Assignment -1 Research Methodology MB0034

ASSIGNMENT-1
MB 0034
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1. Explain the different types of research.

Types of Research
Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary. Research may be classified crudely
according to its major intent or the methods . According to the intent research may be classified
as:
Pure Research
It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any Intention to apply it in practice, e.g.,
Einstein's theory of relativity, Newton's contributions, Gatileo's contribution, etc. It is also known
as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness.
It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays foundation for applied
research. It offers solutions to marry practical p r oblems It helps to find the critical factors in a
practical problem. It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution
Applied Research
it is carried on to And solution to d real-life problem requiring an action or policy decision. It is
thus problem-oriented and action-directed, It seeks an immediate and practical result, e.g.,
marketing research carried on for developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase
experience of customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find solutions
to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by
loading to the discovery of new facts or testing of theory or a conceptual clarity. It can put theory
to the test. t may aid in conceptual clarification !t may integrate previously existing theories
Exploratory Research
It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which
the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined
objectives. It usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be to generate
new ideas, or to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem or to make a precise formulation
of the problem or to gather information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. "At the first level is the
discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships
between variables."
Descriptive Study
It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest type of research. It is
more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a
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community or institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the development of a young science
and useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. It can highlight important
methodological aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may be useful
for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research. They are valuable in
providing facts needed for planning social action program.
Diagnostic Study
It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards discovering what is
happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem and the possible solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior knowledge of the problem,
its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given population, adequate methods for collecting
accurate information, precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.
Evaluation Studies
It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of social or economic
programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of developmental projects on the development
of the project area. It is thus directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and
its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its success. It is concerned
with causal relationships and is more actively guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change
over time.
Action Research
It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an action programme launched
for solving a problem for improving an exiting situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis,
sharing of diagnostic information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of
organizational change, implementation of participation and communication process, and post
experimental evaluation.
According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:
1.Experimental Research: It is designed to asses the effects of particular variables on a phenomenon
by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether and in what
manner variables are related to each other.
2. Analytical Study: It is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to quantitative
data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to
numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method. It aims at testing hypothesis and
specifying and interpreting relationships.
3.Historical Research: It is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to
reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend
upon inference and logical analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct
observation.
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4. Survey: It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research involving collection of data directly

from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information,
explain phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for
making predications

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:
1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers can see and check.
2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or correctness of a statement or describing
things exactly as they are and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or
fantasizing.
3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact number or measurement. This avoids
colourful literature and vague meanings.
4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or collecting data in a systematic and
organized way so that the conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally
incomplete and give unreliable judgments and conclusions.
5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It means observation is unaffected by
the observer's values, beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as
they are, not as he might wish them to be.
6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible. Since human memory is
fallible, all data collected are recorded.
7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and then attempting to examine what
happens when that variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation - allowing
one variable to vary while holding all other variables constant.

3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has collected) whether or not the
hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to
accept the null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that we undertake for
making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps
involved in hypothesis testing are stated below:
Making a Formal Statement
The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho) and also of the alternative
hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis should clearly state, considering the nature of the research
problem. For instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the load bearing
capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in that case he can state his hypothesis as under

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Assignment -1 Research Methodology MB0034

Null hypothesis Ho: N =10 tons Alternative hypothesis Ha: N >10 tons Take another example. The average
score in an aptitude test administered at the national level is 80. To evaluate a state's education system, the
average score of 100 of the state's students selected on the random basis was 75. The state wants to know if
there is a significance difference between the local scores and the national scores. In such a situation the
hypothesis may be state as under: ,
Null hypothesis Ho: N =80 Alternative hypothesis Ha: p 0 80 The formulation of hypothesis is an important
step which must be accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the problem under
consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a
tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone tailed test, but when Ha is of the
type "whether greater or smaller" then w. use a two-tailed test.
Selecting a Significant Level
The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such the same should have specified.
Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1 % level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level
of significance are:
•The magnitude of the difference between sample ;
•The size of the sample;
•The variability of measurements within samples;
•Whether the hypothesis is directional or non - directional (A directional hypothesis is one which predicts the
direction of the difference between, say, means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the
context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.
Deciding the Distribution to Use
After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine the appropriate sampling
distribution. The choice generally remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting the
correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.
Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value
Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate value from the sample data concerning
the test statistic utilizing the relevant distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.
Calculation of the Probability
One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely as it has from expectations,
if the null hypothesis were in fact true.
Comparing the Probability
Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the specified value for a, the
significance level. If the calculated probability is equal to smaller than a value in case of one tailed test (and a/2 in
case of two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis), but if the
probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis. In case we reject Ho we run a risk of (at most level
of significance) committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho, then we run some risk of committing
error type II.

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Assignment -1 Research Methodology MB0034

4. Write a note on experimental design

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:
1. The principle of replication: The experiment should be reaped more than once. Thus, each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical accuracy of the experiments is
increased. For example, suppose we are to examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we
may divide the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety in the other part.
We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the
principle of replication to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one variety in
half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We can collect the data yield of the two
varieties and draw conclusion by comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in
comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of replication. The entire experiment
can even be repeated several times for better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty,
but computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication is introduced in order to
increase the precision of a study; that is to say, to increase the accuracy with which the main effects and
interactions can be estimated.
2. The principle of randomization: It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the
effect of extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates that we should design
or plan the `experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous factors can all be
combined under the general heading of "chance". For instance if we grow one variety of rice say in the
first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the other half, then it is just possible
that the soil fertility may be different in the first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our
results would not be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be grown in
different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling technique i.e., we may apply
randomization principle and protect ourselves against the effects of extraneous factors. As such, through
the application of the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the experimental error.
3. Principle of local control: It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the
extraneous factors, the known source of variabiitity, is made to vary deliberately over as wide a range as
necessary and this needs to be done in such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence
eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the experiment in a manner that
we can perform a two-way analysis of variance, in which the total variability of the data is divided into
three components attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In other words,
according to the principle of local control, we first divide the field into several homogeneous parts,
known as blocks, and then each such block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then
the treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general, blocks are the levels at which
we hold an extraneous factors fixed, so that we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data
by means of a two-way analysis of variance. In brief, through the principle of local control we can
eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the experimental error.

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5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as follows:
i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the case drawn out from its total
context for the purposes of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural group or community.
The scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify thee community values,
standards and their shared way of life.
ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of the individual cases must be
viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words, the social meaning of behaviour
must be taken into consideration.
iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be recognized. That is, in case of an
individual being the member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behaviour must never be
overlooked.
iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social behaviour must be clearly shown. That
is case histories that portray in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth
into a social person, are especially fruitful.
v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through adulthood must be stressed. In other
words, the life history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee person's various
experiences.
vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor. One of the important criteria for
the life history is that a person's
life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social situations.
vii) The 'life history material itself must be organised according to some conceptual framework, this in
turn would facilitate generalizations at a higher level.

6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of probability. This sampling
does not provide a chance of selection to each population element.
Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity, convenience and low cost.
Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to each population unit. The selection
probability sample may not be a representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from
sampling bias which will distort results.
The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible alternative due to non-availability
of a list of population, when the study does not aim at generalizing the findings to the population, when the
costs required for probability sampling may be too large, when probability sampling required more time, but
the time constraints and the time limit for completing the study do not permit it.

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