Gibson Shamanic in Tibet and Central Asia

Notes on the History of the Shamanic in Tibet and Inner Asia Author(s): Todd Gibson Source: Numen, Vol.
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NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF THE SHAMANIC IN TIBET AND INNER ASIA

TODD GIBSON
Summary been crippled of the shamanhave often treatments Historical by dubiousand investiof shamanic on thenature untestable religion. Anthropological assumptions historical issuesin anydepth.The first haveseldomdealtwith turn in their gations and dangers involved to pointout theadvantages attempts partof thiscontribution to historical issues. A broaddefinition an anthropological in applying perspective some whileavoiding in intent, whichis anthropological of theshamanis proposed in method. errors possible the"shamanic sickness"The secondpartof thearticle begins by documenting the careers of several tertons literature-in in the ethnological widelyacknowledged that the shamanic Tibetan of in thehistory Buddhism), illustrating (majorfigures thatare usuallyassociatedwith to thehealingand divination role was notlimited in modern nonderivations for thenames ofshamans Buddhist Inner Asianshamans. between Buddhism theseargueforan association are presented; cultures Buddhist themutual of Asia that went Inner in early and theshamanic borrowing deeperthan to havetaken forms cultural commonly supposed place.
and Presuppositions The Shaman:Definitions remain scholars. The andtheshamanic Shamanism among popular as of course,is notthesame figure shamanof modemscholarship, to whomthe wordstrictly the Tunguzreligious applies. specialist the defined Tunobserver oftheTunguz, theforemost Shirokogoroff, of bothsexes who have mastered spirits, guz shamansas "persons and use thesespirits intothemselves, willcan introduce who at their in their owninterests, their particularly helpspirits powerovertheir from the spirits.In such a capacity ing otherpeople, who suffer fordealingwith the of specialmethods maypossessa complex they
@ Koninklijke Brill,Leiden (1997) NUMEN, Vol. 44
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is undoubtedly Thisdefinition butis validonlyfor accurate, spirits."' and for the theTunguzic modemperiod.As Reinhard only peoples, that "Thesituation there is a Tungusic hasremarked, is,inbrief, word, and with associated a itsultimate uncertain, origin meaning Tunguits ultimate sic phenomenon, form uncertain."2 originand original becauseof,theseuncertainties, thewordhas In spiteof,or perhaps in lexicalscope sinceitsintroduction increased Russianinto through to thepoint that at present, intellectual theEuropean it seems sphere, on rather distinct setsofconnotations in thetwoscholto havetaken used: thereligious-historical arlyfieldswhereit is mostcommonly and theanthropological. forthepurposes of thepresIt wouldbe tedious (and unnecessary to attempt toenumerate, letaloneevaluate, themany entcontribution) oftheshaman definitions in recent proposed contemporary anthropoit to that suffice the of thesehave say majority logical literature;3 of individual thetheme withtheextra-human contact in common by in the serviceof his community. This contact a spiritual specialist referred to as is distinguished by a statewhichhas been variously "trance", and, in morerecentyears, "ecstacy","ecstaticcontact", It is also usefulto statesof consciousness". or "alternate "altered" use thewordwithout that fewmodemanthropologists definmention terms. ing their of religion. situation obtainsamonghistorians A verydifferent of whomrelyentirely on literary sources for These specialists, many rather carelessin their use of the word theirwork,are stilloften or qualification. no further "shaman",as if it required explanation has bothfed upon and contributed to a seriesof This inexactitude whichmight of the shamanic be foraboutthenature assumptions a "Shamanism" is word that can be follows: as mulated 1) legitiwide of accounts a nonand to, for, variety adequately mately applied which or not be literate historically may may complexes, religious it is therefore related.2) Shamanism beingnon-literate, pre-literate. it is therefore ahistorical, 3) Being pre-literate, existing unchanged thebeginnings existence thedawnof human from (or at leastfrom ofa culture's of a givensociety).4) Anyelement religious landscape
in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic
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forby its prevailing tradition whichcannotbe accounted scriptural ofa primordial as a "vestige" shamanistic substrate. can be explained as beingnecesare often considered suchvestiges Not surprisingly, in thelatter. to scriptural traditions inferior by specialists sarily at leasta gliminvite should theseassumptions Thusbaldlystated, the nevertheless fact remains mer of intellectual discomfort; that, in remain overtor implied, influential, they extremely particularly To thus dismiss theshaman, Asianreligions.4 ofthevarious treatments of the an least at the however, very anthropological ignorance betrays thatshamanic of functions on thewide variety literature practitionin variations and theimportant ers play in their cultures, respective it also prematurely shuts acrosscultural thesefunctions boundaries; historical thedoorsto further inquiry. that somevery Thereare,of course, anthropological good reasons historians. utilized havenotbeenmore studies Although byreligious in the field have in the data by anthropologists ethnological gathered fantasies as a checkto someofthewilder by propounded pastserved is of theorists religious armchair history, anthropologypredominantly withthe not and has muchconcerned been a synchronic discipline, to extrapolate toolsforattempting its ofmethodological development literthe of in time. backwards Still, inadequacy usingonly findings in thestudy both canonical and historical) documents (including ary has notbeenunrecognized. of religious yearsago, Van Forty history in religion to the der Leeuw urgedthatspecialists attempt integrate andothers into ofsociologists, psychologists, archaeologists, findings has proposed thefield,5 and,morerecently, Waardenburg "multiperof and research investigations" religiousinterdisciplinary spective to in are "either The his opinion, historical alternatives, problems. to remain butclosedcraftman's becomea dignified guild,or simply thewholeof thepresent research area within a backward scholarly and is esis not a simpleone, however, The enterprise process."6 contribution The to pitfalls. present peciallysubject methodological means and suggest some of thesedangers to articulate is an attempt and literarywhile showing thatanthropological of avoidingthem,
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can complement each other in thestudy historical of the approaches Asia. in Inner shamanic ofTibetis an ideal arenaforan investigation culture The religious of since shamanic of historical aspects the shamanic, practitioners wide of social a roles coexist there with a sophisvariety playing acute tradition. and ticated Further, intellectually literary foreign in Tibet on the shaman has included both historical and scholarship on Tibetan The earliest writers approaches. anthropological religion in that in terms of theshamanic both external defined country paraboneornaments, costumes andmasks)andcommon (drums, phernalia of the shaman'spurported and experiences (spirit flight, metaphors ofthe"soul") also documented or ransoming in thenontheguiding of Siberia.7 While theseworkscorrectly traditions literate pointed ties between out the close cultural the Tibetansand otherpeoples often thereligious-historical frameof Inner Asia, they incorporated theincalculable of workmentioned above,whichassumed antiquity WhenNorth Asian shamanic werepresent themes in "shamanism". were for seen at best as a Buddhist context, example, they adaptaas an accommodation or degeneration of tionsbutmorecommonly to conform to sensibilities. The a higher religion superficial popular ofa hypothetical Tibetan shamanism" andinadequate equating "early no longer was in most withtheBon religion, intellectually tenable,8 cases partof thisapproach. on so-calledshamanic in the More recent scholarship phenomena been Alhas dominated Tibetancultural sphere by anthropologists. of the shamanhave varied, and some have definitions their though and to use both material, literary ethnographic theyhave attempted ofTibetan shamanic avoidedbotha systematic comparison generally on one their Northern Asiatic with hand,9 counterparts practioners oftheir antecedents on the and serious possiblehistorical exploration is often to shamanic more used the other.10 Instead, category highlight in relation to a specific societal certain practice aspectsof religious or related it Tibetans be framework, among peoples proper among reaches orTamang."Thistrend suchas theSherpa, perhaps Gurung, the very who raisesquestions its apogee withHolmberg, regarding
in Tibet and Inner Asia oftheShamanic History
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as a religious existence of "shamanism" from phenomenon separable context.12 itscultural recent has reasserted theimportance Another of a however, work, in Tibetan of the shamanic Samuel concept religious history; general between twocomplementary todrawa distinction trends uses theterm His formulation societies.13 Tibetan useful in in proves operative and keepingin of TibetanBuddhism, the development describing are illustrative he proposes rather thandogthecategories mindthat on the is a of its definite his matic, paradigm improvement majority orientation avoidsthemost Samuel's anthropological predecessors. found in historical discussions of the error common methodological theBuddhistic that and theshamanic are not shaman by recognizing in as the former term thatshouldbe placed opposition, categories and thelatter cultural to one or another refers structure, (if particular outside theTunguz to a certain itis to haveanyrealmeaning context) not found within that or be behavior mode of religious might might well speakof a Buddhist One might sucha givenstructure. (or very This has been pointed out by anthroIslamic or Taoist) shaman.'4 contribution butSamuel's is the first to make it before,15 pologists of Tibetan in thesphere history. religious explicit foundin both A second and moresubtlemethodological error, is to assumethat a "shamanic" and anthropological historical works, content. This a certain to religious implies practice approach religious of shamanic is of coursenothing new; Eliade's definitive summary in a celestial and for that beliefs takes divinity granted phenomena'6 and themostancient universal ascentto heavenare at once a human of this outlook is thatEliade One of form religion. consequence who operate within shamans thosemediums as not truly considers Samuel seems idiomof "spirit thecultural possession".In his turn, is withsome associated shamanic to believethat religion necessarily various Atonepoint,"he discusses ofthe form perennis. philosophia truth to the of as "partial and limited Buddhist doctrines approaches hereappears tobe rooted vision".Samuel'sformulation theshamanic of experiential as exponent evaluation of theshaman in thepositive muchof the modern thatunderlies as opposed to textual religion
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hisstatement intheshamanic. cannot interest be Still, anthropological withhis earlier definition unlessone assumesa particular reconciled whichdependson "altered between and fixedrelationship religion and thecontents of thosealtered of consciousness" states.'8 states in attempting thisissue,there is a further Even beyond to pitfall definitions to shamanic It was noted history. applyanthropological of the shamancontain above thatmostsuch definitions an element toas "trance", referred or"alternate ofconstates variously "ecstacy", are problematic bothin themodemsphere, sciousness".Such terms Firstof all, it shouldbe obvious and even morein the historical. thephraseology of "statesof consciousness" thatapplying to sociand eties whichmay not have developeda languageof mentation, in shamanic terms of the of or is to spirits deities, our prefer speak thatsuch an imposition own cultural Recognizing may imposition. in anygeneral if we are to talkabouttheshaman conbe necessary to avoid as muchas possibleprojecting text,we muststillattempt of mentational ontothe shamanour own frameworks language,as thathavebeen proposed in thepast are very mostof thecategories if notarbitrary,19 and theproblem is onlymademorecomartificial discuss the when to of earlier cultures.20 attempting mentality plex can be avoidedby usingcriteria which This difficulty do notdepend in of theshaman.One definition on suchevaluations thedefinition thatwould do so is as follows: if a personis recognized by his contact with thedivineor extrahuman as beingin direct own society defines virtue of concrete that demonstrait) by (however society thenhe or she is a shaman. tionsof unusualor uniquecapabilities, would be to theTunguz definition This simultaneously morefaithful thefullrangeof cultural idioms thanEliade's in accepting context theshaman's both"poswhich specialcapabilities, including express On the other it would still session"and "spirit hand, flight". provide the shamanand other between a meansof distinguishing religious would not be considered as specialists. Thus, a ritualpractitioner even if the were to effectuate in shamanic practice, purpose engaging his unlesstheabilfor the of a religious community, purpose good himself (becauseof some ityto do so was vestedin thepractitioner
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rather thanin his texts, of his abilities) manifestation procetangible of heaven evidence could dures,or apparatus. Historically, worship as ipsofactoevidenceof shamanic not,pace Eliade, be considered who"flew to the ofreligious specialists descriptions though religion, that be noted this It it. should of taken as be suggestive sky"might norprecludes assumes neither oftheshaman definition anyhistorical The ancient Greek withInerAsianreligious association complexes. thisdefinition, under shamans seersand oracleswouldbe considered wouldhave on the Greeks influence Asian Inner of butthequestion to be treated separately.21 broadby anthropolobe considered This definition overly might italso in a of the have who field; advantage working synchronic gists, of states thevery factor that it compromises be felt ("alternate might the contemmuch of for been has that consciousness") responsible it is difficult to suggest shaman. the in interest Nevertheless, porary to remain thatallows the historical definition another investigator while avoidinga priorijudgein descriptive discipline, grounded of shamanic andnature and theexistence on archaic ments mentality has the the definition In other in theremote contacts words, past.22 to label a religious an investigator of allowing practitioner advantage which to know information is not sufficient if there even as a shaman in his societyat a given idiomor idiomswereoperative shamanic is also able to accommodate The definition moment. historical posa givensociety, idiomacrosstimewithin in theshamanic sible shifts to one of withspirits of "interacting" from a metaphor forexample, possession."23 "spirit Shamansin InnerAsia Buddhist 1) The Terton of the forhistorical an approach investigation Havingsuggested outlined how the definition to illustrate it now remains shamanic, This cases. in be can above exposition applied specific profitably withshamanic associated a phenomena pracwill beginby relating
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in modemethnological literature to an ongoingreligioustitioners in Tibet. situation historical the correlation thatsupport shamanic practices, Amongcultures is now welldocand the shaman's between "calling" by very puberty This "calling"is marked breakumented. by a psycho-physiological into in the shamanic role. If downfollowed by reintegration society is unsuccessful, theshamanic candidate thereintegration maybecome notedoverhalfa century a shaman's insane.Steinberg elecago that a serious at the of tionis "manifested onset sexual illness, by usually observed that "Theshamanistic call bematurity";24 Bogorassimilarly at an manifest itself in cases the to early age, many during critical gins from childhood to youth."25 Eliade's workis reperiodof transition with data that confirm further these observations.26 ethnological plete Tibetanshamanic of both"spirit practitioners, Amongpresent-day and "possession" travel" "Most of thefuture claims, Nebesky types, shamansare stricken by the shamanillnessat the age of puberty. sincemostofthem, The sameappliesto Tibetan as myinmediums, the became for first when time formants claimed, possessed reaching ofnineTibetan sexualmaturity."27 Berglie's investigations spiritmediums of thepawo (dpa'.bo) and Ihapa typesrevealed withone that, had beguntheir careers between tenand sixteen, the they exception, thirteen.28 median the twelfth medium age being Blo.bzang'Jigs.med, oraclespirits, had a shamanic illnessthatbegan of the Gnas.chung at he when becameunableto funcat ten and climaxed fourteen, as the oracle.29 themedium tionuntil recognized Lhag.paDon.grub, thecontroversial was of several including spirits Rdo.rjeShugs.Idan, while at Peter's informant became first sixteen,30 Tamang possessed at thirteen.31 a shaman betweenadolescenceand the shamaniccalling This connection in theTibetan historical literature. Not only can also be discerned a possiblereasonfortheancient of Tibetan does it provide practice in favor of his son whenthelatter reached theage a ruler removing the in certain works the of of Ghos ofthirteen,32 tradition, origin but, to a boy who,at theage of twelveor thirteen, was Bon is ascribed all their lore.33 a and learned led all overTibetby wandering spirit,
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of a natural to theshamanic, Further in a examples predisposition can be seen in the of some Tibetan Buddhist tercontext, biographies "treasure The tertons aremenandwomen, revealers". ton(gter.ston), and Bon traditions, who especiallyassociatedwiththe Rnyingma of religion to an ongoing renewal in Tibetthrough have contributed Theseitems of sacredobjectsand texts therevelation (gter.ma). may form in sacredsites,butalso maybe "unin concrete be discovered who are held of treasure revealers fromthe mindstreams earthed" of the disciplesof Padmasambhava.34 or emanations to be rebirths Tibetand without, bothwithin have been controversial The tertons wereand are merely that evaluations themoreextreme holding they will showthat lifestories, at their A glimpse frauds. however, many else they whatever of them, according mayhavebeen,wereshamans A significant number of them, definition.35 to thepresent including a all fiveof the so-called"terton kings",seem to have undergone most often around adolescence. The sortof "shamanic sickness", of the "kings", first Nyi.ma'Od.zer (1136-1204),began Nyang.ral to the biography, to have visionsat the age of eight. According and heldhimto be various underwent "hisconduct changes everyone visionsat insane",36 (1212-1270)experienced Chos.kyi Dbang.phyug vulture rode a across the he heavens in one of these huge age thirteen; and metVajrasattva.37 (1346-1405)similarly Rdo.rjeGling.pa began at to the career thirteen, his visionary travelling emanationally eight sites of sacred esoteric Buddhism charnel grounds, legendary great PadmaGling.pa(1450-1521)had a sickness bein India.38 O.rygan to at a seem have forehis visions(which, however, begun relatively lateage),39 as did 'Jam.dbyangs Mkhyen.rtse Dbang.po(1820-1892), whosevisionsbeganat age eight.40 RatnaGling.pa's had similar tertons Other experiences. prominent and visionsbeganat age ten,41 Gling.pa'sat thirteen.42 Mchog.gyur ima type ofeidetic seemsto indicate biography Gling.pa's Gter.bdag whilestilllittle in his perceptions morethanan infant, agery present at age ten.43 occurred visionof Padmasambhava whilehis first as regards the"shamanic sickofthesebiographies The testimony with too not be need ness" and related regarded visionary experience
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of therevelatory visionof the jaundicedan eye. Whiledescription seems an often in itself the gterma important component acceptance if having at a youngage had of a discovery,44 visionary experiences of the phenomenon been fromthe beginning an ascriptive merely characteristic and legitimizing of treasure one might exrevealers, in find it the all of while in present virtually pect to biographies, visionsseemto playno partin thelifestories factsuchyouthful of as theFifth tertons Dalai Lama and Mnga'.ris even suchprominent as the story Pan.chen Padma Dbang.rgyal.45 of Nyang.ral Further, above indicates, the shamanic sickness Nyi.ma 'Od.zer mentioned ofa future was notalwaysseenas indicative (sincehe religious giant heldto be insane).Another can be found was at first in the example of Jo.moSman.mo(1248-1283),whose sicknessand visions figure sanctioned as indicating a terton werealso notinitially by hersocia fewhad faith claimsthat, in herwhen ety.Herbiography although themajority she beganhercareer(also at thirteen), her, disregarded was she a sman.mo by thinking spirit.46 possessed from The correlations data arguepowerfully ethnological against theidea of thetertons' invenrevelatory experiences beingcomplete of the treasure tion. While the so-called"legitimating strategies" be in some indeed cases revealers even decepself-conscious, may at acceptance at largeas well as tive,efforts amongthepopulation evaluate those who theircredentials,47 religiousspecialists among thebroader of Tibetan cultural it is seen against background history, of treasure is continuous revelation clear thatthephenomenon with tradition. shamanic a strong lead to an inverse concluThe same correlations however, might, tertons are no different from other Tibetan shasion: thatshamanic havechosen toexpress themselves intheframethat mansexcept they Buddhism insteadof (or, moreoften, in workof earlierscriptural The difficulties in such of Tibetan addition to) that popular religion. seem almost when the treasure a conception, however, insuperable is compared to another ofTibetan shaman:themedium revealer type in government who is possessedby the deitieswho are consulted Like the tertons discussedabove,thesemediums may functioning.
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to theshamanic as evidenced have a predisposition by theshamanic also like and have to sickness;48 them, theymay undergo stringent of their status.49 The differences teststo gain social validation beare significant. The terton influence tweenthe two,however, may fresh a Budhis society (within by synthesizing religious approaches of the oracle mediums while the communications dhistcontext),5? and are and are often by theclergy, enigmatic require interpretation to adviceon immediate in content limited moreover generally practioften actsin waysthat Whiletheterton violateestabcal problems. shamanic themedium's lishedsocialnorms,51 idiom-possession bya totheBuddhist whois nonetheless subject hierarchyspirit powerful his he own as the vessel ofthedeity. that individuality negate requires that in thepossessionof theoracle results The induction procedure whilethe visionsthatcontribute and choreographed, is unchanging to theterton's (almayoccurspontaneously legitimation apparently in esoteric mosttertons Budit seemsthat undergo training though of whyan individual witha psydhistdisciplines).The question towards theshamanic becomesa possessed chological predisposition thana terton healerrather is probably oracleor shamanic ultimately not within the scope of the present unanswerable (and is certainly such as societalor familial factors work),though may expectations It is important influences. to recognize, thatin have their however, circlesthereligious role of thepredisposed some TibetanBuddhist to pragmatic but the shamanis notlimited matters, mayencompass whichlie at theheart concerns of Buddhism. soteriological 2) The HealingShamans Tibetanshaman,the previously of another The cultural history also relevant to the Thepawo is discussion. mentioned pawo, present ofwhatshamans in Tibetbefore as a typical has beentaken example have been the comingof Buddhism like; Nebeskycalls the might Bon [sic] as it existed of theearliest, unorganized pawo "a remnant
before the so-called 'white Bon' ... had developed afterthe examis little or no real there though ple of Buddhism".52This evaluation,
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to backitup, might be accepted nevertheless evidence forthe except factthatthe worddpa'.bo is also used in canonicalTibetanBudas a translation oftheSanskrit of all schools,53 texts dhist wordvira, in esoteric which a word Buddhism refer either to 1) an "hero", may or teacher, of 2) thechiefdeity practitioner Vajrayana accomplished or 3) one of theninequalities mandalaitself, theesoteric possessed are derived from Indian which this dance.54 deity, by be thought thatthe two meanings of pawo in the TiIt might to do witheach other.55 have nothing betancontexts This,however, sinceat leastsomepawos acceptPadmasambhava is dubious, as the and since manyof themwear as partof of theirorder,56 founder theirshamanic apparelthe rigs Inga, a crownwhichis of esoteric The implications of the factthatthepawo Buddhist provenance.57 and legendary elements of theregalia, histerminology, incorporates of reference Buddhism intohis frame of esoteric (whichseems tory to do withscriptural are The situunclear. to have little Buddhism) a wholesaleappropriation of the ationcould be explained by either earlier shamanic or in an a shift shamanic tradition, by Vajrayana of thepawo term semantic shift on the idiomand a corresponding to the of of Owing pervasiveness Budpractitioners. part Vajrayana neither can be ruledout,but dhismin Tibetansocieties, possibility in which Inner Asiancultures theword are other there contemporary related to is used forshamanic Buddhism, practitioners historically ornothing which nowknowlittle thesearecultures and,significantly, the Turkmen and for Shamans of that among religion. Karakalpaks, theseare andparkhon are known as porkhan respectively; example, the word "Buddha" to related burxan, (as personmeaning certainly in Turkic texts(and and even Buddha early image) age, principle, in Shamanic its meaning modemMongolian).58 practitionretaining ers are called baksiby the Kazakh,and bakshiamongthe Kirghiz from a word and Uzbeks,and thesecan be seen as deriving bakshi, AsianBuddhists butused amongInner Chineseorigin59 of probable be seenas inThe use ofthesewordsmust for"teacher".60 as a term ofthesecultural in thehistory at a certain that, groups, point dicating or ifnotexclusively Buddhist werepredominantly shamans shamans,
and Inner Asia History of theShamanicin Tibet
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of theshaman's had derived functions themostessential at leastthat Buddhism. from thehistory for both of has important Suchan assertion implications theparandmost First ofBuddhism. andthat theshamanic basically, a for derivation the case to add allels in theTurkic languages weight "framana. that several different from shaman oftheTunguz Secondly, to theshaman wordsare used to refer Buddhist (sramana-shaman, that indicates Buddhism's effects and burxan, bakshi) vira-dpa'.bo, of cultural wave a be explained cannot influence, by positing single times. was repeated several be seen as a processthat butmust theidea thattherelaevidencealso arguesagainst The linguistic Buddhist to the the shaman of ideologywas a prevailing tionship notbeen Had Buddhism or evenmeretoleration. of enmity matter the that with the concerned distinguish special qualities intimately wouldhave come terms that Buddhist it is highly shaman, unlikely these terms wouldhave this and that in use intowidesprad context, had disapBuddhism all traceof scriptural evenafter beenpreserved and Tunguz.61 pearedamongtheTurks that all shaan assumption These data do not,of course,support influence. As seen of Buddhist mansin InnerAsia werea product the between is also an connection there above (note 32), apparent thisrelationship shamanand InnerAsian polity; maywell antedate of it. It might butin anycase seemsindependent influence Buddhist as thatthe declineof suchpoliticalinstitutions even be speculated created vacuum a religious or thesacralkingship clan organization that Buddhism offered fill. The fact to shamans Buddhist that helped shamanic forcultivating methods qualitieswhichwere less depenon clanstructure, and inherited denton perhaps predisposition hence, could onlyhaveaided in itsacceptance. influence on popular left a lasting cultural shamans ThatBuddhist werelimited that does notimply Asia certainly in Inner they religion activities to thehealing norin their to thepragmatic, in their outlook the modemTunguzand Turkicshamans. Fromthe whichtypifies a civiin theregion Buddhism timeoftheKushanEmpire, produced butinfluenced notonlyreflected of itsownthat lization development
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of theTibetan terton in Indiaand China,and theexample has shown of the shaman a shaman thatthereligious who had to (even sphere in his youth) well include imbalance overcome psychological might to Buddhist literature. The absenceof such occupacontributions of contemporary Inner Asian societies tionsamongtheshamans can the decline in a be Buddhist establishby easily explained supportive in whichthe of a peopleto another or theconversion ment, religion of his was morecloselyconstrained shaman's experience expression by ideology. 316 46 Broadmoor Drive, Colorado80439-8956, USA Evergreen, TODDGIBSON
I 1935: 269. Shirokogoroff, 2 Reinhard, of theTunguzicwordhas been a matter 1976: 14. The origin of A derivation from theSanskrit theTocharian some controversy. Sramana(through and a strong samaneor theSogdianSmn)has been accepted case, based by many, as well as data can still forthis be made on ethnographic linguistic hypothesis, of therelationship between (Eliade: 1964: 495-507; anyseriousdiscussion theory Buddhismand the shamansof Siberiamusttake thisworkinto account). This is not universally derivation accepted;Altaic linguists especiallyhave frequently a genetic thesehavesometimes alternatives, though presupposed sought relationship is becoming which Lot-Falck increasingly amongtheAltaiclanguages questionable. therootsam is common it should to all Altaiclanguages; (1977: 9-10) arguesthat to an Indian/Iranian is based on thatherobjection be noted,however, provenance rather thanstrictly criteria (as is thatof linguistic hypothesis religious-historical 1973: 26). Kingsley Hultkrantz, (1944: 195 and note34) citessourcesunavailable thesemaybe a reiteration oftheTocharian to me that derivation; argueforan Iranian mentioned above. See also Voigt(1984: 15 and notes9 and Sogdianpossibilities and 10) on theAltaicists. 3 A sampleof themostthoughtful thoseof Reinhard discussions wouldinclude (1978), Siikala(1978), andLewis (1984). (1976), Hultkrantz 4 A fairly and religion on the culture of Mongolia(Jagchid and recent survey in that withthe thewholeof non-literate country religion Hyer,1979) summarized Shamanism has shown timesto thepresent, statement (p. 165) that"Fromancient nothighly buthas remained andis generally little or no development, very primitive of comparative religion." by students regarded 5 Kitagawa,1987: 22. 6 1978: 55. Waardenburg,
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7 See Eliade (1964; 430-441),Nebesky-Wojkowitz (1975: 538-53),and Hoffmann(1979: 1-27). 8 See Snellgrove (1987: 388-407). 9 See Berglie finds similarities between Siberian (1978) foran exception. Berglie levelexceptthat of social status.For and Tibetan (pawo) at every healingshamans on the more (1980),andNebesky-Wojkowitz (1975: 425-428). pawo,see also Berglie 10An exception hereis de Sales (1994). 11See Hitchcock (1982), Mumford (1989), and Holmberg (1989). (1976), Peters 12 1989: 142-146. Holmberg, 13Samuel(1993: 8) defines as "theregulation andtransformashamanic religion use the lifeandhuman tionof human use) of alternate (or purported through society are heldto comof consciousness states practitioners by meansof whichspecialist alternative witha mode of reality municate to, and morefundamental than,the on theother Clericalreligion, worldof everyday hand,is text-based, experience". with concerned and historically oriented, political power. philosophically in InnerAsia and the Himalaya;see, for and "shamanism" of Buddhism conflict seem to havebeen based either however, Heissig(1953). Such conflicts, example, and such as blood sacrifices to certain on Buddhist religious practices objections withshamanic ancestor (whichhave no clear connection religion by any worship of or else on social and politicalissues thata theory definition) anthropological The work as for. account does not cited, adequately systems religious competing uses the to define theshaman, butrather does notattempt of thissort, well as other set of in thesenseof an archaic, and "shamanistic" "shamanism" terms preliterate beliefs. 15Cf. thediscussions in Aziz (1976: 343-344)and Hultkrantz (1973: 36-37). 16Eliade,1964: 504-507. especially pp. 17 Samuel,1993: 503. While the pointof view thatclaimsthatall verbalformulations wardstatement. in much if not explicit is certainly are imperfect of religious implicit experience a from thatall is different this Buddhist literature, asserting thing logicallyquite Samuel is therefore (1993: 504) cites a Although equivalent. experience religious of theTiand that some followers it be an of such outlook, may singleexemplar have held that there is in trend particular betangzhanstong("other may emptiness") all followers to claimthat which lies behind existent a positive religious experience, formulation in Tibethadsucha philosophical Buddhism" of "shamanic and teachers minds(as Samuel seems to do) is not in the leastjustifiable at the back of their historically. 18 Even in theBuddhist hc is concerned Samuel'sis stillan awkcontext with,
14 Thereare, of course,competent the supposed historical studieswhichtreat
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19 Hultkrantz
ToddGibson
(1978: 41-51) and Rouget(1985: 3-46) have discussedat some involved in evaluating forthepurpose thedifficulties psychological processes length theshaman. of defining of mentational thehistorical 20 Adkins(1970) examines development language of the terms phrenes, psyche,nous, etc. amongthe earlyGreeks;his discussion forthosereligious in considerhistorians who persist shouldbe required reading of souls" to be a common feature of "archaic"cultures. ing beliefin a "plurality in attributing outthehistorical involved modern (1976) has pointed problems Jaynes to ancient of mentation frameworks humanity. 21 On this see Kingsley (1994). controversy, 22 The definition wouldabsolutely forexample, of ladisallow, anypossibility at as "shamanistic" Lascaux 1964: in cave the Eliade, (cf. 503), paintings belling than can presently be ofPaleolithic theabsenceof more society complete knowledge who wouldmeet These works established. maywell havebeen rendered by artists of theshaman, butsuchan assertion is neither demonstrable definition thepresent nordisprovable. 23Bourguignon trance" is a shamanic that idiom that can (1976) notes "possession withsocial characteristics suchas class in modern be statistically times, associated, abovethe100,000mark. andpopulation evolvedpolitical stratification, jurisdictions, from a tendency such criticized to overgeneralize WhileLewis (1984: 6) has rightly in a historical is evenriskier there are which data(an undertaking statistical context), such an a shaman whose for association: reasonable religious justifications positing of the deitythatpossesseshim rather is dependent on the prominence authority and selfis certainly less of a threat to an established thanhis own human religious this the Tibetan would In the context, argueagainst often-repeated politicalorder. 1987: 140; Aris,1988: 60) 1976: 212, 1978: 328; Tewari, a prioriargument (Peter, Buddhism. thepossessedoracleinstitution that predated theTurkic that shamanic idioms Basilov(1992: 16-17)has argued among peoples in an attempt to bringshamanic of InnerAsia reflect activity line withscriptural Islam. 24 Citedby Peters(1982: 23). 25 Cited by Hoffmann (1950: 74). 26 Eliade, 1964: especially pp. 15-32. 27 1975: 550. Nebesky-Wojkowitz, 28 Berglie,1978: 40-41. 29 Avedon,1984: 203-210. 30 Nebesky-Wojkowitz, 1975: 432. For Tibetansourceson the Shungs.ldan see Kapstein (1989: 231 note40). controversy, 31 Peters, 1982: 23. 32 For a discussion sacralkingship, Tibetan in theancient elements of shamanic sacralkingship the Ttirkic shaman and the A between see Gibson(1991). connection
55
scholars a "shamanic haveposited arishas beenperceived by Waida(1976). Other in earlyInner Asia; see Heissing (1980: 6 and 114 note2) andVoigt (1984: tocracy" on 16 and note 17) forsources. Johansen (1987) also raisesinteresting questions between InnerAsian polityand shamanic and it maybe therelationship religion, theTamangshaman who was Peters'informant to notethat (1982) placed germane in at his shamanic the Gesar highest point cosmology. king legendary of (1962: 8); thesimilarity 'Phreng.ba Dpa'.bo Gtsug.lag 33 See, forexample, of theshamanic was earlier out to descriptions theseetiologies calling pointed by sourcesthatthe Hoffmann (1950: 98). Of course,the notionof thesehistorical in a singlenameless shamanic cannot be Bon tradition entire practitioner originated seriously. regarded 34 For a bibliography thisphenomena, of non-Tibetan see treating scholarship emic see an for 103 note 14); (1988) (1993: English-language Thondup Gyatso tradition. of thetreasure description 35 The stories thehistory from on hereweretaken drawn by thelate Rnyingma translated Ye.shes hierarch Rdo.rje, by Dorje and Bdud,'joms Rinpoche, 'Jigs.'bral note vol. 69 see 2: his for 977) and Gyatso sources, (1991, 'Jigs.bral, Kapstein; that a the some Since this is modern note 99 work, possibility 5). biographical (1993: must to meetsocietal overthecenturies material expectations mayhavebeenaltered here. affect the seem tomaterially wouldnot butthis be admitted, argument presented 36 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 755. 37 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 762-764. 38 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 789. 39 'Jigs.bral, PadmaGling.pa's 1991: 796. Aris(1988: 53-63)discusses visionary he proposes but a shamanic-"tantric" in terms of interface, thetypology experiences Buddhism from esoteric idiomsderived betweenthe shamanic fordistinguishing he admits is as himself Asiatic culture inadequate, from Northern and thosederived to"expose"PadmaGling.pa is moreover crippled byhisattempts (p. 60). His critique and unconscious embellishhis visionary to self-delusion experience by attributing Such criticisms couldbe levelled ment(if notwholesalecontrivance). equallywell in mankind's Aris'discussion at every highlights experience history. singlereligious mental in in avoiding theshaman's to evaluate another attempts processes advantage can onlybe judgedas like anyother a shamanic theterm; shaman, terton, defining theboundsof thecriteria or notwithin by his ownculture. accepted genuine 40 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 854. 41 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 793. 42 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 841. 43 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 825. 44 Gyatso,1993: 122-123. 45 'Jigs.bral, 1991: 805-808and 821-824.
56
ToddGibson
in the Old Tibetandocuments; mentioned theywere deitieswho spoke through see Nebesky-Wojkowitz elderwomen. On thesman.mo, (1975: 198-202);forthe see MacDonald (1971: 275, 294). For other, mu.sman, perhapsparallel,cases in post-Imperial womenas religious of shamanic Tibet,see Martin (forthfigures comming). 47 Gyatso'sfine treatments of someof thereligious issuesraisedby thefigure of addressed theinstitution's theterton historical (1993, 1994) havenotyetthoroughly information on changing trends in the content evolution.Such a study, including withthehistory and a comparison of theBonpo treasure of gter.ma, cycles,could revealmuchaboutTibetan and social history. certainly religious 48 As in thecase of theterton, it is notnecessary forthepossessedmedium to birth from 1975: 549); theoraclespossessed be a shaman (cf. Nebesky-Wojkowitz in Ladakh,forexample,are chosenby lot by the rongbtsanat Mathomonastery resident and come to theexperiences from the thatdefine monks, among annually 1985: 1987: them as shamans 56; Tewari, 143). through religious training (Dargyay, 49 On thetests state see that the Avedon oracles, (1984: 210-212)and legitimate 419-421). (1975: Nebesky-Wojkowitz 50 AmongtheRnyingmapa derived tertons' from schools,scriptures visionary status to canonical material India. from comparable Vajrayana maygain experience 51 Thondup, 1986: 157. 52 Nebesky-Wojkowitz, 1975: 425. 53 See, forexample, Part theHevajraTantra II, CH.V,In. 3; II, V, 26 (Snellgrove, this tantra is known to have existedin its to the editor, 1959; 77, 81): According the See the indexto the the end of also towards form eighth century. present in Tsuda this Tantra for mentions; tantra, (1974) according Samvarodaya frequent be earlier than thelateeighth to theeditor century". (p. vii) "cannot 54 Snellgrove heroism, loathsomeness, horror, (1959: 111) liststheseas "passion, See also Guenther wonderment, (1984: mirth, tranquility". compassion, frightfulness, 126). 55 KhenpoDpal.ldanShes.rab, learned of theRnyingmapa scholar school,distinis so named because whilethepawo oftheVajrayana that thetwoby saying guished thepawo whois a from unshakeable derived of his confidence, experience, spiritual is merely in "a sortof trance". vehicleforthespirits 56 Berglie,1980: 43. 57 Berglie,1978. Clauson(1972: of theseshamans, 58 See Basilov (1976, 1992) fortheethnology thatunlike derivation.Dankoff (1975: 69-70) comments 360) forthe linguistic to with Buddhism associated was too burxan Turkic Buddhist other terms, closely later Turks. See literature of the Islamic intothe be incorporated Lessing(1982: 139-140and 1165) fortheMongolian usage.
46 'Jigs.bral, seemsto be related 1991: 771-772. The sman.mo to themu.sman
57
which for the Turkic words Thederivations inBasilov's later article (1992: appear andunsupported, andmay be a translator's 5 note oreditor's error. 3) areconfused 59Lot-Falck PaulPelliot, whogives themeaning "homme de (1977: 17) citing savoir" grand is Karma 60 A notable historical Pakshi in the second (1204-1283), example dazzled theTangut andMongol whoallegedly lineofreincarnate lamas, Karmapa see Roerich with courts feats; (1979: 485-487).See Lessing (1982: supernatural ofbagshi. the 70) for usage Mongolian 61 Thisconcern in an attenuated has beencontinued form evenamong those areleast inwhich shamanic Buddhism valued. In MonofTibetan schools qualities Buddhist toEliade(1964:498),the according clergy encourage emotionally golia, I hadthe to become shamans. ofconfirming individuals this disturbed opportunity inan ironical tone that scholar somesuch with theMongol ChojeLama;he added while others didnot. made individuals very goodshamans
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John inthe andRex Jones Possession Hitchcock, (eds.) (1976) Spirit NepalHimalaya, Warminster. Helmut(1950) Quellen zur Geschichte der Tibetischen Hoffmann, Bon-Religion, Wiesbaden. - - (1979, first 1961) TheReligions (Connecticut). of Tibet, printed Westport H. David and Exchange Ritual, (1989) Orderin Paradox: Myth. Holmberg, Among Ithaca. Nepal's Tamang, of Shamanism", Ake (1973) "A Definition Temenos Hultkrantz, 9, pp. 25-37. - (1978) "Ecologicaland Phenomenological ShamanAspectsof Shamanism", ismin Siberia,ed. Dioszegi and Hoppal,Budapest, pp. 27-58. Sechen and Paul Hyer(1979) Mongolia's Culture and Society, Boulder Jagchid, (Colorado). inthe Breakdown Julian (1976) TheOrigin ofConsciousness oftheBicameral Jaynes, Boston. Mind, Schoolof Tibetan Buddhism Ye-shesRdo-rje(1991) TheNyingma (trans'Jigs.bral Boston. latedby G. Dorje and M. Kapstein), des Schamanismus", indenReUlla (1987) "ZurGeschichte Johansen, Synkretismus ed. W. HeissigandH.-J. Zentralasiens, Klimkeit, Wiesbaden, pp. 8-22. ligionen Gem anditsCleansing:A Late Tibetan Matthew (1989) "The Purificatory Kapstein, PolemicalDiscussionof Apocryphal 28, pp. 217Texts", History ofReligions 244. and Magi", StudiaIranica 23, pp. 187Peter(1994) "Greeks, Shamans, Kingsley, 198. HumanExperi(1987) The History ofReligions:Understanding Joseph Kitagawa, 1987. ence,Atlanta,
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BloomFerdinand 1960)Mongolian-English (1982,first Dictionary, printed Lessing, (Indiana). ington inEurasia,GOttingen, is a Shaman?", Shamanism Lewis,I.M. (1984) "What pp. 3-12. Lot-Falck,Eveline (1977) "A proposdu TermeChamane",EtudesMongoleset Nanterre. Siberiennes, des Pelliottib6taine Ariane(1971) "Une lecture MacDonald(Spanien), 1286, 1287, et sur la formation et 1290. Essai 1038, 1047, l'emploides mythes politiques dans la religion ddii`es a' la royalede Sronbcan sgampo", Etudestibitaines de MarcelleLalou, Paris,pp. 190-391. memoire of Pehar". "The FourChildren Daniel (forthcoming), Martin, Stan(1989) Himalayan Mumford, Dialogue,Madison(Wisconsin). Rene de (1975, first 1956), Oracles and Demons of printed Nebesky-Wojkowitz, Protective Tibetan the Tibet:The Cultand Iconography Deities,Graz. of "Tibetan The Realmof the and Denmark of Greece Prince Oracles", (1976) Peter, The A. ed. and Extra-human: Bharati, Hague,pp. 211-214. Agents Audiences, - - (1978) "Tibetan Oraclesin Dharamsala", Proceedings of theCsoma Korosi ed. L. Ligeti, Memorial pp. 327-334. Budapest, Symposium, in TamangShamanand Psychotheraphy, Initiation, Peters, Larry(1982) "Trance, 9, pp. 21-46. ism",American Ethnologist Problem" Possession-theDefinition andSpirit Johan Reinhard, (1976) "Shamanism and R. New ed. J.Hitchcock Possessionin theNepal Himalayas, Jones, Spirit Delhi,pp. 12-21. Music and between Music and Trance:A Theory Gilbert, of theRelations Rouget, Brunhilde Possession, (trans. Biebuyck) Chicago. and Dunhuang Texts",TiSales, Annede (1994) "MagarSongs,Naxi Pictograms, the International Association Sixth Seminar the betanStudies:Proceedings of of Studies Oslo, vol. 2, pp. 682-695. (Fagernes), for Tibetan in Tibetan WashShamans:Buddhism Societies, (1993) Civilized Samuel,Geoffrey ington. London. S.M. (1935) Psychomental oftheTungus, Complex Shirokogoroff, Helsinki. Siberian the Shaman, (1978) TheRiteTechnique Siikala,Anna-Leena of London. A Tantra: Critical The (2 vols.), David, (1959) Study Hevajra Snellgrove, - - (1987) Indo-Tibetan Boston. Buddhism (2 vols.), Buddhism: in Himalayan Elements RameshChandra (1987) "Pre-Buddhist Tewari, Association Journal ofOracles", The Institution ofBuddhist oftheInternational Studies10, pp. 135-155. London. Tulku(1986) HiddenTeachings of Tibet, Thondup, Tantra:SelectedChapters, Tokyo. (1974) The Samvarodaya Tsuda,Shinichi The on the Hague. (1978) of Religion, Study Reflections Jacques Waardenburg, in CentralAsia, Numen23, Waida, Manabu (1976) "Notes on Sacred Kingship pp. 179-190.

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Notes on the History of the Shamanic in Tibet and Inner Asia Author(s): Todd Gibson Source: Numen, Vol.

NOTES ON THE HISTORY OF THE SHAMANIC IN TIBET AND INNER ASIA

in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic

in Tibet and Inner Asia oftheShamanic History

in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic

in Tibet and Inner Asia oftheShamanic History

in Tibet and Inner Asia oftheShamanic History

and Inner Asia History of theShamanicin Tibet

in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic

in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic

46 'Jigs.bral, seemsto be related 1991: 771-772. The sman.mo to themu.sman

in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic

in Tibet and Inner Asia History oftheShamanic

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