PPT01

Matter Really Matters !
Shouvik Datta
# 203
Email: shouvik@iiserpune.ac.in Physics # 102, IISER-Pune, Spring 2014
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What is a Matter? &

What really matters?
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Why this elephant even matters..???
An Elephant & Seven Blind Men !
WellHere we see only Five of them !
Study of Science is a analogous to The Story of an Elephant & few Blind Men !
Biologist ! Mathematician !
Physicist !
Nature
Engineer!
Chemist !
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Study of Physics is a analogous to The Story of an Elephant & few Blind Men !
Theoretical Physicist Applied Physicist
Nature
Experimentalist Phenomenologist
Computational Physicist
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Message: Understanding the Science of Matter is very much interdisciplinary
Various Physical States of Matter
Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma
Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

Dilute Gas of Bosons goes tends to condensate to their Quantum ground state beyond certain critical temperature
Many Like to Call it a fifth state of Matter- a Purely Quantum Phenomena

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/2001/ Images taken from http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/intro/whatbec/whtisbec.html http://cua.mit.edu/ketterle_group/Popular_papers/Ultralow_temperatures.htm
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Coming back to the question : -
What is a Matter?
What is Matter ?
physical substance in general, as distinct from mind and spirit; (in physics) that which occupies space and possesses rest mass, especially as distinct from energy http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/matter
a : the substance of which a physical object is composed

b : material substance that occupies space, has mass, and is composed predominantly of atoms consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons, that
constitutes the observable universe, and that is interconvertible with energy

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/matter
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What is a Matter?
Matter is a Substance or Particle with Mass

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Matter is a Substance with Mass
Matter Consists of: Electrons, Protons, Quarks What about Photon?

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Photon mediates Electromagnetic Interaction and is Massless.
Is Photon and/or Electromagnetic Force or Light can be categorized as matter?

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Photon mediates Electromagnetic Interaction and is Massless.
Photon or Light can NOT be categorized as Solid, Liquid, Gas etc !!

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However, W & Z Boson mediates Weak Nuclear Interaction and they are Massive (~100 times that of Proton) Gluons are massless but contribute to the mass of composite particles through Strong Nuclear Interations
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Matter is a Very Loosely Defined Object in Physics !!
a famous quote once said about mind over matter,
"if you don't mind, it doesn't matter"

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What we see, feel and experience are Overwhelmingly Electromagnetic The nature in which the constituent particles/atoms/molecules of most of the Matter (Solid, Liquid, Gas and Plasma) are held together and their Material properties (Elasticity, Friction, Viscosity, Surface Tension etc ) that we will talk about in this class have can be traced to
Electromagnetic Forces only Along with Thermodynamics
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Abundance of Matter
Which is the Most Abundant form of Matter on the Surface of the Earth?
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Abundance of Matter
Which is the Most Abundant form of Matter on the Surface of the Earth?
~70% is Water
Most of it are as Liquid Water and some are as Ice and Water Vapors
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Liquid Outer core of Earth
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What is This ?
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This is Jupitar The largest Planet in Our Solar System
Jupitars Mass is one-thousandth (1/1000) of that of the Sun but is around two and a half times the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System combined
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Jupitar is a Gas Giant

Jupitar is ~3/4 Hydrogen Gas and ~1/4 Helium Gas. Jupitars has no well defined Solid Surface but may have a core of Heavy Elements.
Jupitars Mass is one-thousandth (1/1000) of that of the Sun but is around two and a half times the mass of all the other planets in the Solar System combined
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FYI Trivial info form Biology
Much more than >> the weight of human body consists of Water only !
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Abundance of Matter
Which is the Most Abundant form of Observable Matter in the Universe?
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Abundance of Matter
Which is the Most Abundant form of Observable Matter in the Universe?
Plasma forms ~99.9% of Observable Matter

Stars, Quasars, Intergalactic medium, Solar Winds etc
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Examples of Various Physical States of Matter
Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma
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What are these?
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Examples of Solids?
Metal Rods Diamond
Statue of Buddha
Stones
Ice-Cubes
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What are these?
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Examples of Liquids
Orange Juice Glass of Water
Mercury
Pouring Liquid Nitrogen
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What are these?
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Examples of Gases
Steam from a Teapot Gas coming from a Chimney
Steam Engine
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What are these.?
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Examples of Plasmas Ionized Gas

Aurora Table Lamp
Sun
CFL
Plasma Coater Neon Signs
Lightning Discharge
Electron-Hole Plasma inside the Solid Material of a Semiconductor 35 Laser Diode
Let us focus on Gases, Liquids and Solids

Particles in a:
Gas are well separated with no regular arrangement. Liquid are close together with no regular arrangement. Solid are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern.
Taken From http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/character.html
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Let us focus on Gases, Liquids and Solids

Particles in a:
Gas are well separated with no regular arrangement. Liquid are close together with no regular arrangement. Solid are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern.
Particles in a: Gas - vibrate and move freely at high speeds. Liquid - vibrate, move about, and slide past each other. Solid - vibrate (jiggle) but generally do not move from place to place. Liquids and Solids are often referred to as condensed phases because the particles are very close together.
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Gases, Liquids and Solids

Characteristics of Gases, Liquids and Solids and the Usual Explanations for the Behavior
Gas
assumes the shape and volume of its container particles can move past one another
Liquid
Solid
assumes the shape of the retains a fixed volume and part of the container which shape it occupies rigid - particles locked into particles can move/slide place past one another not easily compressible little free space between particles flows easily particles can move/slide past one another not easily compressible little free space between particles does not flow easily rigid - particles cannot move/slide past one another
compressible lots of free space between particles flows easily particles can move past one another
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Is that all we know about Matter and the three major States of Matter?
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Is that all we know about Matter and the three major States of Matter?
Many Objects do come under these three categories but there many which DO NOT
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Is Sand a Liquid?
Sand inside these Glass bowls/bottles seem to take the shape of the container like liquids usually do !!
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Waves seen on the surface of water bodies say in ponds or lakes or rivers ?
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Waves seen on Surface of Sand
Is Sand a Liquid ??
What is main Difference ??
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What is the Role of Times Scale here ? Waves on Water oscillate within seconds. Waves on Sand takes a much longer time to form and
oscillate.
Is Sand a Liquid ??
Time Scales do Play a Role44
Is Sand a Solid?
Sand Pile Once poured/flowed like a Liquid, then they keep their shape like a Solid
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If Sand is Liquid Hello Archimedes ?

Rocks on a Sand Pile
Density of Rocks are much Higher than that of Sand So how these Heavy Stones are being supported by the loose sands ???
Granular Media like Sand pile are partly Solid and partly Liquid !!
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Coming back to the core issue - Is sand a Liquid or Solid ?
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Individual Sand Particle is a Solid but Collectively they do demonstrate some Liquid like properties !!!
Sand Particles are made up of Silica or SiO2 Crystal which are Solid
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Individual Salt Particle is a Solid but Collectively they do demonstrate some Liquid like properties !!!
Salt Crystals are Solid
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Question : Is Sand a Solid or Liquid ?
What is the Critical Height of Sand Pile? What determines this conical shape of a Sand Pile? Answer to these questions are all probabilistic and/or statistical in Nature.
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Is Sand a Solid or Liquid ?
**Many Body Physics of Granular Media
A very Important branch of Modern Statistical Physics
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Applications of the Physics of Granular Media
Prediction of Land Slides. Prediction of Avalanche. Engineering of Petroleum and Natural Gas Extraction from Soil 52
Was that Statue of Buddha a real Solid ?
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This Statue of Buddha was made from Sand only
Moreover, Properties of Wet sand are even more difficult to understand !!54
Sand Artist: Sudarshan Patnaik
Huge Structure do keep its shapes for days !! Physics of Wet Sand are even more difficult to understand than dry sand !!
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Examples: Solid Made out of Granular Materials
Physics Today, 70, Sept 2012
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Examples: Is Toothpaste a Liquid of Solid ?
They do Flow Out of the Tube like a liquid
Then they keep their shape like a Solid

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Does Time also plays a role in defining what is it?

** Once outside the tube, shapes stays intact for some time !!!
Examples of Visco-elastic Materials
They do Flow Out of the Tube like a liquid
It takes time for them to deform the shape
Those High School Definitions did not talk about Time Scales 58 in the definition of a solid or a liquid !!!
Earths Mantle is like a Plastic It is partly Solid and partly Liquid
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Different States of Matter e.g. Steam liquid Water Ice can be found @ Different Temperatures
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Change of Temperature affects change of State
Let us keep two chairs, one wooden and one made with Aluminum(metal) buried inside the Ice at identical locations in South Pole for 6 months.
After 6 months, you are asked to go their and sit on these chairs.
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A Question on Temperature
Let us keep two chairs, one wooden and one made with Aluminum(metal) buried inside the Ice at identical location in South Pole for 6 months. After 6 months, you are asked to go their and sit on these chairs and then feel the temperature of both. Which Chair will be colder
(a) Wooden Chair ? Or (b) The Metal Chair ?

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Let us Rephrase the Last Question

Let us keep two chairs, one wooden and one made with Aluminum(metal) buried inside the Ice at identical location in South Pole for 6 months. After 6 months, you are asked to go their and measure the temperature of both chairs with a small but accurate thermometer. Which Chair will be colder (a) Wooden Chair ? Or (b) The Metal Chair ?
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Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Kept at identical conditions under thermal equilibrium, both Chairs have to be at the Same Temperature. Although, as per human sense/perception of hotness or coldness, the metal chair may appear to be colder if touched with hand.
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What is the Precise Role of a Small & Accurate Thermometer ?

Being small, the thermometer wont take up or give up much heat from chairs while measuring the temperature and will accurately measure the Temperature of both.
This concept is very important in Thermometry or the Science of Measuring Temperature it is called Thermal Mass We will discuss it later.
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Temperature vs Human Perceptions of Coldness or Hotness.
This conceptual problem about the very definition of Temperature was taken from 66 An Introduction to Thermal Physics, by Daniel V Schroeder
Next Class on 6th March, 2014
RECAPITULATE
What did we learned Yesterday?
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What we see, feel and experience are Overwhelmingly Electromagnetic The nature in which the constituent particles/atoms/molecules of most of the Matter (Solid, Liquid, Gas and Plasma) are held together and their Material properties (Elasticity, Friction, Viscosity, Surface Tension etc ) that we will talk about in this class have can be traced to
Electromagnetic Forces only Along with Thermodynamics
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Concepts of Temperature and Hotness

(a)
(b)
(c) In which case, he will feel more hotness from the fire?
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It is hot near the fire
(a)
(b)
(c) In which case, he will feel more hotness from the fire?
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What is the source of hotness in Earth during the day?
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Obviously the SUN
Image from: http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/index.cfm?CFID=9153286

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Why it is colder on top of Mount Everest ?
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Why it is colder on top of Mount Everest ?
During any day, tip of Mount Everest is Certainly Closer to Sun than that Tent on the plane
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Do you get a clue here? - Think
From: http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/climate/greenhouse_effect_gases.html
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Gas, Liquid, Solid, Plasma etc
Partly this and Partly that
Gases: Gas Laws, Kinetic/Molecular Theory of Gas, Thermodynamics. Liquids: Bulk flow in large scale is understood by Fluid Dynamics but not in small length scales (say around few Nanometer ~10-9 m).
[Read: http://www.iiserpune.ac.in/researchhighlight/12,http://www.iiserpune.ac.in/researchhighlight/19 ]
** There is NO COMPLETE THEORY of Liquid State Physics in General
Solids: Solid State Physics, Condensed Matter Physics. However, many body interactions are mostly treated as Time independent.
Plasma: Plasma Physics Exhibit collective dynamics like Plasma Oscillations. For Lights or electro-magnetic waves propagating inside a plasma ck. Break down of Ideal Gas Law in Dense & Highly ionized Plasmas due to the presence of electromagnetic attraction between ions. Hydrodynamic Models.
Granular Medium, Viscoelastic Materials, bio/organic materials and in general the Physics of Soft Matter : Physics of Granular Medium and Physics of Viscoelastic Materials is an emerging branch of Statistical Physics. Some people also like to call it a fifth state of matter. 76
Let us now learn about different forms of Matter in somewhat more detail,
So that we can begin to understand their Physical Properties

Whether it is be understood in terms of Viscosity or Friction, Whether it can be dealt with Surface Tension or Surface Roughness 77 etc! etc! etc !
Crystalline Solid
Common Salt - NaCl c-Silicon
Regular & Periodic Array of Atomic Units Lattice + Base Atomic Units
Lattice
Crystal
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From Solid State Physics by Charles Kittel

Image Source : www. webelements.com
Crystalline Solid
Common Salt - NaCl c-Silicon
Regular & Periodic Arrangement of Atomic Units can explain Most of the Physical Properties of an Ideal Crystalline Solid
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Can we use X-Ray probe a Crystalline Solid ?

Wavelength of Cu k-alpha X-Ray Electro-Magnetic radiation ( = 1.5405 ) Distance between Atoms in Lattice sites ~ few
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1901/
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Diffraction is a Purely Wave Phenomena
An array of Bright and Dark Spots forms on The Screen
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Diffraction of Light is a Purely Wave Phenomena
When the Slit width are similar to the wavelength of an incident wave, Wave property like Diffraction becomes Evident 82
Laue Diffraction Pattern from Single Crystals

Cu k-alpha X-Ray radiation ( = 1.5405 ) Lattice Spacing d ~ few
NaCl
Silicon
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Braggs Law
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X-Ray Diffraction & Braggs Law

Diagrams from - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/bragg.html
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X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Spectra of a Bulk Crystal

**EXTRA INFORMATION: Quantum Effects in Nano-particles broadens the XRD Spectra through size effects. Size of these Nanocrystals can be determined using Debye-Scherer Method, Williamson-Hall Methods, Rietveld Refinement etc.
Diagrams from - http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantum/bragg.html
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In Practice, there are Structural Defects in a Crystalline Solid
Departure from Ideal Crystalline Lattice
Vacancy
Interstitial
Substitutional
Edge Dislocations
Screw Dislocations
Presence of Defects modify the ideal physical properties !

Grain Boundaries
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Is Glass a Crystalline Solid ?
Solid Glass Melting

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Is Glass a Liquid ?
In medieval European cathedrals, the glass sometimes looks odd.
Some panes are thicker at the bottom than they are at the top. The seemingly solid glass appears to have melted.
This is evidence, say tour guides, Internet rumors and even high school chemistry teachers, that glass is actually a liquid. And, because glass is hard, it must be a supercooled liquid. From: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-fiction-glass-liquid/ http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html 89 http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/windowpane.html
Is Glass a Liquid ?
Glass, however, is actually neither a liquidsupercooled or otherwisenor a Crystalline solid. It is an amorphous solida state somewhere between those two states of matter. And yet glass's liquidlike properties are not enough to explain the thickerbottomed windows, because glass atoms move too slowly for changes to be visible.
From: http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-fiction-glass-liquid/ http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html 90 http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/windowpane.html
Is Glass a Liquid ?
Why old European glass is thicker at one end probably depends on how the glass was made. At that time, glassblowers created glass cylinders that were then flattened to
make panes of glass. The resulting pieces may never have been uniformly flat and workers installing the windows preferred, for one reason or another, to put the thicker sides of the pane at the bottom. This gives them a melted look, but does not mean glass is a true liquid.
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/fact-fiction-glass-liquid/ http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/florin.html 91 http://dwb.unl.edu/Teacher/NSF/C01/C01Links/www.ualberta.ca/~bderksen/windowpane.html
Glass is an Amorphous Solid
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Abundance of Natural Glass

Although most people think of glass as a man-made material, it is found in many forms in the natural world. Volcanoes spew molten rock, lightning strikes desert and beach sands, meteorites pound the earth, and sea sponges and microscopic organisms inhabit the waters.
Scientists tell us that glass is a state of matter rather than a single material. Glass is created when a molten material cools so rapidly that there is not enough time for a crystalline structure to form. To the scientist, crystals are materials that have their atoms arranged in perfectly ordered, lattice-like structures. In liquids, atoms and molecules are free to move about in a random waywhich is why liquids can flow. In a glass, the atoms are held rigidly in place so it cannot flow. But they have not had time to arrange themselves in a perfectly ordered lattice. Neither a solid nor a liquid, glass is often called a rigid liquid. Taken From http://www.cmog.org/collection/galleries/glass-in-nature 93 Corning Corporation is most Well known R&D center for Glass Research and Technology
What is an Amorphous Solid ?

amorphous [Pronunciate as uh-mawr-fuhs] Adjective 1.lacking definite form; having no specific shape; formless: the amorphous clouds. 2.of no particular kind or character; indeterminate; having no pattern or structure; unorganized: anamorphous style; an amorp hous personality.
From
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/amorphous
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Another Example of an Amorphous Solid
Hydrogenated Amorphous Silicon
Si Atom
H Atom
Dangling Bond
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Next Class on 12th March, 2014
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We have Discussed How X-Ray Diffraction Helps to unearth the spatially periodic arrangement of Atoms in Crystalline Solids
NaCl
Silicon
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Regular Periodic Pattern in Space Regular Pattern of Diffraction Spots in Momentum Space/Reciprocal Space
Image of XRD Spots are Image in Momentum Space
Regular Arrangement of Bright XRD Spots are testimony to Regular Arrangements in Space.
NaCl
Silicon
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You learned about Single Slit and Double Slit Diffraction Patterns of Light
X-Ray Diffraction is very Similar: Crystalline Lattice of Crystalline Solids behaves like Multiple Slits for incoming wave of X-Ray along with the effects of selective scattering of X-Ray by individual atoms/molecules
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Momentum here Refers to the wave vector (k) of X-Ray Beam
The Periodic Arrangement of Atoms/Molecules Diffract the incident wave X-Ray beam
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In practice, solids are mainly polycrystalline
Polycrystalline Solids are made of single crystalline Grains
Single Crystalline Grains
Grain Boundary
Typical size of Single Crystalline Grains vary from tens of nm to microns to even mm Larger the Grain Size Better is the Crystallinity
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Arrangement of Atomic/molecular Units are..
Periodic
Partly Periodic
Mostly Random
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Laue XRD Spots in Polycrystalline Solids are Smeared Out
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Name few more discoveries where X-Ray Crystallography Played huge Roles ?
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Application of X-Ray Crystallography in Biology

DNA
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1962/
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Application of X-Ray Crystallography in Biology
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2009/
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Old Understanding of Crystal Lattice before 1984
Periodic Lattice as Space Filling Building Blocks of Crystalline Solids or Single Crystals
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Old Understanding of Crystal Lattice before 1984
Crystal Lattice with 5 or 7 fold or higher symmetry are not possible as they are not space filling, pattern does not repeat itself 108 and there is no periodicity
Earlier Understanding of a Crystalline Solid
From Solid State Physics by C Kittel
109
Before 1984
Before 1984, every believed that crystalline arrangement of atoms must have a pattern that repeats perfectly and periodically in all directions.
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Sharp Diffraction Spots Indicates Crystal like Objects
Sample Quasi Crystal Structure
http:// www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2011/
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Crystals of Golden Proportions

Crystals with 10 fold Symmetry was discovered by Dan Shechtman in 1984 using Electron Diffraction and not by X-Ray diffraction.
First Paper: Physical Review Letters. 53, pg 1951 Published 12 November 1984 by D. Shechtman, I. Blech, D. Gratias, and J. W. Cahn Overlapping Pentagons
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/chemistry/laureates/2011/popular-chemistryprize2011.pdf
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Using the Wave-Particle Dualiy of Quantum Mechanics, Electron here behaves like waves and undergo Electron Diffraction
First Paper: Physical Review Letters. 53, pg 1951 Published 12 November 1984 by D. Shechtman, I. Blech, D. Gratias, and J. W. Cahn Overlapping Pentagons
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Geometry of Quasi Crystals
Mathematics of Golden Ratio, Fibonacci Sequence,
Penroses Tiling,
& Mathematical constant =2 Overlapping Pentagons How Classically forbidden symmetries can also fill the space in a quasi-periodic manner.
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Crystallography of Quasi Crystals
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Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011
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From the Lab Note Book of Shechtman
As Student of Science: Please embrace the Unknown, Explore the Unusual Results more carefully, Investigate the Anomalies !!
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Message: Do not get drowned in Criticisms - Dan Shechtman was asked to leave the Laboratory by
his Supervisor. - He was severely criticized by Most Experts in Crystallography
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Definition of Crystal was Changed after 1984 !
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Can Liquid Molecules also stay in Crystal like regular and ordered arrangements in space ?
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How Many of you Heard About Liquid Crystals ?
121
Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

Flat Screen Display : Development of Liquid Crystal
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Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
In a normal liquid the properties are isotropic, i.e. the same in all directions. In a liquid crystal they are not; they strongly depend on direction even if the substance itself is fluid. 123
Importance of Interdisciplinary Knowledge
Major progress in science is often made by transferring knowledge from one discipline to another. Only few people have sufficiently deep insight and sufficient overview to carry out this process. De Gennes is definitely one of them.
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1991 Presentation Speech:
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/
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History of Liquid Crystal

Liquid Crystals were first discovered in
1888 by the Austrian chemist Friedrich Reinitzer and German physicist Otto Lehmann. Reintzer was working on a cholesterol based substance.
This substance seemed to have two melting points! At 145.5C the solid crystal melted into a cloudy liquid which existed until 178.5C where the cloudiness suddenly disappeared, giving way to a clear transparent liquid.
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Behind each display..
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There are pixels..
Higher the number of pixels, higher is the resolution
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There are colored filters in each pixel..
128
There are colored filters in each pixel..
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Working Principle of Liquid Crystal Display Orientation of Polar molecules of a Liquid Crystal change with applied voltage which thereby change the polarization of the light passing through it.
130
Voltage
Voltage OFF
Voltage ON
Operation of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Voltage OFF
Voltage ON
This voltage is applied by tiny Thin Film Transistors (TFT) sitting in each pixels !
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Few Things about Plasmas
132
Sun is mostly Ionized Hydrogen Gas Ground State Energy of Hydrogen Atom is -13.6 eV
Most of the Hydrogen in the Sun are in Plasma State or Ionized
As H2
2H+ + 2e-
kBT = Energy in eV
kB = 8.6173324(78)105 eVK1 T = 160, 000K
Is Sun that Hot ?
133
Sun is Not that Hot !! Ground State Energy of Hydrogen Atom is -13.6 eV
Most of the Hydrogen in the Sun are in Plasma State or Ionized
As H2
2H+ + 2e-
kBT = Energy in eV
kB = 8.6173324( 78)105 eVK1 T = 160, 000K However, the surface temperature of the Sun is ~ 6000 K only
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Plasma Physics Saha Ionization Equation

Meghnad Saha, 1920 Philosophical Magazine, 6 40 (238), pg 472-488 doi:10.1080/14786441008636148
PV PV
nk BT n(T ) k BT
Suns Temperature
Center of Sun Core (modeled): 1.57107 K Suns Photosphere (effective): 5778 K Suns Corona: 5106 K
135
From http://www.cambridge.org/resources/0521846560/7706_Saha%20equation.pdf
Plasma Physics Saha Ionization Equation
136
Plasma vs Ideal Gas Law

"At low densities, at a low-temperature, partly ionized plasma can be regarded as a mixture of ideal gases of electrons, atoms and ions.
From: V. E. Fortov, Igor T. Lakubov, The physics of non-ideal plasma, World Scientific, 2000
137

With an increase in Density and Temperature, mean distances between the particles decrease and the particles start spending even more time interacting with each other, that is, in the fields of surrounding particles.
138

With an increase in Density and Temperature, mean distances between the particles decrease and the particles start spending even more time interacting with each other, that is, in the fields of surrounding particles.
Under these conditions, the mean energy of interparticle interaction increases. When this energy becomes comparable with the mean kinetic energy of thermal motion, the plasma becomes non-ideal.
139
A plasma has interesting properties because the electrostatic force is a long range force and every charged particle interacts with many of its neighbours. We can get collective behaviour
From: http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/~brand/FB_Plasma_Notes.pdf
Even though the interaction between any pair of particles is typically weak, the collective interactions between many particles is strong. Two examples: Debye Shielding & Plasma Oscillations.
From: http://w3.pppl.gov/~hammett/courses/plasma-astro-10/Plasma_Intro_all_v16.pdf
140
A Gas is usually ionized into a Plasma in the following two ways,
either by huge discharge due to very high voltage difference , or by exposing the gas to very high temperatures.
Is Gas Plasma transition can be called a Phase Transition ?

First 15 pages from -- http://farside.ph.utexas.edu/teaching/plasma/380.pdf
141
Heating of a solid or liquid substance leads to phase transition to a liquid or gaseous state, respectively. This takes place at a constant temperature for a given pressure, and requires an amount of energy known as latent heat.
On the other hand, the transition from a gas to an ionized gas, i.e., plasma, is not a phase transition, since it occurs gradually with increasing temperature.
During the process, a molecular gas dissociates first into an atomic gas which, with increasing temperature, is ionized. The resulting plasma consists of a mixture of neutral particles, positive ions (atoms or molecules that have lost one or more electrons), and negative electrons. Complete' plasma state can be reached only asymptotically as T . For all practical purposes, a gas with a high degree of ionization is considered fully ionized or Plasma. From http://web.mit.edu/16.unified/www/FALL/thermodynamics/notes/node69.html
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Next Class at 13th March, 2014
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How do we understand matter from Microscopic Point of View?
144
How do we understand matter from Microscopic Point of View?
How do we differentiate various types of Matter?
Physics Speaks in the Language of Mathematics
How do you quantify that understanding?

145
Importance of Pair Correlation Function g(r)
g(r) measures the probability of finding one

atom at a distance r from another atom
Physics Speaks in the Language of Mathematics
How to Calculate this g(r)?

146
What is the probability of finding a Na or a Cl atom at a distance r from another Na atom in a Single Crystal of NaCl ? c-Silicon Common Salt - NaCl
Lattice Constant or the distance between atoms ~ few
A few mm (10-3 m) wide Single crystal can have more than millions of atoms organized in a regular and periodic fashion
147
Pair Correlation Function g(r)

- g(r) measures the probability of finding one atom at a distance r from another atom
c-Si
Mostly ordered up to long distances (~ m).
Amorphous Solid ( e.g a-Si,H)
g(r)
Same Short Range Order up to few atomic distances but lack of long range order.
Dilute Gas
Relative positions of dilute gas molecules are perfectly random.
From W. Schulke, Philos. Mag. B43, 451 (1981).
2 r / rAvg
Behaviors of Liquids are somewhat in between amorphous solid and gas 148 except near surfaces.
Radial Distribution Function of Liquid Argon No Long Range order but some Short Range Order
From Principles of Condensed Matter Physics by Chaikin and Lubensky
149
g(r) quantifies the distinction between different phases of matter

- g(r) measures the probability of finding one atom at a distance r from another atom
c-Si
Amorphous Solid ( e.g a-Si,H)
g(r)
All Macroscopic Thermodynamic Quantities of Matter can be expressed as functions of Pair Correlation Function g(r)
Dilute Gas
Explain Phase Transitions in terms of g(r)
From W. Schulke, Philos. Mag. B43, 451 (1981).
2 r / rAvg
5
150
Toy Example: Pair Correlation Function g(r)

Given the following arrangements of Colored Marbles - What is the probability of finding a sky blue ball at a distance r ? Take the Black ball as the center of the Sphere
Marbles as Hard Sphere: closest distance between two centers are the diameter of these marbles.
Protocol can be found at: http://www.physics.emory.edu/faculty/weeks/idl/gofr.html 151
Change of one State to another
http://scienceprojectideasforkids.com/2009/states-of-matterenthalpy/
152
Increasing Energy..What kind of Energy ?
153
Is increasing Enthalpy the reason for any Change of State?
What is the precise role of Enthalpy? How does it affect?
154
What is the Boiling point of Water ?
155
What is the Boiling point of PURE Water ?
You said 100 C
156
Is it really 100 C ?
157
Under What Conditions?

158
What is the Boiling point of Water ?
WHY ?
159
Huge Iceberg Floating in Water

Adapted from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/waterdens.html
160
What causes Expansion of Ice when Liquid Water Freezes ?
161
Ice less Denser as compared to Liquid Water
empty
Adapted from http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/waterdens.html
162
- What is the Maximum Density of Water? - Is it at Zero degree centigrade just before ice forms?
163
Pure Water attains its maximum density at 4o C
From http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2007/AllenMa.shtml
164
Pure Water attains its maximum density at 4o C

1) Partial Charges on Water Molecule makes it Polar
2) *At 4o C water molecules start forming a maximum of four hydrogen bonds with neighboring molecules because it can accept two and donate two hydrogen atoms. 3) Density decrease below 4o C as more molecules are forming hydrogen bond and these are pushed apart from one another From http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2007/AllenMa.shtml
165
Railway Lines
Most cases these are straight and parallel.
Near Stations these can be slightly twisted to allow change of lines but the Train must move slowly here
166
You certainly do not expect these to bend like the following cases
Severely Buckled due to some reasons here mostly by earthquake

167
To Allow Thermal Expansion of Railway Lines
Expansion Space to prevent Buckling or bending of Railway Lines
168
What causes Thermal Expansion of Solids ?
169
What causes Thermal Expansion Solids ?
170
What causes Thermal Expansion Solids ?
Lattice Atoms do vibrate around its mean position
Higher Temperature Higher Internal Energy Vibrational Amplitude
Larger
How Does that cause the crystal to expand at Higher Temperatures ?

171
Mean Position of the Atom does not change in SHM No expansion or contraction
Harmonic Potential U(r) ~ r2
Average effect of 1023 atoms should cancel out over time No Change in Mean distance between two atoms No Change in Size is possible from SHM of Lattice Atoms
172
Nature of inter-atomic Potential NOT a HARMONIC POTENTIAL
Repulsion of electron clouds due to Pauli Exclusion principle at short ranges

Van-der Walls etc Attraction at long ranges
173
Nature of inter-atomic Potential ANHARMONIC POTENTIAL
Mean distance between two atoms changes Increase/decrease in Size is possible from Anharmonic Vibration of Lattice Atoms
174
Change of State
Phase Transition ?
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Phases_of_ 175 Matter/Phase_Transitions/Phase_Diagrams
Change of State
Phase Transition ?
Triple point the point on a phase diagram at which the three states of matter: gas, liquid, and solid coexist
Critical point the point on a phase diagram at which the substance is indistinguishable between liquid and gaseous states
Fusion(melting) (or freezing) curve the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between liquid and solid states Vaporization (or condensation) curve the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous and liquid states Sublimation (or deposition) curve the curve on a phase diagram which represents the transition between gaseous and solid states http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Phases_of_ 176 Matter/Phase_Transitions/Phase_Diagrams
Temperature & Enthalpy play a huge role in Change of State
What is Temperature ?
What is Enthalpy ?
177
Temperature from Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
178
Simple Definition of Temperature
From Zemansky and Dittman, Heat & Thermodynamics
179
Temperature from Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
180
Definition of Temperature
Is there any major assumption ?
181
Assumptions.
We are assuming that even when the water in the beaker is in thermal equilibrium with the thermometer, the temperature of the water did not change much.
182
Assumptions.
Thermal mass of the temperature sensor (thermometer) must be very small compared to the thermal mass of the system whose temperature is being measured !
183
What is Thermal mass ?
184
Thermal Mass
Thermal mass is the capacity of a body to store energy. It is typically measured in units of J/C or J/K.
Thermal mass is simply the amount of material present times the specific heat capacity of that material
185
Various Definitions of Temperature
Temperature is a measure of the tendency of an object to spontaneously give up energy to its surroundings. When two objects are in thermal contact, the one that tends to spontaneously lose energy is at the higher temperature. From Thermal Physics by D V Schroeder.
186
Temperature is what you measure with a thermometer From D V Schroeder. This is the operational definition of temperature. What exactly do we measure with a thermometer?
187

We usually assume that the empirical temperature as measured by a thermometer is proportional to a directly measurable physical parameter X (say volume of the mercury). The temperature measured by the thermometer is then given by the thermometric function (X) = a.X where a is any arbitrary constant
188
Thermodynamic Scale of Temperature from 2nd Law of Thermodynamics!

A temperature scale that is independent of the nature of the working substance, which is called an absolute or thermodynamic temperature scale, would be most desirable. It was proven that the efficiency of a Carnot cycle is independent of the working substance and depends only on temperature. The Carnot engine provides the basis for the thermodynamic or absolute temperature scale.
From Zemansky 189
What is the Statistical Understanding of Temperature ?
190
What is the Statistical Scale of Temperature ?
Let us consider an Example First
191
What happens to Temperature (T0) of the Gas during Free Expansion of an Ideal gas inside a Thermally insulated chamber
From Schroeder
192
What happens to Entropy during Free Expansion of an Ideal gas inside a Thermally insulated chamber
0 S ?
From Schroeder
193
No Change in Temperature as U is zero
Does that mean there is No Change in Entropy as S = Q/T0 ?
From Schroeder
194
Free Expansion of Ideal Gas
Entropy Actually Increases in the Above Process !! From Schroeder HOW ??????
195
Statistical Definition of Entropy

Entropy increases with the increase in multiplicity/number ( ) of possible microscopic configurations in which a macroscopic state can exist.
k B ln[ ]
From Schroeder
196
How does it connect to Statistical Definition of Temperature ?
197
Examples of Irreversible Processes & 2nd Law of Thermodynamics

- Why Does Heat Flow Spontaneously from a hotter Object to Cooler Object and never the opposite way ?
- Why do so many thermodynamic processes happen in one direction but never the reverse ?
From Schroeder
198
Towards 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Heat Flow Spontaneously from a hotter Object to Cooler Object and never the opposite way.
Heat Flow Redistribution of Energy Result is more uniform distribution of energy (Overwhelmingly Probable)
From Schroeder
199
Statistical interpretation of an Equilibrium State In Statistical Mechanics, we ask - which is the state with more uniform distribution of energy? Which is the most probable state?
Equilibrium State is a Macroscopic state or the most probable state with maximum number of possible Microscopic States. From Schroeder
200
Statistical interpretation of Equilibrium State is a Macroscopic state or the most probable state with maximum number of possible Microscopic States.
It is Highly Unlikely that some time after the opening the partition, all gas molecules will confine themselves within the left side of the partition.
201
What Happens when the Heat Energy Flow Stops at Equilibrium ?
The Spontaneous Flow of Energy Stops when the system is at or very near to its most likely macrostate.
That macrostate with maximum multiplicity of available microstate State of Thermal Equilibrium
From Schroeder
202
What is the Condition for Two Systems 1 & 2 to be in Thermal Equilibrium with each other?
Assume E = E1 + E2 , V= V1 + V2 , N= N1 + N2 **Total Energy E and Volume V, V1 & V2 and Particle numbers N, N1 & N2 are kept constant.
**Only the internal energies E1 & E2 are changing under Heat Exchange
E1, V1 & N1
E2, V2 & N2
Fixed Partition allows exchange of Heat between part 1 & part 2 but not from outside; Temperature Change as a result of Heat Flow
At Thermal Equilibrium
(E1, E2) will be maximized

203
From Statistical Mechanics by Raj K. Pathria
Heat Exchange results in change of E1 & E2
204
For Thermal Equilibrium is surely related with Temperature
1 k BT
ln
( N ,V , E ) E
1 S S k B ln ( N , V , E ) T E E Internal Energy U
Definition of Temperature from Statistical Mechanics and 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
205
For Thermal Equilibrium is surely related with Temperature
1 k BT
ln
( N ,V , E ) E
1 S S k B ln ( N , V , E ) T E E Internal Energy U
This is a Judicious Choice based on which Statistical Mechanics can describe all Macroscopic Thermodynamics like Gas Laws etc.
206
Statistical Definition of Temperature
1 k BT
T
& S
1 S E
k B ln[ ]
N ,V
207
Concept of Negative Temperature
FYI: Statistical Definition of Temperature Allow for an Interesting Concept of Negative Temperature in certain closed systems having fixed energy boundary. For more details, Please read Thermal Physics by D V Schroeder.
208
Definition of Enthalpy
209
ENTHALPY = H
PV
H is enthalpy, U is the internal energy & PV is the work which is equal to the product of the pressure of the surrounding with the volume of the system. 210 From Thermal Physics by D V Schroder
ENTHALPY : WHY DO WE NEED ANOTHER FORM OF ENERGY?
PV
CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESSES ARE QUITE FREQUENT IN NATURE.
IT IS USEFUL TO TALK ABOUT THE TOTAL ENERGY CONTENT OF THE OBJECT IN TERMS OF ITS INTERNAL ENERGY PLUS THE AMOUNT OF WORK NEEDED TO CREATE THE OBJECT OUT OF NOTHING.
THIS TOTAL ENERGY CONTENT IS ENTHALPY H. KEEPING TRACK OF ALL COMPRESSION EXPANSION PROCESS AND SUBSEQUENT CHANGES IN WORK ENERGY IS DIFFICULT.
211
ENTHALPY : FORMATION OF A NEW MOLECULE

From Schroeder
PV
CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESSES.
KEEPING TRACK OF ALL COMPRESSION EXPANSION PROCESS AND SUBSEQUENT CHANGES IN WORK ENERGY IS DIFFICULT.
IT IS USEFUL TO TALK ABOUT THE TOTAL ENERGY CONTENT OF THE MOLECULE IN TERMS OF ITS INTERNAL ENERGY PLUS THE AMOUNT OF WORK NEEDED TO CREATE THE MOLECULE.
THIS TOTAL ENERGY CONTENT IS ENTHALPY H OR THE HEAT OF FORMATION OF THE MOLECULE.
212
USEFULNESS OF ENTHALPY
From Schroeder
DURING THE FORMATION OF MOLECULES IN A CHEMICAL REACTION YOU SOMETIMES ADD SOME HEAT OR CHEMICALS REACT WHILE THE PRESSURE IS HELD CONSTANT
U U H
U PV U
PV U P V
V P V
213
CHANGE OF ENTHALPY
From Schroeder
DURING A CONSTANT PRESSURE PROCESS
P V
ENTHALPY CHANGES BY CHANGING INTERNAL ENERGY AND BY ANY OTHER COMPRESSION AND EXPANSION KIND OF WORK WHERE THE VOLUME CHANGES.
214
CHANGE OF ENTHALPY
From Schroeder
P V
WOther
CHANGE OF INTERNAL ENERGY EQUALS TO THE HEAT ADDED PLUS THE COMPRESSION-EXPANSION KIND OF WORK DONE ON IT PLUS ANY OTHER WORK (E.G ELECTRICAL) DONE ON IT.
215
CHANGE OF ENTHALPY
H
U Q
P V
WOther
P V
WOther @ Constant P
From Schroeder216
REASON WHY CHEMISTS LOVE ENTHALPY !
WOther @ Constant P
CHANGE OF ENTHALPY IS CAUSED ONLY BY HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF WORK AND NOT BY COMPRESSION-EXPANSION KIND OF MECHANICAL WORK.
From Schroeder 217
MORE REASONS WHY CHEMISTS LOVE ENTHALPY!
WOther @ Constant P
YOU CAN IGNORE ALL COMPRESSION-EXPANSION KIND OF MECHANICAL WORK IF YOU DEAL WITH ENTHALPHY INSTEAD OF ENERGY.
From Schroeder 218
MORE REASONS WHY CHEMISTS LOVE ENTHALPY!
WOther @ Constant P
IF NO OTHER TYPES OF WORK IS PRESENT THEN ENTHALPY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO HOW MUCH HEAT IS BEING ADDED TO THE SYSTEM.
219
ENTHALPY IS DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO HOW MUCH ENERGY IS BEING ADDED TO THE SYSTEM AT CONSTANT PRESSURE.
WOther @ Constant P
CP
H T
CP CAN BE CALLED ENTHALPY CAPACITY

220
H
CP
Q
Q T
WOther @ Constant P
P
H T
H T
This is because U PV is a State Function
CHEMISTRY BOOKS ARE FULL OF TABLES OF H FOR CHEMICAL REACTIONS, FORMATION OF MOLECULES, PHASE TRANSITIONS, IONIZATIONS, DISSOLUTION, EVAPORATION, DISSOCIATION ETC
221
H2
1 O2 2
H
H2 0
286 kJ
IF YOU BURN A MOLE OF HYDROGEN THEN YOU GET 286 KJ OF HEAT. MOST OF THESE ENERGY COMES FROM THE THERMAL AND CHEMICAL ENERGY OF THE MOLECULES THEMSELVES, BUT A SMALL AMOUNT ALSO COMES FROM THE WORK DONE BY THE ATMOSPHERE AS IT COLLAPSES TO FILL THE SPACE LEFT BY THE BURNED GASSES MINUS THAT TO FILL UP THE SPACE OCCUPIED BY THE WATER.
From Thermal Physics by D V Schroder
222
Let us focus on Solid to Liquid and Liquid to Gas Phase Transitions

223
Solid to Liquid and Liquid to Gas - Phase Transitions

Temperature remains constant during such Phase Transition WHY?
Heat/Enthalpy
It is a fact that, while a substance changes state, its temperature does not change until the change of state is complete BUT WHY ???? 224
Concept of Latent Heat

During Phase Transition (like melting or boiling), the Heat Capacity diverges as T 0
Q T
Q 0
Added heat is used up the Whole Process of Phase Transition This is called Latent heat of Transformation assuming Pressure is constant and no other work done during Phase Transition
Q m
It is a fact that, while a substance changes state, its temperature does not change until the change of state is complete BUT WHY ???? 225
Thermodynamic Explanation of Melting and Boiling Points
By Frederick Reif, American Journal of Physics 67, 1051 (1999) http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.19181
226
Thermodynamic Explanation of Melting
227
Thermodynamic Explanation of Melting as the Temperature at which two phases can co-exist
228
Thermodynamics of Latent Heat It goes to increase the entropy while melting/boiling
Adopted from: http://itp.uni-frankfurt.de/~valenti/WS13-14/all_1314_chap6.pdf
229
Statistical Mechanics of Phase Transition
Adopted from: http://tpb.physik.rwth-aachen.de/Dohm/encyclopedia-book-niederhoff.pdf
230

A phase, in the sense of equilibrium thermodynamics, is an equilibrium state of matter that is spatially homogeneous on a macroscopic scale. Examples are the gas (vapor), liquid or solid phases of matter. A phase transition that is accompanied by a discontinuous change of the density , such transitions are called rst order phase transition since the discontinuities occur in the rst derivatives () of the free energy density G. Roughly speaking, examples of rst-order transitions are melting, solidication, sublimation and vaporization as well as many structural phase transitions in solids.
231

For a one-component substance, a discontinuity of the particle density = N/V corresponds to a discontinuity dV of the volume V = dG/dP at fixed number N of particles. Similarly a discontinuity dS of the entropy S = dG/dT exists at the coexistence curves of the Figure 1. The jump dS is determined by dQ/T where dQ is the heat absorbed when one phase is transformed into the other phase.
232

The rst-order phase transition can be dened more systematically by considering the Gibbs thermodynamic potential. In a rst-order phase transition, the rst derivative of the Gibbs potential is discontinuous across the phase boundary. Volume V and entropy S are discontinuous as well.
dG dP
,S
T
dG dT
233
Phase Transition of Water
234
Phase Transition of Water
G is Gibbs Free Energy
235
Phase Transition of some Liquid to Solid
236
Phase Transition Liquid Water to Ice
237
Statistical Mechanics of Boiling

Divergence of Specific Heat follows a power law near Continuous Phase Transition like Liquid to Gas Transition at a temperature T = TC
C~
(T TC ) TC
Phase Transition is Governed by Order Parameters which typically vanishes at TC
238
Thermodynamic Quantities, Order Parameter depends on Correlation Function
American Journal of Physics 69, 255 (2001) http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.1333102
239
Statistical Mechanics of Boiling
American Journal of Physics 69, 255 (2001) http://dx.doi.org/10.1119/1.1333102
240
Melting vs Boiling
- symmetries of solid and liquid states are different so that one cannot continuously transform solid into liquid. That means that the melting line starts on another line and goes to infinity since it cannot end in a critical
point (like the liquid-gas line). In practice, it never goes to infinity due to finiteness of pressure and density of a material
From http://www.weizmann.ac.il/complex/tlusty/courses/statphys/statphys.pdf Also in Nature Physics, 6, pg685, 2010
241

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Matter Really Matters !

What is a Matter? &

Why this elephant even matters..???

An Elephant & Seven Blind Men !

WellHere we see only Five of them !

Message: Understanding the Science of Matter is very much interdisciplinary

Various Physical States of Matter

Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma

Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)

Many Like to Call it a fifth state of Matter- a Purely Quantum Phenomena

Coming back to the question : -

a : the substance of which a physical object is composed

constitutes the observable universe, and that is interconvertible with energy

Matter is a Substance or Particle with Mass

Matter is a Substance with Mass

Matter Consists of: Electrons, Protons, Quarks What about Photon?

Matter is a Substance with Mass

Is Photon and/or Electromagnetic Force or Light can be categorized as matter?

Matter is a Substance with Mass

Photon or Light can NOT be categorized as Solid, Liquid, Gas etc !!

Matter is a Substance with Mass

Matter is a Very Loosely Defined Object in Physics !!

a famous quote once said about mind over matter,

"if you don't mind, it doesn't matter"

Electromagnetic Forces only Along with Thermodynamics

Liquid Outer core of Earth

This is Jupitar The largest Planet in Our Solar System

Jupitar is a Gas Giant

FYI Trivial info form Biology

Which is the Most Abundant form of Observable Matter in the Universe?

Which is the Most Abundant form of Observable Matter in the Universe?

Plasma forms ~99.9% of Observable Matter

Examples of Various Physical States of Matter

Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma

What are these?

What are these?

Pouring Liquid Nitrogen

What are these?

What are these.?

Examples of Plasmas Ionized Gas

Plasma Coater Neon Signs

Electron-Hole Plasma inside the Solid Material of a Semiconductor 35 Laser Diode

Let us focus on Gases, Liquids and Solids

Taken From http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/character.html

Let us focus on Gases, Liquids and Solids

Gases, Liquids and Solids

Taken From http://www.chem.purdue.edu/gchelp/liquids/character.html

Waves seen on Surface of Sand

If Sand is Liquid Hello Archimedes ?

Coming back to the core issue - Is sand a Liquid or Solid ?

Salt Crystals are Solid

Question : Is Sand a Solid or Liquid ?

Is Sand a Solid or Liquid ?

**Many Body Physics of Granular Media

A very Important branch of Modern Statistical Physics

Applications of the Physics of Granular Media

Was that Statue of Buddha a real Solid ?

This Statue of Buddha was made from Sand only

Sand Artist: Sudarshan Patnaik

Examples: Solid Made out of Granular Materials

Physics Today, 70, Sept 2012

Examples: Is Toothpaste a Liquid of Solid ?

They do Flow Out of the Tube like a liquid

Then they keep their shape like a Solid