer time) to performing the calculations for a larger model. The results for each different model represent the combination of five different runs. The type of neighborhood and the house and line loads of corresponding runs for each model type were the same. An exception was made for the case of high housing density for which only two runs were made, since that gave a sufficiently large number of residences.
5-3
Results
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Base Case - Run 2
1 0.9 0.8 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V) 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-3 Example of Results of One Run of Model Type Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Main
Results for Different Model Types - Scatter Plots

The results of the calculations performed for different model types (5 runs of a 2 by 3 block study area) are shown in the Figures 5-4 to 5-11 for the following model types. Figure 5-4: Base Case, Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main Figure 5-5: Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main Figure 5-6: Street Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main Figure 5-7: Street Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main Figure 5-8: Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Non-Conductive Water Main Figure 5-9: Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Non-Conductive Water Main Figure 5-10: Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, High Housing Density, Conductive Water Main Figure 5-11: Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, High Housing Density, Conductive Water Main 5-4
Results
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines - All Runs
1.2 1.1 1 0.9 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-4 Base Case: Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines with a Transmission Line - All Runs
1.2 1.1 1 0.9 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V) 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-5 Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)
5-5
Results
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Street Lines with a Transmission Line - All Runs
2.5
2 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)
1.5
0.5
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-6 Street Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Street Lines with a Transmission Line - All Runs
2.5
1.5
0.5
Figure 5-7 Street Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)
5-6
Results
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines, Non Conductive Water Mains - All Runs
2
1.5 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)
0.5
Figure 5-8 Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, Non-Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines, Non Conductive Water Mains with a Transmission Line - All Runs
2
1.5 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)
0.5
Figure 5-9 Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, Non-Conductive Water Main (379 Residences)
5-7
Results
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines, High Density Housing - All Runs
2.5
1.5
0.5
Figure 5-10 Backyard Line, No Transmission Lines, High Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (209 Residences)
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines, High Density Housing with a Transmission Line - All Runs
2.5
1.5
0.5
Figure 5-11 Backyard Line, One Transmission Line, High Housing Density, Conductive Water Main (209 Residences)
5-8
Results
Results for Different Model Types Complete Tables

The detailed results for each house of the calculations performed for different model types are shown in Tables 5-2 to 5-5. Each table reports the result for a model type with and without a transmission line.
Table 5-2 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line
Number of residences Connected to Phase Ground path Connected to 379 A =57 Short = 191 Lateral = 229 Max Floor Area (m ) Lot Size (acre) Total Load Current (A) Net Load current (A) Average Residential Field due to Primary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Secondary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Transmission Line ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V)
2
B = 175 Long = 188 Feeder = 150 90% 216 0.8 13.9 6.6 0.22 0.20 0.60 0.31 0.62 0.393 0.305 0.537
C = 147
75% 145 0.6 12.4 4.7 0.14 0.12 0.09 0.20 0.38 0.260 0.232 0.410
Median 101 0.4 10.3 1.5 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.12 0.16 0.183 0.145 0.261
25% 70 0.3 8.2 -4.7 0.04 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.09 0.121 0.085 0.140
10% 68 0.3 6.1 -7.3 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.04 0.05 0.074 0.049 0.057
Min 65 0.2 5.02 -21.75 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.001 0.005 0.021
280 1 21.8 21.8 1.33 0.69 0.69 1.36 1.38 1.106 0.638 0.833
5-9
Results Table 5-2 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line (Continued)
Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Grounding Conductor Length (m) Ground Current due to Primary (A) Ground Current due to Secondary (A) Ground Current due to Transmission Line (A) Total Ground current (A) Total Ground current (A) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Primary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Secondary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line 0.973 0.439 0.343 0.240 0.158 0.099 0.009
1.154
0.662
0.499
0.330
0.202
0.125
0.009
33.4
25.5
18.3
16.2
10.1
8.3
8.1
19.5
2.7
1.5
0.8
0.3
0.1
0.0
10.1
3.8
2.6
1.6
0.8
0.5
0.1
1.7 17.3 17.0
0.6 5.0 5.1
0.4 3.1 3.2
0.1 2.0 2.1
0.0 1.2 1.2
0.0 0.6 0.7
0.0 0.1 0.1
0.147
0.024
0.011
0.006
0.002
0.001
0.000
1.123
0.405
0.260
0.191
0.120
0.074
0.001
0.084
0.032
0.020
0.011
0.006
0.003
0.000
0.678
0.316
0.237
0.145
0.086
0.051
0.005
0.019
0.006
0.003
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.827
0.538
0.410
0.261
0.139
0.057
0.022
0.130
0.045
0.025
0.015
0.007
0.004
0.000
1.000
0.449
0.348
0.246
0.158
0.092
0.002
0.128
0.047
0.026
0.015
0.007
0.004
0.000
1.137
0.672
0.501
0.337
0.204
0.124
0.009
5-10
Results Table 5-3 Detailed Results for Model Type: Street Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line
Number of residences Connected to Phase Ground path Connected to 379 A =46 Short = 192 Lateral = 235 Max Floor Area (m ) Lot Size (acre) Total Load Current (A) Net Load current (A) Average Residential Field due to Primary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Secondary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Transmission Line ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Grounding Conductor Length (m) Ground Current due to Primary (A)
2
B = 176 Long = 187 Feeder = 145 90% 216 0.8 14.3 7.3 0.28 0.06
C = 157
75% 145 0.6 12.4 4.8 0.19 0.04
Median 101 0.4 10.1 1.7 0.10 0.03
25% 70 0.3 7.4 -4.6 0.05 0.02
10% 68 0.3 5.9 -6.6 0.03 0.01
Min 65 0.2 5.05 21.75 0.01 0.00
280 1 23.7 21.8 1.36 0.20
0.53
0.47
0.07
0.04
0.01
0.01
0.00
1.42
0.28
0.20
0.11
0.06
0.04
0.01
1.54
0.49
0.31
0.15
0.08
0.05
0.01
2.722 0.858 1.815 2.192
0.735 0.396 0.942 0.832
0.583 0.256 0.596 0.640
0.426 0.148 0.359 0.451
0.277 0.085 0.182 0.288
0.166 0.052 0.083 0.180
0.056 0.007 0.007 0.026
2.659
1.206
0.918
0.637
0.397
0.222
0.044
16.7 10.1
12.8 1.6
10.1 0.8
0.0 0.3
0.0 0.1
0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0
5-11
Results Table 5-3 Detailed Results for Model Type: Street Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line (Continued)
Ground Current due to Secondary (A) Ground Current due to Transmission Line (A) Total Ground current (A) Total Ground current (A) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Primary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Secondary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line 6.1 1.8 1.3 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.0
1.2 10.1 10.2
0.6 3.0 3.0
0.3 1.8 1.9
0.1 1.0 1.1
0.0 0.6 0.6
0.0 0.4 0.4
0.0 0.0 0.1
0.076
0.006
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.722
0.736
0.585
0.421
0.277
0.166
0.056
0.027
0.008
0.004
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.834
0.392
0.257
0.149
0.084
0.052
0.007
0.009
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.812
0.942
0.597
0.359
0.181
0.082
0.007
0.076
0.012
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.191
0.829
0.638
0.446
0.284
0.182
0.032
0.077
0.012
0.006
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.650
1.206
0.919
0.630
0.397
0.223
0.036
5-12
Results Table 5-4 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line
Number of residences Connected to Phase Ground path Connected to 379 A =57 Short = 191 Lateral = 229 Max Floor Area (m ) Lot Size (acre) Total Load Current (A) Net Load current (A) Average Residential Field due to Primary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Secondary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Transmission Line ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Grounding Conductor Length (m)
2
B = 175 Long = 188 Feeder = 150 90% 216 0.8 13.9 6.6 0.26 0.02
C = 147
75% 145 0.6 12.4 4.7 0.16 0.01
Median 101 0.4 10.3 1.5 0.07 0.01
25% 70 0.3 8.2 -4.7 0.04 0.00
10% 68 0.3 6.1 -7.3 0.02 0.00
Min 65 0.2 5.02 -21.75 0.01 0.00
280 1 21.8 21.8 1.33 0.04
0.69
0.60
0.10
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
1.33
0.26
0.16
0.07
0.04
0.02
0.01
1.34
0.57
0.33
0.12
0.05
0.03
0.01
2.973 1.060 0.944
1.057 0.521 0.652
0.813 0.343 0.506
0.570 0.206 0.301
0.363 0.109 0.144
0.249 0.064 0.076
0.048 0.003 0.049
2.531
1.273
0.962
0.641
0.425
0.295
0.036
2.758
1.289
1.015
0.781
0.465
0.308
0.033
33.4
25.5
18.3
16.2
10.1
8.3
8.1
5-13
Results Table 5-4 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line (Continued)
Ground Current due to Primary (A) Ground Current due to Secondary (A) Ground Current due to Transmission Line (A) Total Ground current (A) Total Ground current (A) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Primary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Secondary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.4
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0 0.6 0.6
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0
0.004
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.973
1.057
0.813
0.571
0.363
0.250
0.047
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
1.060
0.522
0.343
0.206
0.109
0.064
0.003
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.944
0.652
0.506
0.301
0.143
0.075
0.049
0.005
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.531
1.273
0.962
0.641
0.424
0.295
0.036
0.005
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
2.759
1.289
1.016
0.780
0.465
0.308
0.033
5-14
Results Table 5-5 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, High Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line
Number of residences Connected to Phase Ground path Connected to 209 A =102 Short = 108 Lateral = 145 Max Floor Area (m ) Lot Size (acre) Total Load Current (A) Net Load current (A) Average Residential Field due to Primary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Secondary ( T) Average Residential Field due to Transmission Line ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) Tot. Ave Residential field ( T) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Grounding Conductor Length (m)
2
B = 54 Long = 101 Feeder = 64 90% 134 0.6 14.0 7.3 0.34 0.21 0.52 0.37 0.58 0.625 0.302 0.525
C = 53
75% 105 0.4 12.4 4.7 0.21 0.13 0.09 0.28 0.43 0.511 0.221 0.392
Median 76 0.3 10.3 1.8 0.11 0.07 0.03 0.16 0.23 0.409 0.130 0.263
25% 61 0.2 8.0 -4.3 0.05 0.05 0.02 0.09 0.12 0.287 0.067 0.141
10% 53 0.2 6.4 -6.7 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.07 0.170 0.034 0.054
Min 53 0.2 5.02 -21.75 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.015 0.001 0.020
205 0.8 21.8 16.9 1.34 0.56 0.68 1.37 1.39 1.035 0.631 0.778
1.391
0.772
0.594
0.361
0.248
0.148
0.067
2.057
0.902
0.610
0.391
0.244
0.161
0.015
28.7
21.6
16.3
13.8
8.2
7.8
7.3
5-15
Results Table 5-5 Detailed Results for Model Type: Backyard Lines, High Housing Density, and Conductive Main - With and Without a Transmission Line (Continued)
Ground Current due to Primary (A) Ground Current due to Secondary (A) Ground Current due to Transmission Line (A) Total Ground current (A) Total Ground current (A) with Transmission Line Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Primary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Primary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Secondary (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Secondary (V) Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Panel-to-Earth Voltage due to Transmission Line (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) Tot. Water Pipe-to-Panel Voltage (V) with Transmission Line Tot Panel-to-Earth Voltage (V) with Transmission Line 15.2 3.2 1.6 0.9 0.4 0.2 0.0
7.9
3.4
2.6
1.5
0.9
0.5
0.0
1.6 15.2 14.0
0.6 5.2 5.2
0.3 3.3 3.3
0.1 1.9 1.9
0.0 1.2 1.2
0.0 0.6 0.6
0.0 0.2 0.2
0.105
0.021
0.012
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.000
1.048
0.627
0.511
0.406
0.291
0.174
0.012
0.064
0.026
0.016
0.009
0.005
0.003
0.000
0.688
0.316
0.227
0.135
0.069
0.035
0.003
0.013
0.004
0.002
0.001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.772
0.524
0.391
0.263
0.141
0.054
0.020
0.130
0.040
0.023
0.011
0.006
0.004
0.001
1.410
0.784
0.597
0.366
0.253
0.150
0.071
0.125
0.040
0.022
0.011
0.006
0.004
0.001
2.070
0.902
0.607
0.385
0.247
0.166
0.020
Results for Different Model Types Descriptive Statistics Table

The descriptive statistics of the key variables: average residential magnetic field and water pipe-to-earth voltage are reported in Table 5-6 for all the model types.
5-16
Results Table 5-6 Descriptive Statistics of Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage for all the Model Types Backyard Max 90th percentile 75th percentile Median 25th percentile 10th percentile Min T 1.36 0.31 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.04 0.02 V 0.973 0.439 0.343 0.240 0.158 0.099 0.009 Backyard + Transmission Line T V 1.38 1.154 0.62 0.662 0.38 0.499 0.16 0.330 0.09 0.202 0.05 0.125 0.01 0.009 Street Lines + Transmission Line T V 1.54 2.659 0.49 1.206 0.31 0.918 0.15 0.637 0.08 0.397 0.05 0.222 0.01 0.044 High Housing Density + Transmission Line T 1.39 0.58 0.43 0.23 0.12 0.07 0.02 V 2.057 0.902 0.610 0.391 0.244 0.161 0.015
Street Lines Max 90th percentile 75th percentile Median 25th percentile 10th percentile Min T 1.42 0.28 0.20 0.11 0.06 0.04 0.01 V 2.192 0.832 0.640 0.451 0.288 0.180 0.026
High Housing Density T 1.37 0.37 0.28 0.16 0.09 0.05 0.02 V 1.391 0.772 0.594 0.361 0.248 0.148 0.067
Max 90th percentile 75th percentile Median 25th percentile 10th percentile Min
Non-Conductive Main Max 90th percentile 75th percentile Median 25th percentile 10th percentile Min T 1.33 0.26 0.16 0.07 0.04 0.02 0.01 V 2.531 1.273 0.962 0.641 0.425 0.295 0.036
Non Conductive Main + Transmission Line T V 1.34 2.758 0.57 1.289 0.33 1.015 0.12 0.781 0.05 0.465 0.03 0.308 0.01 0.033
5-17
Results
Odds Ratio Contour Lines

For each set of results shown in Figures 5-4 to 5-11, the odds ratios of the association between average residential magnetic field and water pipe-to-earth voltage was calculated using different threshold levels of magnetic field and water pipe-to-earth voltage. The results were then used to construct contour line graphs giving the odds ratio value versus the pair of threshold values. The results are shown in Figures 5-12 to 5-19.

Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Backyard and no Transmission Line
0.75
0.7
0.65
Threshold Water Pipe to earth Voltage (volt)
0.6
0.55
0.5
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25 0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
Threshold Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-12 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Lines, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains
5-18
Results

Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Backyard and a Transmission Line
0.85 0.8 0.75
0.7 0.65 0.6 0.55 0.5 0.45 0.4 0.35 0.3 0.25 0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
Figure 5-13 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, A Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains
5-19
Results

Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Street and no Transmission Line
1.2
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 5-14 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Street Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains
5-20
Results
Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Street and a Transmission Line

1.2
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Figure 5-15 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Street Lines, A Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains
5-21
Results
Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Backyard and no Transmission Line Non Conductive Water Pipes
1.7
Odds Ratio Contour Levels
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1 0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Figure 5-16 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Water Mains
5-22
Results
Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Backyard and a Transmission Line Non Conductive Water Pipes
1.7
Odds Ratio Contour Levels
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
1.2
1.1
1 0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
Figure 5-17 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, A Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Non-Conductive Water Mains
5-23
Results

Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Backyard and no Transmission Line High Density Housing
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 5-18 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, High Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains
5-24
Results
Model w/ Distribution Lines in the Backyard and a Transmission Line High Density Housing
1.4
1.2
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 5-19 Odds Ratio Contour Lines for the Association between Average Residential Magnetic Field and Water Pipe-to-Earth Voltage - Model with Backyard Lines, A Transmission Line, High Housing Density, and Conductive Water Mains
Effect of Parameters
In addition of the parameters varied from model to model, other parameters were investigated to determine their effect on residential magnetic fields and on water pipe-to-earth voltages. These investigations were made with just one run of the base case: backyard lines, no transmission line, low housing density, and conductive water main. The following results were obtained.
5-25
Results
House ground resistance. The ground resistances were selected at random in a 20 to 80 range (rather than in a 50 to 200 range as in the base case). Very little or no change in the average residential fields and in the water pipe-to-earth voltages were observed. Substation ground resistance. The ground resistance of the substation was set at 0.5 (rather than 2 as in the base case). Some changes in the average residential fields and in the water pipe-to-earth voltages were observed, as shown in Figure 5-20. A greater association between magnetic field and contact voltage is observed with high substation resistance.
Contact Voltage vs. Magnetic Field Backyard Lines, Effect of Changing Substation Ground Resistance - Run 1
1
0.9
0.8
Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)
0.7 Substation Ground Resistance = 2.0 ohms
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3 Substation Ground Resistance = 0.5 ohms
0.2
0.1
0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-20 Effect of Substation Resistance on the Relation between Contact Voltage and Residential Magnetic Field Model with Backyard Lines, No Transmission Line, Low Housing Density, and Conductive Water Main (The Data are Shown on Arithmetic Scales for Visual Purposes; the Regression Line, However, is Based on Log-transformed Values, and therefore Appears Curvilinear.)
Effect of Reversing Transmission Line Power Flow

Figure 5-21 shows a dramatic effect of reversing the power flow (i.e. changing the sign of the currents) of a transmission line. The comparison is based on run 1 of the base case with a transmission line. When the transmission line power flow is reversed, all magnetic field vectors due to the transmission line change direction and all the pipe-to-earth voltages due to the transmission line change sign. When these quantities are combined with those caused by the distribution system (primary and secondary), the resulting values may increase or decrease depending on the relative phase and, for magnetic field, direction in space. 5-26
Results
When studying a model type that contains a transmission lines the bias resulting from a fixed direction of the transmission line power flow is reduced by making more runs and changing the direction of the power flow from one run to the next. The effect is similar if the phases of the distribution lines are randomly changed from one run to the next. The model is, indeed, set up with this feature.
Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Backyard Lines - Run 1 - Comparison of Reversing Transmission Line Phasing
1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V) 1 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla) Run 1 With Reverse Transmission Line Currents. Run 1
Figure 5-21 Effect of Changing the Transmission Line Power Flow (The Data are Shown on Arithmetic Scales for Visual Purposes; the Regression Line, However, is Based on Log-transformed Values, and therefore Appears Curvilinear.)
Effect of Proximity to a Substation

Both the magnetic field and the water pipe-to-earth voltage are, in general, much greater for the residences in the block of houses close to the substation than in the residences further away from the substation. Table 5-7 reports the median values of the average residential magnetic fields and the median values of the water pipe-to-earth voltages separately for the residences in the South-West block of houses, which is near the substation and for the remaining residences in the other 5 blocks.
5-27
Results Table 5-7 Effect of Proximity to Substation - Median Values for Groups of Houses Near and Away from the Substation W/o Transmission Line Average Magnetic Field ( T) Backyard Lines Near Substation Away from Substation Near Substation Away from Substation High Housing Density Near Substation Away from Substation Near Substation Away from Substation
(*)
With a Transmission Line Average Magnetic Field ( T) 0.51 0.15 0.51 0.12 0.56 0.19 0.51 0.10 Water Pipeto-Earth Voltage (V) 0.48 0.31 1.1 0.58 0.83 0.34 1.42 0.73
Water Pipeto-Earth Voltage (V) 0.34 0.23 0.52 0.44 0.77 0.34 0.98 0.61
0.18 0.11 0.19 0.10 0.19 0.16 0.1 0.06
Street Lines
NonConductive Water Main
(*) Residences in the block of houses closest to the substation
Effect of Not-Grounded Distribution Lines

Certain distribution systems (for instance in some European countries) do not have the neutral of the distribution line grounded at the residences. The performance of systems of this type was verified by assuming very large impedance for the distribution line neutral and for the service drop neutral. The results for run 1 of the backyard model type with a transmission line are shown in Figure 5-22. It appears that the contact voltages are much larger than when the distribution system neutral is tied to the water pipe system, while magnetic field are a little less. The association between contact voltages and average residential magnetic field is greater.
5-28
Results
Contact Voltage vs. Magnetic Field Backyard Lines, Effect of Grounding Neutral
7 Neutrals grounded at one point only
Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)
American System (multiple-grounded neutral) 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0 Average Residential Magnetic Field (microtesla)
Figure 5-22 Effect of Grounding of Neutral at One Point Only
5-29
6
CONCLUSIONS
A positive association between average residential magnetic field and the voltage between water pipes and earth was found in all the models of residential areas that were studied. For instance, for the study area model with backyard distribution lines, low housing density, and conductive water main, the odds ratio of the association was equal to about 8 when the threshold value (cut point) for exposure to magnetic field was set at 0.3 T and the threshold value for exposure to contact currents was set at a water pipe-to-earth voltage value of 750 mV. For this model type the odds ratio increase when the threshold values are increased up to the point where there are no more residences with higher values. The presence of a transmission line affects both magnetic field and voltages. Generally there is an increase in these quantities, but for some residences either one or the other or both quantities may actually decrease because addition of phasors and vectors depend on their phase angle and orientation in space. For all the models except for those with non-conductive water main, relatively elevated odds ratios (5 to 10) were obtained with the cut points set at about 0.4 T and 800 mV. With non-conductive water main, the magnetic field is considerably lower and the contact voltage considerably larger. Elevated odds ratios for the association between magnetic field and contact voltages are obtained for cut point for magnetic field greater than 0.3 T and cut points for contact voltages greater than 1.4 V. The assumption that contact currents explain the association between high residential magnetic fields and childhood leukemia requires a high degree of association between high contact voltages and high residential magnetic fields. This was found to be consistently the case for sufficiently high contact voltage cut points and average residential magnetic fields cut points around 0.3 T 0.4 T.
6-1
7
REFERENCES
1. Kavet R, Zaffanella LE, Daigle JP, Ebi KL. 2000. The Possible Role of Contact Current in Cancer Risk Associated with Residential Magnetic Fields. Bioelectromagnetics 21:538-53. 2. Kavet R, Zaffanella LE. 2002. Contact Voltage Measured in Residences: Implications to the Association between Magnetic Fields and Childhood Leukemia. Bioelectromagnetics 23:464-474. 3. Zaffanella LE. 1993, Survey of Residential Magnetic Field Sources. Electric Power Research Institute, TR-102759, Vol 1-2, Palo Alto, CA. 4. Wertheimer N, Leeper E. 1979. Electrical Wiring Configurations and Childhood Cancer. American Journal of Epidemiology 109:273-284. 5. Savitz DA, Wachtel H, Barnes FA, John EM, Tvrdik JG. 1988. Case-Control Study of Cancer and Exposure to 60-Hz Magnetic Fields. American Journal of Epidemiology 128:21-38. 6. EPRI. 1999. Electric and Magnetic Field Management Reference Book, First Edition, Section 4.8.1 (Calculation of Magnetic Fields in the Presence of Conductive Materials Passive Network of Conductors), pages 4.36 to 4.42. 7. Dawson TW, Caputa K, Stuchly MA, Kavet R. 2001. Electric Fields in the Human Body Resulting from 60-Hz Contact Currents, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering 48:1020-1026.
7-1
A
CALCULATION OF TERMINATING IMPEDANCE OF DISTRIBUTION LINE NEUTRALS AND OF WATER MAINS
When a grounded conductor such as a distribution line neutral or a water main extends outside the study area, its end can be considered connected to earth through a terminating impedance calculated assuming that the conductor extends for a considerable length and is grounded through known impedances at regular intervals. Consider Figure A-1. R and X represent the resistance and the reactance of the interval between adjacent grounds, RG is the ground resistance. The terminating impedance R+j X is the equivalent of an infinite succession of intervals, as shown in the upper part of the figure. The terminating impedance after the first interval is still the equivalent of an infinite succession of intervals and, therefore, coincides with R+ jX. The bottom part of the figure shows the equivalence that allows the calculation of the terminating impedance. The impedance (R+jX) in series with the parallel of RG and R+jX is equal to R+jX. ( R + jX ) + RG ( R'+ jX ' ) = R'+ jX ' RG + R'+ jX ' [A-1]
Equation A-1 is equivalent to the system of two equations [A-2] R R'+ RG R'( RG + R ' ) + RG X ' 2 = 0' ( R'+ RG ) 2 + X ' 2
RG X '( RG + R' ) RG R' X ' = 0' ( R'+ RG ) 2 + X ' 2
[A-2]
X X '+
The solution of the system [A-2] provides the value of the terminating impedance. For instance, for a secondary neutral with a GMD of 8 mm and a resistance of 0.494 m/m grounded every 30 m through a ground resistance of 20: R = 0.148, X = 0.018, RG = 20, R = 0.625, and X = 0.30. For a water main with a GMD of 10 mm and a resistance of 3.5 m/m grounded every 30 m through a ground resistance of 20: R = 0.105, X = 0.0175, RG = 20, R = 1.625, and X = 0.33.
A-1
Calculation of Terminating Impedance of Distribution Line Neutrals and of Water Mains
R X RG
R'
X'
R X RG
R'
X'
R'
X'
Figure A-1 Equivalence for the Calculation of Termin
A-2
Target: Electric and Magnetic Fields Health Assessment
About EPRI EPRI creates science and technology solutions for the global energy and energy services industry. U.S. electric utilities established the Electric Power Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research consortium for the benefit of utility members, their customers, and society. Now known simply as EPRI, the company provides a wide range of innovative products and services to more than 1000 energyrelated organizations in 40 countries. EPRIs multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers draws on a worldwide network of technical and business expertise to help solve todays toughest energy and environmental problems. EPRI. Electrify the World
2002 Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI), Inc. All rights reserved. Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. Printed on recycled paper in the United States of America 1005414
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Modeling of the Different Mechanisms of Contact Voltage Generation That Involve the Residential Electrical, Plumbing, and Drain

Interim Report, November 2002

EPRI Project Manager R. Kavet

DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES

Equipm ent grounding conductor

Service Drop from Distribution Line

Electrical Panel Sewer Pipe

1.8 V 4.3V 150

EHV Line 345 kV 1000 A

Layout of the Study Area

Description of the Model

Description of the Model

Setback = 1.5 + 6 2.5

Description of the Model

Description of the Model

Side = 5.5 + 610 e -0.02 L K f

Description of the Model

Description of the Model

Distribution Lines and Transformers

Figure 2-4 Three Phase Distribution Line Configuration

Description of the Model

Service Drop Parameters

Description of the Model

Transmission Line Parameters

Water Main Parameters

Water Line Characteristics

Description of Software for Calculation of Induced Currents

Service drop neutral Residence #1

Service drop neutral

Figure 3-1 Current Induced in a Conductive Loop by a Power Line

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

T h re e -P h a s e D is trib u tio n L in e Ia= 0 Ib= I1 Ic= I2+ I3

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

Method for Calculation of Residential Magnetic Field and Neutral Voltages

Residence Total Current

Ground Path Type

Water Main Termination

Net load current

Magnetic field, North-East room, first floor.

Average magnetic field due to secondary currents

700 3 Phase 600 Single Phase

Contact Voltage vs Magnetic Field Base Case - Run 1

Results for Different Model Types - Scatter Plots

2 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)

2 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)

1.5 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)

1.5 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)

2 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)

2 Water Pipe to Earth Voltage (V)

Results for Different Model Types Complete Tables

1.7 17.3 17.0

0.6 5.0 5.1

0.4 3.1 3.2

0.1 2.0 2.1

0.0 1.2 1.2

0.0 0.6 0.7

0.0 0.1 0.1

75% 145 0.6 12.4 4.8 0.19 0.04

Median 101 0.4 10.1 1.7 0.10 0.03

25% 70 0.3 7.4 -4.6 0.05 0.02