LabMan VTU 2.1.2010

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-2010, GB Technology gbtechnology@yahoo.com

1

Advanced Communication Laboratory
B.E Degree Course in Electronics & Communication Engineering

Laboratory Manual
for
Microwave Experiments

GB Technology
e mail: gbtechnology@yahoo.com

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2

Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) Notice

This manuscript may be protected
by one or more of Indian Copyright Registrations (Pending)

by
GB Technology

GB Technology restricts the use, in any form, of the information, in part or full,
contained in this manuscript ONLY on written permission of GB Technology.

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3

Contents

Introduction 5
1. Prerequisite for Experiments 6
1.1 Instruments- Main Features 6
1.2 Measurement Principle and General Instructions 7
1.3 Basics of Stripline 9
1.4 Basics of Microstrip line 11
2. Experiment I: Measurement of Directivity and Gain of Antennas: Printed dipole, Microstrip
Patch antenna, Printed Yagi antenna 17
2.1 Theory 17
2.1.1 Introduction to planar antennas 17
2.1.2 Directivity and gain - Definitions and formulas 18
2.1.3 Printed dipole 21
2.1.4 Microstrip patch antenna 23
2.1.5 Printed Yagi antenna 26
2.1.6 Pattern measurement 28
2.1.7 Absolute gain measurement 28
2.1.8 Relative gain measurement 30
2.2 Experiment 30
2.2.1 Measurement of directivity 30
2.2.2 Measurement of gain 35
2.2.3 Write-up 38
3. Experiment II: Determination of Coupling and Isolation Characteristics of Microstrip
Directional Couplers 39
3.1 Theory 39
3.1.1 Basic parameters of directional couplers 39
3.1.2 Branchline directional coupler 41
3.1.3 Parallel coupled directional coupler 43
3.2 Experiment 46
3.2.1 Measurement of coupling and isolation 46
3.2.2 Write-up 48

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4
4. Experiment IIIA Measurement of Resonance Characteristics of Microstrip Ring Resonator
and Determination of Dielectric Constant of the Substrate 51
4.1 Theory of Ring Resonator 51
4.2 Experiment 53
4.2.1 Measurement of resonant frequency 53
4.2.2 Write-up 54
5. Experiment IIIB Measurement of Power Division and Isolation Characteristics of a
Microstrip 3dB Power Divider 55
5.1 Theory of Power Divider 55
5.2 Experiment 59
5.2.1 Measurement of power division and isolation 59
5.2.2 Write-up 61

References 63

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5

Introduction

This manual describes a total of four laboratory experiments in the area of Microwave Integrated
Circuits (MICs). The first experiment is on planar antennas; namely printed Yagi antenna,
printed dipole and rectangular patch antenna; all fed by microstrip. The experiment involves
basic antenna measurement techniques for far field radiation pattern, directivity and gain. The
other three experiments deal with the characterization of MIC components realized in microstrip.
The components are directional couplers, ring resonator and power divider; all in microstrip
configuration.
All the four experiments are designed for operation within the frequency range 2.2 -3.0 GHz.
The instruments required for all the experiments are common; one is a microwave signal source
and the other is a VSWR meter which is to be used in conjunction with a coaxial detector.
Chapter1 presents essential background material for the experiments. Section 1.1 covers some
salient features of the source, VSWR meter and the detector. Section 1.2 provides the principle
behind the measurement technique and general instructions.
Sections 1.3 and 1.4 of Chapter 1 cover the theory of the two basic planar transmission lines used
in MICs; namely the stripline and the microstrip line. Since all the antennas and components
provided for the experiments are microstrip based, microstrip is covered in more detail (Sec.1.4).
Also, the theory of the coupled microstrip is included so that the principle of operation of parallel
coupled directional coupler (based on coupled microstrip) can be understood.
Chapters 2 to 5 are devoted to the four experiments. Each chapter is divided into two parts. The
first part covers the theory of the devices (antennas or MIC components) on which the
experiment is to be conducted. The second part contains the procedure to conduct the
experiment, document the results, and also prepare the report.
It is recommended that the students go through Chapter 1, particularly sections 1.1 and 1.2
before starting the experiment. Also going through the theoretical aspects of the devices provided
in each chapter would help in better understanding of the experiments. For any additional
theoretical information, students may refer the books listed at the end of the manual.

GB Technology
Mysore

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6

Prerequisite for Experiments

1.1 Instruments Main Features
The instruments required for all the experiments are common; one is a microwave signal source
and the other is a VSWR meter which is to be used in conjunction with a coaxial detector.

Microwave Signal Source
The microwave signal source has an operating frequency range from 2.2 to 3GHz. It is a compact
source with a minimum power output of 10mW over this frequency range. It has a built-in
modulation facility, provision for varying the frequency and RF power output, and a digital
display for frequency readout on the front panel. The source has a built-in 1KHz AM preset
mode so that standard VSWR meters can be used as test instruments for making measurements.
Coaxial Detector
The coaxial detector incorporates a nonlinear non-reciprocal device (Schottky barrier diode). The
nonlinearity of the diode is used to demodulate the 1KHz amplitude modulated microwave
signal. The desired demodulated output at 1KHz is filtered out in the detector. The amplitude of
the corresponding current in the diode is proportional to the RF power of the input signal; i.e,
square of the RF voltage. This square-law range is the desired operating range of the detector and
hence the detector is referred to as a square-law detector.
Figure 1.1 shows typical characteristic of a diode detector where the detector output voltage is
plotted in log scale as a function of input power in dBm. It can be seen that square-law response
of the detector is available over a restricted range of power input; typically below about -10dBm.

VSWR Meter
The measuring instrument for all the experiments is a VSWR meter, the input to which is the
detected output from the coaxial detector. The VSWR meter is basically a high gain low noise
audio amplifier tuned to a mean frequency of 1KHz. On the front panel is a display meter that is
square-law calibrated to read the SWR directly and relative power levels in dB. It has a RANGE
SWITCH covering 0 to 60dB in steps of 10dB and a GAIN CONTROL knob that provides
continuous variation over about 10dB. In your experiments, there is no requirement to read SWR
directly; you only need to read the relative power levels on the dB scale.
1

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7

10
-30 -20 -10 -0 10
0.1
100
1.0
-40
0.01
noise level
square law
region
saturation
Input power (dBm)
D
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
m
V
)
10
-30 -20 -10 -0 10
0.1
100
1.0
-40
0.01
noise level
square law
region
saturation
Input power (dBm)
D
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

v
o
l
t
a
g
e
(
m
V
)

1.2 Measurement Principle and General Instructions
Principle of Measurement
In all the experiments, you will be using the microwave signal source with 1KHz amplitude
modulation. Hence the input to the MIC component (or transmit antenna in antenna experiment)
is the microwave carrier modulated with 1KHz square wave. The output signal from the
component (or receive antenna) is fed to the coaxial detector. The detector demodulates this
modulated microwave signal and produces an output which is the 1KHz modulation envelope.
The output of the detector is fed to the VSWR meter which is square-law calibrated to read
(relative) power levels in dB with respect to the maximum (i.e., VSWR =1 or 0dB).
As discussed in section 1.1, detectors offer square-law response over a restricted range of input
powers. In order to enable correct measurements over a larger range of input power levels, the
calibration curve that is provided with the coaxial detector is to be used.
Calibration Graph to correct the readings of the VSWR meter during measurements
Figure 1.2 is a typical Calibration Graph for the detector cum VSWR meter. The actual readings
of the VSWR meter in dB(minus) are marked on the x-axis and the corrected values after taking
into account any deviation from square law response of the detector, are marked on the y-axis.
Please note that markings on the VSWR meter in dB are positive because they represent the
VSWR values in dB {i.e., 20log
10
(VSWR)}. The same dB numbers can be used to represent
Fig.1.1 Typical theoretical characteristic of a detector

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8
relative input signal power in dB with a negative sign. For example, the relative input power
level denoted by 50dB on the VSWR meter is to be read as -50dB relative signal power.

Note:
All VSWR meter readings are to be recorded as minus dB.
No correction is required for readings in the range from -70dB to -60dB because the graph is
linear (the detector response is square law). Deviation from square law increases with an increase
in the input power level above approximately -60dB. For readings above -60dB locate the point
corresponding to the VSWR meter reading (minus value) on the x- axis and then read the correct
value on the y-axis

Example:
Supposing the VSWR meter reads 48dB, locate -48dB point on the x-axis and read the correct
value on the y-axis as shown in the graph. The corrected value here is -49.5dB.

C
o
r
r
e
c
t
e
d

v
a
l
u
e

(
d
B
)

VSWR meter reading (dB)
Fig. 1.2 Typical Calibration Graph
Corrected value in dB versus the actual reading of the VSWR meter in dB(minus).
-75
-70
-65
-60
-55
-50
-45
-40
-75 -70 -65 -60 -55 -50 -45 -40

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9
1.3 Basics of Stripline
Stripline is a basic planar transmission line and can be considered as a flattened version of the
coaxial line. There are many types of planar transmission lines. In general, they are made of flat
metallic conductors that lie entirely in the same plane or in parallel planes. Planar transmission
lines form the transmission media for realizing Microwave Integrated Circuits; popularly known
as MICs. A microwave integrated circuit represents an extension of integrated circuit technology
to microwave frequencies. The technology involves printing the circuit on a metallized dielectric
substrate using the photolithographic technique, and then mounting the semiconductor and other
passive devices onto the circuit using either the soldering or bonding technique. The final circuit
is then packaged in a shielding enclosure.
It is important to recognize that a MIC is different from a conventional printed circuit card used
at low frequencies. In a low frequency printed circuit card, the printed conductors serve only as
conducting paths. In a MIC, the dimensions of the conducting paths as well as the parameters of
the dielectric substrate are part of the design and hence the widths and lengths of conductors will
have to be realized (etched out of a metallized substrate) with precision.
A strip transmission line consists of a central strip conductor placed in between two large ground
planes with the intervening medium completely filled with a homogeneous dielectric. Practical
striplines are constructed from two dielectric substrates, having the same thickness and dielectric
constant. Figure 1.3a illustrates the geometry of a stripline. The lower substrate of height b/2 has
the printed strip conductor of width w and thickness t (t<<w) on its top surface and complete
metallization on its lower surface. The top substrate, also of height b/2, has no metallization on
its lower side but its top surface is fully metallized. The two substrates are sandwiched to form a
homogeneous medium in between the two outer conducting surfaces that serve as ground planes.
A stripline, because of its homogeneous medium, supports a pure transverse electromagnetic
mode (TEM mode) as in a coaxial line. Figure 1.3b shows the typical electric and magnetic field
lines of this dominant mode. As illustrated, the field lines lie entirely in the transverse plane with
no component along the direction of propagation (z-direction in Fig.1.3b). These fields get
concentrated essentially near the strip conductor. The electric field lines terminate on the top and
bottom ground planes and the magnetic field lines form closed loops around the strip. The fields

Fig. 1.3 (a) Basic structure of stripline
(b) Typical TEM mode fields in the cross sectional plane
(b)

r
E lines
H lines
x
y
b
(a)
w
Ground
planes
Strip conductor
r
t

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10
decay rapidly in the lateral direction (x direction) on either side of the strip conductor. Therefore,
at sufficient distance from the strip conductor, the structure can be terminated with side metallic
walls without affecting the propagation characteristics.

As in the case of any TEM line, the phase velocity v
ph
, guide wavelength
g
and the
characteristic impedance Z
0
for a stripline are given by
( ) 1 1
0
0
0 0
.
Z
Z , ,
v
v
r
a
r
g
r
ph

= = =
where, v
0
and
0
denote the velocity of propagation and wavelength, respectively in free space,
r

is the relative dielectric constant of the dielectric medium. The parameter
a
Z
0
is the characteristic
impedance of the same stripline with the medium replaced by air (
r
=1) and it is a function of
the dimensional parameter w/b.
Figure 1.4 shows the variation of normalized characteristic impedance
r
Z
0
of stripline as a
function of strip width w/b. It can be seen that for fixed values of
r
and b, the characteristic
impedance reduces with an increase in the width of the strip conductor.

Striplines are generally used for the realization of passive components such as filters and
directional couplers.

Fig. 1.4 Z
0
r
as a function of w/b for symmetrical stripline
0
50
100
150
200
250
0 0.2 0.5 0.7 1 1.25 1.5
Z
0
r

(
o
h
m
s
)

w/b

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11
1.4 Basics of Microstrip line

The microstrip line, also referred simply as the microstrip, consists of a strip conductor on a flat
dielectric substrate, the reverse side of which is metallized to form the ground plane (Fig. 1.5a).
Geometrically, a stripline with the top substrate removed results in a microstrip. Unlike the
stripline, the microstrip is an inhomogeneous transmission line. Figure 1.5b shows the
approximate field distribution for the dominant mode. The electric and magnetic fields lie partly
inside the substrate and partly in the air medium above the substrate. At the air-dielectric
boundary, the tangential component of the displacement density D
r
becomes discontinuous.
From Maxwells equations, it can be shown that there must exist a longitudinal component of H
r

in order to satisfy the boundary conditions. That means, a pure TEM mode cannot exist in a
microstrip. In most practical applications, the dielectric substrate is electrically very thin (h <<
wavelength in microstrip) and the dielectric constant is much higher than that of air. Hence, a
major portion of the electric field is concentrated inside the substrate beneath the strip conductor
and the electric flux crossing the interface is very small. Higher the dielectric constant of the
substrate, larger is the concentration of energy inside the substrate and less in the air region.
Since the longitudinal components of the field lines are negligible in comparison with the
transverse components, the fields closely resemble the TEM mode. The dominant mode in a
microstrip is therefore termed as quasi-TEM and for most of the circuit design applications, it is
treated as TEM.

The main advantage of the microstrip over the stripline is that its top surface is accessible for
mounting discrete devices. Also minor adjustments can be made after the circuit is fabricated.
The circuit must however be shielded to minimize radiation loss or interference due to nearby
objects. Figure 1.6 shows the cross section of a shielded microstrip. The side walls and the top
wall must be sufficiently away from the strip conductor so as to have negligible effect on the
propagation. The side wall effects can be made insignificant by choosing c/w 10. In order to
avoid the propagation of waveguide modes while keeping the top wall effect negligible, the
distance b from the strip conductor to the top wall is kept approximately equal to 5h.

Fig. 1.5 (a) Basic structure of microstrip line
(b) Typical quasi - TEM mode field lines

r
h
w
Ground
plane
Dielectric
substrate
Strip conductor
y
x
(b)
z
r
Air
H lines
E lines
(a)
t

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12

Effective Dielectric Constant, Guide Wavelength and Characteristic Impedance
Since the field lines in a microstrip are partially in the dielectric substrate and partially in air, the
phase velocity of the propagating wave lies in between that of air and the dielectric medium.
Under the TEM approximation, the phase velocity v
ph
, the guide wavelength
g
and the
characteristic impedance Z
0
for a microstrip are given by
( ) 2 1
0
0
0 0
.
Z
Z , ,
v
v
ef
a
ef
g
ef
ph

= = =

where
ef
is the effective (relative) dielectric constant of the microstrip.
ef
satisfies the condition
1 <
ef
<
r
. The parameter
a
Z
0
is the characteristic impedance of the microstrip with the dielectric
replaced by air (
r
=1). The effective dielectric constant can be interpreted as the dielectric
constant of a homogeneous medium that replaces the dielectric and air regions of the microstrip
with the dimensional parameters retained as such. For practical designs, the following empirical
formulas for calculating the effective dielectric constant and characteristic impedance are quite
adequate.
The effective dielectric constant is given approximately by

The guide wavelength in microstrip can be obtained using (1.2) and (1.3).
Given the dimensions of the microstrip, the characteristic impedance Z
0
can be determined
using,

Fig. 1.6 Microstrip in a shielding enclosure
w
b
h
c
r
air
( ) 3 1
10
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
.
w
h
/
r r
ef
+
=

( ) 4 1
1 444 1 667 0 39 1
120
1
4
8 60
1
0
.
h
w
for .
h
w
ln . .
h
w
h
w
for
h
w
w
h
ln
Z
ef
ef
1
]
1
\
|
+ + +
|
\
|
+
=

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13
For a given characteristic impedance Z
0
and substrate parameters
r
and h, the width of the strip
conductor can be calculated using the expression,
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 5 1
2
61 0
39 0 1
2
1
1 2 1
2
2 2 8
1
2 2
.
h
w
for
.
. B ln B ln B
h
w
for e e
h
w
r r
r
A A
>
1
]
1
)
`
+
<
=

where

The above quasi-static formulas are valid for an infinitely thin strip conductor and the error in the
values of impedances is reported to be within about 1%.

Typical Characteristics
Figure 1.7 illustrates typical variation in the effective dielectric constant
ef
of a microstrip as a
function of the ratio w/h. As expected, for a fixed substrate thickness,
ef
increases gradually
with an increase in w and tends to saturate to the value of
r
.

( )
( ) b .
Z
B
a .
.
.
Z
A
r
r r
r r
6 1
60
6 1
11 0
23 0
1
1
2
1
60
0
2
0
+
+
=
0
2
4
6
8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
r
= 9.8
r
=3.2
w/h
e
f

Fig.1.7 Variation in the effective dielectric constant of a
microstrip (Fig. 1.5) as a function of w/h

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14
Figure 1.8 shows typical variation in the characteristic impedance Z
0
of a microstrip as a function
of w/h for two different values of the dielectric constant of the substrate (
r
= 3.2 and 9.8). As in
the case of a stripline, Z
0
decreases with an increase in the strip conductor width. Secondly, for
the same w/h ratio, larger the value of
r
, smaller is the characteristic impedance. It may be noted
that practical values of Z
0
used in microstrip circuits, lie in the approximate range 20 to 100.

Coupled Microstrip line

Coupled transmission lines are commonly used for designing directional couplers and filters. The
most important type is the coupled microstrip line. In this section we consider a coupled
microstrip line in which two strip conductors of equal width w run parallel to each other along
the direction of propagation (Fig. 1.9). The spacing between the conductors is s and their
thickness is t. This configuration is called parallel coupled or edge coupled microstrip line. In
practical circuits t is so small in comparison with s and w that it can be neglected.
As in the case of a single microstrip, the dominant mode of propagation in a parallel coupled
microstrip is quasi-TEM. When one of the strip conductors is excited, power is transferred to the
other conductor due to coupling of fields. Smaller the spacing s, stronger is the coupling.
The coupled structure has a vertical plane of symmetry passing midway between the two strip
conductors. In view of this symmetry, any general excitation of the coupled line can be
considered as a superposition of two simpler types of excitations; namely, the even-mode and the
odd-mode. Figure 1.10 illustrates how an excitation voltage V at one end of a strip conductor
(say, strip 1) can be decomposed into even- and odd-mode excitations. In the even-mode, each of
Fig. 1.8 Variation in the characteristic impedance of a
microstrip (Fig. 1.5) as a function of w/h
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
0 0.5 1 1. 5 2 2. 5 3
r
= 3.2

9.8
w/h
Z
0

(
O
h
m
s
)

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15
the two conductors is excited in a voltage V/2; that is, the voltages at the two strips are equal in
magnitude and in phase (both positive with respect to the ground). In the odd-mode, the two
strips 1 and 2 are excited in voltages V/2 and V/2, respectively; that is, the voltages are equal in
magnitude but opposite in phase (one positive and the other negative with respect to ground).
The superposition of these two normal mode excitations results in the original excitation.
Figure 1.10 also shows typical electric and magnetic field lines for the even- and odd- modes.
We note that at the plane of symmetry, marked PP, the normal component of the electric field is
zero for the even-mode excitation, whereas the tangential component is zero for the odd-mode
excitation. This is equivalent to placing at PP, a magnetic wall for the even-mode and an
electric wall (or perfect conductor) for the odd-mode.
In a coupled microstrip, the relative proportion of fields shared between the dielectric substrate
and air for the even- mode is different from that for the odd-mode. Corresponding to the even-
and odd- modes, we therefore define two different effective dielectric constants (
ef e
and
ef o
),
phase velocities (v
ph e
and v
ph o
) and characteristic impedances (Z
oe
and Z
oo
), where the last
subscript e in each parameter refers to even- mode and o refers to odd- mode.
The concentration of the electric field lines within the substrate for the even-mode is larger than
that for the odd-mode and hence
ef e
>
ef o
. Consequently, the phase velocity for the even-mode
is less than that for the odd- mode (v
ph,e
< v
ph o
). However, under the TEM approximation, which
is valid for most practical purposes, we can treat the phase velocities to be equal. But the
characteristic impedances for the two modes are quite different since they are strongly dependent
on the dimensional parameters.
Figure 1.11 shows typical variation in the even- and odd- mode characteristic impedances (Z
oe

and Z
oo
) of a microstrip as a function of the strip width w normalized with respect to the substrate
height h. Plots are shown for different values of the normalized spacing (s/h). It can be seen that
for a fixed set of values of w/h and s/h, the even- mode impedance is always greater than the
odd-mode impedance. Furthermore, as the spacing between the strip conductors increases, the
even- mode impedance decreases and the odd- mode impedance increases, and in the limit when
the strip conductors are decoupled, the two impedances reduce to the characteristic impedance of
a single microstrip (shown by the dotted line in Fig. 1.11).

Fig. 1.9 Schematic of coupled microstrip
r
h
w
Ground plane
Dielectric substrate
Strip conductors
w s
t

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16

Strip 1 Strip 2

Excitation V 0

Even mode V/2 V/2
Odd mode V/2 - V/2

P
Even mode
r

P
P
+ -
Odd mode
Strip 1
r
P
+ +
Strip 2
H lines
E lines
Fig. 1.10 Fields in a coupled microstrip for even- and odd-mode excitations
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
w/h
Z
o
e

,

Z
o
o

(
O
h
m
s
)

even
odd
s/h
0.128
0.128
1.28
1.28

Fig. 1.11 Variation in the even- and odd- mode impedances of a coupled microstrip
(see Fig. 1.10) as a function of normalized width of the strip conductor (
r
= 9.8 )

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17

Experiment I
Measurement of Directivity and Gain of Antennas
[Printed Yagi, Printed dipole and Microstrip patch antenna]

2.1 Theory

2.1.1 Introduction to Planar Antennas

The antennas provided for the experiment are in planar form. The printed dipole is a planar
version of the conventional dipole and the Yagi antenna is a planar form of the conventional
Yagi that is commonly made of conducting rods or tubes. The microstrip patch antenna is a
basic antenna belonging to a class of planar antennas based on microstrip techniques. The
antenna that is provided has a rectangular shaped conducting patch fed by a microstrip.

The function of an antenna is to transform guided electromagnetic energy in a transmission line
into free space radiated energy and vice versa. In the first case, the antenna functions as a
transmitting antenna and in the second case it functions as a receiving antenna. Antenna forms an
essential part of any system required to either transmit or receive electromagnetic energy. The
basic parameters of an antenna remain the same whether it is used for transmission or reception.

Antennas can be broadly classified into the following four categories- wire antennas such as the
dipoles and loops; aperture antennas such as the open ended waveguides and horns; reflector
antennas such as the parabolic dishes with feeds; and planar antennas. Among these different
types, planar antennas are relatively new.

Advantages of Planar Antennas

Planar antennas in the form of printed antennas offer several advantages over the conventional
antennas mentioned above. They are lightweight, low profile antennas and can be made
conformal with the use of flexible substrates. These features make them well suited for aerospace
applications such as for aircraft, missiles and satellites and also for land mobile systems.
Microstrip patch antennas in particular are thin and flat, and hence are ideal for mounting in the
interior of a vehicle, a cellular mobile phone system and portable manpack radars.
2

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18
2.1.2 Directivity and Gain Definitions and Formulas

Directivity and Gain are two important parameters of any antenna. Before defining these
parameters, we need to understand certain other characteristics of the antenna; namely, radiation
pattern, far field region, E- and H- plane half-power beam widths, and radiation intensity.
Radiation Pattern: Practical antennas do not radiate uniformly in all the directions. Every
antenna has a radiation pattern. It is a graphical representation of the distribution of radiated
energy as a function of angle about the antenna in the three-dimensional space. The radiation
pattern is generally measured in the far field region.
Far Field Region: The far field region is defined as that region of space where the angular field
distribution of the antenna is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. If the
maximum overall dimension of the antenna is D, then the far field region is commonly taken to
exist at distances greater than 2D
2
/
0
from the antenna where
0
is the free space wavelength.
The strength of radiation is usually measured in terms of field strength relative to some reference
level, and this reference level is usually the peak of the main beam. Radiation pattern plots,
however, can be shown in terms of field strength or power density or decibels (dB). Thus a
complete radiation pattern gives relative power radiated (or field strength) at all angles of and
in spherical coordinate system (Fig. 2.1) and requires a 3-dimensional presentation. However, in
practice, it is common to present cross sections of the radiation pattern in two principal planes of
interest. For linearly polarized antennas, these planes are the E- and H- planes.
E-plane: The E-plane is the plane passing through the antenna in the direction of the beam
maximum and parallel to the far-field E -vector.
H-plane: The H-plane is the plane passing through the antenna in the direction of the beam
maximum and parallel to the far-field H -vector.
Beam Width: The radiation pattern of a typical antenna consists of a main beam and a few
minor lobes. Minor lobes usually represent radiation in the undesired directions. The beam width
is a measure of sharpness of the main radiated beam. The 3dB beam width is the angular width
of a pattern between the half-power points; that is, -3dB points with respect to the maximum
field strength. In the electric field intensity pattern, it is the angular width between points that are
1/2 times the maximum intensity (Fig. 2.2).
Radiation Intensity: Radiation intensity in a given direction is defined as the power radiated by
the antenna per unit solid angle. It is obtained by multiplying the power density in the far field
region by the square of the radial distance from the antenna. If U denotes the radiation intensity
in W/unit solid angle (steradian or square degree) and S
rad
denotes the power density in W/m
2
,
then we can write
where R is the distance from the antenna to the far field point of observation. It may be noted that
in the far zone, the power density S
rad
depends on the radial distance from the antenna, but the
radiation intensity U is independent of the distance.
( ) 1 2
2
. S R U
rad
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

19
Directivity
The directivity D of an antenna is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation intensity (U
max
) to
the average radiation intensity (U
av
).

where S is the radiated power density (or the Poynting vector); S
av
is the average value over a
sphere and S
max
is the maximum value. The average power density over a sphere is given by

( ) ( ) 3 2
4
1
0
2
0
. d , S S
av

=

Thus the directivity D can be written as
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) 4 2
4
4
1
1
4
1
1
.
d , P d
, S
, S
D
A
n
max

where P
n
( ,) is the normalized power pattern and
A
is the beam solid angle.
For an isotropic antenna, the radiation is uniform in all the directions. Hence, P
n
( ,) =1 for all
angles of and ,
A
= 4, and D = 1.

Approximate Formula for Directivity
The radiation pattern of a practical antenna generally includes minor lobes. If we neglect the
effect of minor lobes, then the directivity can be calculated from the approximate formula
where
E
and
H
are the half power beam widths in radians in the of E- plane and H- plane,
respectively, of the antenna; and
o
E
and
o
H
denote the same beam widths in degrees.
In practice, the directivity is calculated from the measured E-plane and H-plane radiation
patterns. Therefore, we need to take into account the power lost in the minor lobes. An
approximate formula that is commonly used for directivity in practice is
The directivity expressions given in (2.2), (2.4) and (2.5) are dimensionless. In decibels, the
directivity given by
For example, directivity D =100 is 20dBi; that is 20dB above the isotropic radiator.
( ) ( )
( ) 2 2.
S
, S
U
, U
D
av
max
av
max

= =
( ) a . D
o
H
o
E
H E
5 2
41000 4

=
( ) ( ) ( ) 6 2 10
10
. D log dBi D =
( ) b . D
o
H
o
E
5 2
32400

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

20
Gain
The gain G of an antenna is defined as the product of its directivity and radiation efficiency.
where
rad
is the radiation efficiency of the antenna and is defined as
where P
rad
is the power radiated by the antenna, and P
acepted
is the power accepted by the antenna
at its input terminals. P
acepted
is equal to the sum of the power radiated and power dissipated
(P
dis
) in the antenna. The power dissipated includes the conductor loss as well as the dielectric
loss in the antenna.

( ) 8 2.
P P
P
P
P
dis rad
rad
accepted
rad
rad
+
= =
( ) 7 2. D G
rad
=
z
( = 0
o
)

( = 0
o
)
x
y
P ( , )

Antenna at
the origin
Fig. 2.1 Coordinate system for antenna pattern

Fig. 2.2 Typical normalized radiation patterns
is the half power beam width

E
N
1

z
Minor
lobes

0.707
(a) Field pattern

P
N
1
z
Minor
lobes

(b) Power pattern

0.5

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

21
2.1.3 Printed Dipole
The simplest type of antenna and one of the most commonly used is the center fed half wave
(
0
/2) dipole, where
0
is the free space wavelength. For a thin wire dipole (diameter less than
about
0
/100), the current distribution is approximately sinusoidal. Figure 2.3a shows the
approximate current distribution on a thin centre fed
0
/2 dipole.
In the far zone, the only nonzero field components are E

and H
, and they are related by the

expression H
= E
/
0
where
0
is the intrinsic impedance of free space. The expression for E

is
given by
Figure 2.3(b) shows the variation of E
in the E- and H- planes. The 3dB beam width is about 90

o

in the E-plane. In the H-plane, the pattern is omni-directional. The directivity of the
0
/2 dipole
is D =1.643 or 2.16 dBi.
Dipoles are generally constructed from conducting cylindrical rods. The length l of the dipole
for its first resonance is in the range 0.47
0
to 0.48
0
depending on the diameter of the wire. The
fatter the dipole, shorter is its resonant length.
Figure 2.4a shows a dipole realized in planar form. The dipole arms are printed as strip
conductors on one side of a dielectric substrate. This makes the cross section of the printed
dipole arms a rectangle of width w and thickness t. It is possible to theoretically derive an
equivalent circular cross section that gives a cylindrical dipole of the same performance. If a is
the radius of the cylindrical rod, then the equivalence is, a = (w + t)/4. With this equivalence, the
theoretical formulas available for a cylindrical dipole can be used to predict the characteristics of
the corresponding planar dipole. Since the dipole arms are printed, the thickness t of the
conductor pattern is negligibly small as compared with the width w. Further, the presence of the
dielectric substrate affects the effective resonant length of the dipole, although to a small extent.
The center fed wire dipole as shown in Fig. 2.3a has a balanced input in the form of a two-wire
line. The printed dipole has a 50 coaxial connector at the input end which is an unbalanced
input. We therefore need an unbalanced to balanced line converter (balun) plus an impedance
transformer to excite the printed dipole. A microstrip feed which incorporates both these features
is printed on the reverse side of the same substrate. The substrate containing the entire printed
pattern is mounted on a ground plane with a suitable bracket.
The microstrip feedline has a quarter- wave transformer and a stub line exciting the resonant slot,
which in turn excites the dipole. The dimensions are chosen so as to achieve an input impedance
of 50 at the connector point. The conductor plate on which the printed dipole is mounted serves
as a reflector. The reflector allows radiation only in the forward direction and thus enhances the
directivity of the dipole. Thus, the pattern of the dipole is different from that of the simple dipole
in free space. Another advantage of the printed dipole is its enhanced return loss bandwidth over
the dipole in free space. This is accomplished in view of its decrease in the length to width ratio.
( ) 9 2
.
sin
cos cos
E
1
]
1
\
|
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

22
Radiation pattern : The field patterns of the printed dipole in the E- and H- planes are shown
in Fig. 2.4b. The 3dB beamwidth is approximately 78
o
in the E- plane, and 190
o
in the H- plane.
Directivity: The theoretical directivity of the printed dipole is 4.6dBi which is higher than that
of a wire dipole. The bandwidth corresponding 10dB return loss for the printed dipole is ~ 29%.

(b)
Fig.2.4 (a) Printed dipole with microstrip feed
(b) E - and H- plane far field patterns
y
z
H-plane ( =90
o
)

E-plane ( =0
o
)
z

x
(a)
Ground plane
Metallization
on the backside
x
Coaxial input
Shorting pin
Substrate

Microstrip

Slit on the
backside
z
Fig.2.3 (a) Centre fed dipole with sinusoidal current
distribution, (b) E- and H- plane far field patterns
z
= 0
o

E-plane

90
o
- 90
o

z
x
y
H- plane
(b)

y
z
(a)
0
/2

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

23
2.1.4 Microstrip Patch Antenna

A microstrip patch antenna basically consists of a conducting patch on a grounded dielectric
substrate. The radiation and impedance characteristics of the patch antenna depend on the shape
and size of the patch and the feeding arrangement. The patch may be of various shapes;
rectangular, square, circular, triangular etc, and it may be excited at one or more feed points from
the edge of the patch or through the ground plane. Of the various shapes, the most popularly used
one is the rectangular shape. In the following we shall consider the theory of the rectangular
patch.

Radiation Mechanism of Rectangular Patch Antenna
In order to understand the radiation mechanism in a rectangular microstrip patch, consider a
linearly polarized radiating patch fed by a microstrip as shown in Fig. 2.5a. The substrate is
electrically thin (typically about 0.02
0
, where
0
is the free space wavelength) such that the
electric field between the patch and the ground plane is essentially x-directed and independent of
the x- coordinate. At resonance, the length L of the patch is approximately half wavelength (
g
/2)
in the microstrip medium. The input impedance of the patch is mainly governed by the patch
width W and this width is generally chosen to be between 0.5 to 2 times the length L, but much
larger than the strip width of the microstrip line feeding it. The larger the patch width, the
smaller is the input impedance and larger is the bandwidth. The width W should however be kept
less than 2L in order to avoid higher order modes.
Since the patch length is approximately
g
/2, the electric field lines (Fig. 2.5a) at each of the two
edges of width W are out of phase. The fringing fields at these two edges can be resolved into
normal and tangential components with respect to the ground plane. The normal components are
oppositely directed because the patch is nearly
g
/2 long; and therefore the far fields produced by
them cancel in the broadside direction (normal to the surface of the patch). On the other hand,
the far fields due to the tangential components that are parallel to the ground plane (see Fig.
2.5b) add in phase to give a maximum in the broadside direction. The patch antenna can
therefore be treated as two radiating slots separated by a distance L. It may be noted that the
fringing fields at the other two edges, each of length L do not contribute to radiation. This is
apparent from the reversal of electric field lines at the edge as shown in Fig. 2.5c.
Resonance Frequency
Because of the fringing fields, the effective size of the patch is slightly larger than its physical
size. The end correction l at each of the two radiating slots accounts for the capacitive
susceptance of the fringing fields. The effective length of the patch, denoted as L
ef
is given by
The end correction l is a function of the effective dielectric constant
ef
of the microstrip patch
and the ratio W/h where h is the height of the substrate. The expressions for l,
ef
, and the
resonant frequency f
r
are given by ,

( ) 10 2 2 . L L
ef
l + =

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

24
( )
( )
( ) 11 2
258 0 8 0
3 0 264 0
412 0
.
.
h
W
.
.
h
W
.
.
h
ef
ef
1
1
1
1
]
1
\
|
+
+ |
\
|
+
=
l

Radiation Pattern: The radiated field is linearly polarized with its electric field vector lying
parallel to the patch length. If the patch is assumed to lie in the y-z plane as shown in Fig. 2.6a,
then the E-plane pattern lies in the x-y plane and the H-plane pattern lies in the x-z plane.
Because of the ground plane on one side, the radiation of the patch is one sided. The expressions
for the electric field E
in these two principal planes are given below:

E-Plane ( = 90
o
, 0 90
o
and 270
o
360
o
)

H-Plane ( = 0
o
, 0 180
o
)

where k
0
= 2/
0
. The angle is measured from the z-axis and is measured from the x-axis.
Figure 2.6b shows the theoretical E- and H- plane far field patterns. The 3dB beamwidth is
around 75
o
in the E- plane and 82
o
in the H- plane.

Directivity
Since the radiation of the patch is one sided, it has a larger directivity than a simple dipole.
Directivity of the order of 6 to 7dBi is achievable with the patch antenna. The bandwidth of the
patch antenna is inherently narrow (~2.5%).
( ) 14 2
2
2
2 0
0
0
. sin
L k
cos
cos
h k
cos
h k
sin
E
ef
|
|
\
|
\
|
=
( ) 15 2
2
2
2
0
0
0
0
.
cos
W k
cos
W k
sin
sin
h k
sin
h k
sin
sin E
\
|
\
|
=
( ) 13 2
2
0
0
. velocity space free v ,
L
v
f
ef ef
r
= =
( ) 12 2 10 1
2
1
2
1
2 1
.
W
h
r r
ef
\
|
+ |
\
|
+ |
\
| +
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

25
Excitation of the patch: The input impedance of the patch antenna at the edge is generally
high. The input impedance varies approximately as cos
2
L
from the centre of one radiating edge
to the other, where
L
is the electrical length from the edge. We can locate a point on the patch
where the input impedance is 50 and feed the patch directly at this point using a 50 coaxial
connector fitted from the ground plane side. In the rectangular patch antenna provided for the
experiment, a
g
/4 (where
g
is the wavelength in microstrip) impedance transformer is used to
transform the patch impedance to 50. A coaxial connector is fitted from the ground plane side
with its centre pin piercing through the substrate and making contact with the other end of the
microstrip (2.6a).

Fig. 2.5 Rectangular microstrip patch antenna fed by microstrip, (b) End
correction due to fringing fields, (c) E- field lines at the non-radiating edges
(c)
Fig. 2.6 (a) Rectangular patch with coordinate system
(b) Theoretical E- and H- plane far field patterns
E- Plane
x
y

x
H- Plane
z

(b)
z

= 0

= 0
= 90
o

y
x
L
(a
)
r
Contact with centre
pin of coaxial input
L
h
r
L
W
h
Fringing E field
at radiating edge 1
Fringing E- field at
radiating edge 2
(a)
Ground plane
x

r
W
l l
(b)
L

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

26
2.1.5 Printed Yagi Antenna

Principle of Operation
The Yagi antenna consists of one excited dipole, one reflector and several parasitic directors.
Figure 2.7 shows the basic geometry of a 5-element Yagi antenna. Parasitic elements are shorted
dipoles that are not directly excited, but carry induced currents due to proximity coupling. By
adjusting the lengths and spacings of the parasitic elements with respect to the main excited
dipole we can control the amplitude and phase of the induced currents in the parasitic element.
If the length of the parasitic element is longer than the resonant length
0
/2, the induced current
lags the voltage as in an inductor, and if the length is less than
0
/2, the current leads the voltage
as in a capacitor. The reflector is a parasitic element with a lagging current and the directors are
parasitic elements with leading current. Yagi antenna is essentially an array supporting a
travelling wave, and its performance is determined by the current distribution in each element
and the phase velocity of the traveling wave.
The Yagi antenna produces a highly directive unidirectional radiation pattern. The field intensity
is maximum along the line of the array and towards the directors. The directivity is a function of
the number of directors or the length of the array. Normally only one reflector is used since
increasing the number of reflectors does not improve the directivity significantly. With five
elements (one reflector, one dipole and three directors) we can get a directivity of about 10dBi in
the forward direction (in the direction of the directors). The positions and lengths of the parasitic
elements strongly affect the input impedance of the Yagi antenna, and the feed network has to be
appropriately designed taking into consideration these effects.
As shown in Fig. 2.7, the excited dipole and the directors are of width w. The lengths and
spacings of the various elements as marked in the figure form the design parameters. The Yagi
antenna radiates an endfire beam with nearly the same beamwidth in both the E- and H- planes.

Printed 5-Element Yagi Array
Fig. 2.8a shows the geometry of a 5-element printed Yagi antenna. It uses a printed dipole with
the addition of printed parasitic elements on a dielectric substrate. The printed dipole
configuration is the same as that described in section 2.1.3. All the five elements are located on
one side of the substrate and the microstrip feed is on the reverse side of the substrate.
Radiation Pattern: Figure 2.8b shows typical field patterns of a Yagi array. The half-power
beamwidth is 52
o
in the E-plane and 64
o
in the H-plane.
Directivity: The antenna offers a directivity of about 10dBi. The bandwidth corresponding to
10dB return loss is approximately 10%.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

27

Microstrip
conductor on
backside
z
y
Substrate
Printed pattern on front
side of the substrate
(a)
(b)
y
z
E-plane
y
x
H-plane
Fig. 2.8(a) Geometry of the five-element printed Yagi antenna
with microstrip feed, (b) Typical far field patterns
Fig. 2.7 Basic configuration of a 5-element Yagi antenna
y
Reflector
Directors
0
/2
s
1
s
3
s
2

L
1

L
3

L
2
L
4

z

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

28
2.1.6 Pattern Measurement
As defined earlier, antenna pattern is a plot of radiated power distribution as a function of the
angle around the antenna kept in free space. This definition suggests the measurement procedure.
We go around the antenna and measure the radiated power density as a function of the angle. In
order to ensure that we measure only the radiated power, the following conditions must be
satisfied.
1. The surrounding space should be free of reflecting objects. Ideal environment is open free
space, but is difficult to obtain inside a laboratory. The laboratory walls and the instruments
around will reflect RF energy and perturb the measured pattern. This point should be kept in
mind while interpreting the measured pattern which may not conform to the theoretical pattern.
2. Measurement should be done in the far field region, i.e., the distance between the two
antennas must be greater than 2D
2
/
0
of both transmitting and receiving antennas.
3. The detector must be operated in the square law region, so that the reading is proportional to
the received power. For readings outside the square law region of the detector, use the
Calibration Graph provided to you.
In a practical pattern measurement, instead of going around the antenna to measure the radiated
power, the antenna whose pattern is to be measured is rotated around its axis keeping the other
antenna in a fixed position. It is common practice to connect the receiver (the detector- VSWR
meter combination) to the antenna on a rotating stand and keep the transmit antenna on a fixed
stand. The measured pattern is that of the antenna mounted on the rotating stand. In this
arrangement we are actually measuring the receive pattern. Since the radiation and receive
patterns are the same for an antenna, the positions of the transmitter and receiver can be
interchanged without affecting the measurement.

2.1.7 Absolute Gain Measurement
The power input to the antenna can be split into three parts, namely, power radiated into the free
space, power dissipated on the antenna and the power reflected back to the source. If the antenna
input is perfectly matched to the source impedance then the reflection coefficient is zero. The
power dissipated in the antenna cannot be made zero in most cases. Hence not all the power
input to the antenna is radiated. This is taken into account by the efficiency factor. The gain is a
product of the directivity and efficiency. The absolute gain measurement procedure includes all
the losses. The only assumption made is that the two antennas are identical in all respects. In the
following we obtain an expression for antenna gain in terms of measurable parameters.
Let P
t
be the power input to the transmit antenna. The power density S
t
at a distance R is equal to
the power density due to an isotropic source having the same input power multiplied by the gain
G
t
of the transmitting antenna.
If an antenna having an effective aperture area A
r
is used to receive the signal, then the power
received P
r
by it at the distance R is given by
.16) 2 (
4
2
R
G P
S
t t
t
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

29

The aperture area of the receiving antenna is related to its gain G
r
by the expression

where
0
is the free space wavelength. Substituting for S
t
and A
r
from (2.16) and (2.18)
respectively, in (2.17) we obtain
or

If the two antennas are identical, then G
r
= G
t
= G. The gain of the antennas is given by,
or
In decibels, equation (2.21) can be expressed as
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 23 2
4
20
2
1
0
10
.
R
log dB P dB P dB G
t r
|
|
\
|
+ =

This is the simplified principle of absolute gain measurement. The last term in (2.23) gives the
path loss.
For a given operating frequency, the free space wavelength
0
is known, Thus, if we measure the
distance R between the two antennas, the power input P
t
to the transmit antenna, and the received
power P
r
by the receive antenna, with the two antennas aligned for gain maximum and
polarization matched, we can calculate the gain of the antenna.
A far more accurate method of determining the gain at a specified frequency is to measure P
t
and
P
r
for three or four values of R (all lying in the far field zone) and then plot
r t
P P as a
function of R. From (2.22), we note that the slope of the graph gives the value of ( ) G
0
4 . By
substituting for
0
, we can calculate the gain G. In decibels, the gain is 10log
10
G.
.18) 2 (
4
2
0 r
r
G
A =
( ) 19 2
4
2
0
.
R
G G P P
r t t r

=
( ) 17 2. A S P
r t r
=
( ) 20 2
4
2
0
.
R
P
P
G G
t
r
t r

=
( ) 21 2
4
0
.
R
P
P
G
t
r
( ) 22 2
4
0
. R
G P
P
r
t

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

30
2.1.8 Relative Gain Measurement
Gain can also be measured with respect to a reference antenna whose gain has been measured by
other means. With a fixed transmit antenna, first use the reference antenna as the receiving
antenna and note the power received as P
ref
. Next, simply replace the reference antenna by the
test antenna and note the power received as P
test
. The gain of the test antenna is then given by
where G
ref
is the gain of the reference antenna with respect to the isotropic source.
In this method, it is assumed that both the reference and test antennas are perfectly matched.
Therefore, the accuracy of the measured gain depends on the extent to which the two antennas
are matched.

2.2 Experiment
Three types of planar antennas are provided: printed Yagi antenna, printed dipole and microstrip
rectangular patch antenna. All are designed to operate within the S-band with a centre frequency
around 2.4 GHz. The experiment involves
1. Measurement of E- and H- plane patterns and calculation of directivity
2. Measurement of gain Absolute gain method and Comparison method
Note:
Measurement of Gain: The Absolute Gain method is more accurate than the Comparison
method. The Absolute Gain method requires two identical antennas, and Comparison method
requires a reference antenna with known gain.
Use Absolute Gain method to measure the gain of the rectangular patch antenna (since its
bandwidth is inherently very narrow). Two Yagi antennas are also provided so that the gain of
the Yagi can also be measured using the Absolute Gain method. You can then use the Yagi
antenna with known (high)gain as a reference antenna to measure the gain of the printed dipole
by Comparison method
The experimental procedure is written by considering the Yagi antenna as an example. The
measurement procedure given is common to all the antennas.

2.2.1 Measurement of Directivity
Objective: (a) To measure the E- and H- plane radiation patterns of an antenna
(b) To determine the half-power beamwidths in the principal planes and calculate
the directivity of the antenna
Equipment/Components
1. Microwave signal source (2.2 -3 GHz)
2. VSWR meter
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) 24 2. dB P dB P dB G dB G
ref test ref
+ =

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

31
3. Coaxial detector
4. N(m) to SMA(F) adapter
5. Attenuator pad (3dB)
6. BNC/SMA connector fitted cables
7. Antenna stands
8. Planar antennas: Yagi antennas, printed dipole, microstrip rectangular patch antennas.
As an example, consider measuring the radiation pattern of Yagi antenna. Use the two identical
Yagi antennas ; one for transmission and the other for reception.

Procedure
1. Assemble the set up as shown in Fig. 2.9. Mount the two (identical) Yagi antennas on the
two stands.
Do not switch ON the signal source or the VSWR meter until you read the instructions
given at Sl. Nos. 2 and 3 below.
[In general, when the two antennas are not identical, the antenna whose pattern is to be
measured must be mounted on the stand which has provision for rotation as a function of
angle. You may consider this as the receiving antenna. The other antenna on the fixed stand
will then be the transmitting antenna.]
2. Procedure for switching ON the Microwave Signal Source
(a) Before switching ON the signal source, rotate the RF power level knob on the front
panel anti-clockwise to minimum position (lowest power output). Connect a 3dB attenuator
pad at the RF output port as shown in the diagram.
The RF power should not be switched ON without a load (attenuator pad or antenna)
connected to avoid damage to the RF circuits inside the source.
(b) Switch on the signal source in the following sequence:
First Power Switch to ON position and then RF Power Switch to ON position.
Set modulation switch to AM and modulation frequency to the 1KHz preset position (click at
extreme left).
Before making any change in the setup, i.e., changing cable connections, device or
attenuator, ensure that there is at least a 3dB attenuator pad at the RF output port of the
source. Alternatively, you can switch OFF the RF power while making any changes.
3. Procedure for switching ON the VSWR meter
The VSWR meter is to be used in conjunction with the coaxial detector. Keep the Range
Switch in the 40dB position and the Variable Gain Knob to maximum.
The choice of 40dB range initially, is to avoid the meter needle from kicking in case the input
power is high.
Switch ON the VSWR meter. Then change the Range setting to 50dB, 60dB till the meter
needle is within the reading range. You can vary the source RF power to get reading in one
of these ranges.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

32
4. How to record VSWR meter readings
Take all VSWR meter readings on the dB scale and record them as minus dB. Positive dB
numbers that you read refer to the VSWR meter gain, but for the input signal, it is negative
dB.
For example, if the Range Switch is in 40dB position and the needle on the meter points to
6dB on the dB scale, then note down the reading as (40+6) = - 46dB.
5. Keep the receiving antenna in the far zone of the transmitting antenna. That is, the distance R
between the two antennas must satisfy the relation R > 2D
2
/
0
, where D is the maximum size
of the antenna(s), and
0
is the free space wavelength. Calculate this value for the given
antennas and make sure that the distance between the antennas is greater than this R.
6. For E-plane Pattern: Align the two Yagi antennas along their main beam peaks (boresight
direction) and for horizontal polarization. Set the pointer on the receiving antenna stand to
read 0
o
.
7. Set the frequency of the source near 2.4GHz and vary frequency around this value to get
maximum reading on the VSWR meter. [When the frequency of the source is set to the
center frequency of the antennas, the VSWR meter will show maximum reading.]
8. With the antennas properly aligned and the pointer on the rotating stand set at 0
o
, adjust the
power output of the source to indicate high power in dB on the VSWR meter (say, - 46dB).
This is the reference value at the peak of the beam.
9. Next, rotate the antenna clockwise in steps of 5
o
at a time till 90
o
(or till the meter reading
falls to -70dB). Record the angles in column 1 and VSWR meter readings as minus dB in
column 2 of Table 2.1.
10. Return to 0
o
position. The VSWR meter needle should return to the reference level (-46dB).
In case of any minor deviation (which can occur due to power fluctuation), adjust the gain on
the VSWR meter slightly to read the same reference value. Repeat measurements by rotating
the antenna anticlockwise in steps of 5
o
till -90
o
(or till the meter reading falls to -70dB).
Record the angle and VSWR meter readings at every step in columns 5 and 6, respectively.
This completes the measurement in the E-plane.
11. For H-plane Pattern: Now turn both the antennas by 90
o
and mount them for vertical
polarization. Align the antennas for maximum reading on the VSWR meter.
Follow the same procedure as given above in steps 8 to 10 and tabulate the readings in Table
2.2 in the respective columns (as in Table 2.1).
This completes the measurement in the H-plane.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

33

Worksheet 1:
Table 2.1 : Measured Data for E-plane Pattern
Frequency =

Angle
(degrees)
Relative power level
Angle
(degrees)
VSWR
meter
reading
(dB)

Corrected
value
(dB)
Norma-
lized
value
(dB)
VSWR
meter
reading
(dB)

Corrected
value
(dB)
Norma-
lized
value
(dB)
0
5
10
:

:
x (ref)

y 0
:
:

:
0
-5
-10
:

:
0
:
:

:

Fig.2.9 Antenna test set up for measurement of radiation pattern and gain
Attenuator
pad
Signal source
2.2 3GHz

1KHz AM
Transmitting
antenna
Detector
Test antenna
(rotatable)
R
VSWR
meter

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

34

Table 2.2 : Measured Data for H-plane Pattern
Frequency =

Angle
(degrees)
Angle
(degrees)
VSWR
meter
reading
(dB)

Corrected
value
(dB)
Norma-
lized
value
(dB)
VSWR
meter
reading
(dB)

Corrected
value
(dB)
Norma-
lized
value
(dB)
0
5
10
:

:

0
:
:

:
0
-5
-10
:

:
0
:
:

:

1. Refer to the Calibration Graph that is provided with the detector and VSWR meter. Locate
the VSWR meter readings of columns 2 and 6 on the x-axis of the graph. Read the corrected
values on the y-axis and record them in columns 3 and 7, respectively.
[See Fig. 1.2 for an example. In Fig. 1.2, if x = -48dB, the corrected value y is -49.5dB]
2. Normalize all the readings by taking the reference value as 0dB. [For example, if the
corrected reference value is y = -49.5dB, then add 49.5dB to all the readings of column 3 and
7 and enter the normalized values in the respective adjacent columns. Plot the E- and H-
plane patterns on a polar plot showing normalized values in dB versus the angle.
3. For both the patterns, locate the -3dB points on either side of the peak (0dB) and note the
angle between them. This gives the -3dB beam widths
E
o
and
H
o
), in the E- and H-
planes, respectively.
4. The pattern directivity D can be calculated using the approximate formula given in (2.5b).

( )
( ) ( ) 26 2

400 32
10
25 2

400 32
o
H
o
E
10
o
H
o
E
.
,
log dBi D
or
.
,
D

=

=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

35
2.2.2 Measurement of Gain

Objective
(a) To measure the absolute gain of an antenna using two identical antennas
(b) To measure the gain of a given antenna using a reference antenna with known gain.
(comparison method)
1. Microwave signal source (2.2 -3GHz)
2. VSWR meter
3. Coaxial detector
4. Attenuator pads (3dB, 6 dB, 10dB)
5. N(m) to SMA(F)Adapter
6. BNC/ SMA cables
7. Antenna stands
8. Planar antennas: Yagi antennas -2, printed dipole, microstrip rectangular patch antenna.

(a) Measurement of Absolute Gain of an Antenna using Two Identical
Antennas
The absolute gain of an antenna can be measured if we have two identical antennas. For making
this measurement, two identical printed Yagi antennas are provided.
This experiment involves measurement of RF power input to the transmit antenna and the power
received at the receive antenna.
Procedure
1. Measure RF power input to the transmit antenna.
First we set the transmit power level. Connect all the three attenuator pads (3dB+6dB+10dB)
at the source output and then connect the detector and VSWR meter.
2. Switch ON the RF power with source in AM 1KHz modulation and frequency 2.4 GHz. Set
the VSWR range switch to 40dB range and variable gain knob to maximum.
Increase the RF power so that the VSWR meter shows reading in the 40dB range. This is the
reference power level. If the needle is at 46dB, then note this reference reading as P
ref
(dB) =
-46dB. Do not vary RF power setting on the source throughout the gain measurement.
3. Now, switch OFF the RF power output without disturbing the power level setting of the
source. Disconnect the detector and VSWR meter from the source.
4. Connect the equipment as in the experimental arrangement shown in Fig.2.9. Mount the two
identical Yagi antennas on the two antenna stands. The distance between the two antennas
must satisfy the far zone criterion.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

36
5 Align the two antennas for the same polarization (say vertical). Start with a minimum
distance R that satisfies the far zone criterion.
6. Switch ON the RF power. If the VSWR meter does not show any reading, increase the
transmit power by removing one or two of the attenuator pads. The VSWR meter gives the
received power level P
rec
(dB) at distance R.
7. Record R (cm), P
ref
(dB) (minus), value of attenuator pad(s) removed as A(dB)(plus) and the
received power level P
rec
(dB) (minus) in columns 1 , 2, 4 and 6, respectively, of Table 2.3.
8. Increase the distance R by 10cm at a time and record the VSWR meter readings. Do not
change the RF power level setting at the source. You may remove the attenuator pads to
increase the power to the transmit antenna. Record P
rec
(dB) and A(dB) for four different
values of R in Table 2.3.
9. The experiment can be repeated at other frequencies to obtain gain versus frequency plot.

Worksheet 2
1. Refer to the Calibration Graph that is provided to you. Locate the readings of column 2 on
the x-axis of the graph. Read the corrected values on the y-axis and record them in column 3
as P
ref
(dB). Similarly get the corrected values for P
rec
(column 6) from the User Graph and
record them as P
r
(dB) in column 7.
2. The power input P
t
dB) to the transmit antenna is calculated by adding the value of the
attenuator pad(s) removed to the corrected reference value P
ref
(dB).
For example, if P
ref
(dB) = -49.5dB, and one 10dB pad has been removed, then
P
t
(dB) = (-49.5 + 10)dB = -39.5dB.
Record P
t
(dB) in column 5 of Table 2.3.
3. For each value of R, calculate (P
t
- P
r
)dB and enter at column 8. Calculate the power ratio
(P
t
/ P
r
) using the following formula.
Calculate
r t
P P and enter at column 9 of Table 2.3.
3. Plot a graph with R (cm) along the x-axis and the power ratio
r t
P P along the y- axis.
4. From the graph, find the slope which is equal to 4/(
0
G). The derivation of the relevant
formula is given in section 2.1.7. Determine
0
(in cm) from the frequency setting of the
source and then calculate the gain G. In decibels, the absolute gain is 10log
10
G.

( ) ( )
( ) 27 2
10
10
.
dB P dB P
log anti
P
P
r t
r
t

=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

37
Table 2.3: Absolute Gain Measurement Measured data
Frequency =

(c) To Measure the Gain of an Antenna using a Reference Antenna

This is a comparison method. An antenna with known gain is used as a reference to measure the
gain of a given antenna.
Procedure
1. Use the experimental arrangement as shown in Fig.2.9. The reference antenna with known
gain is used as the receiving antenna. Adjust the distance between the two antennas to satisfy
the far -field criterion.
2. Align the two antennas for the same polarization and for maximum reception along the main
beam peaks. Note the VSWR meter reading as P
ref
(dB). Refer to the Calibration graph and
get the corrected value. Let P
ref
(dB) denote the corrected value.
3. Remove the reference antenna and connect the Test Antenna (whose gain is to be
determined) in its place and orient the antenna for the same polarization.
4. Note the VSWR meter reading as P
test
(dB). From the Calibration Graph, get the corrected
value and record it as P
test
(dB).
5. Repeat measurements at different frequency settings if gain versus frequency is required.

Worksheet 3
1. Calculate the absolute Gain G of the Test Antenna using the formula
where G
ref
is the absolute gain of the reference antenna.
For example, if P
test
= -50dB and P
ref
= -55dB, then the relative gain of the test antenna
with respect to the reference antenna is +5 dB, and its absolute gain is (G
ref
+ 5)dB.

R
(cm)
P
ref
(dB)

P
ref
(dB)
Att. pads

removed
A(dB)
P
t
(dB)
P
rec

(dB)
P
r

(dB)
(P
t
- P
r
)
(dB)
r t
P P
:
:
:
:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) [ ] ( ) 28 2. dB P dB P dB G dB G
'
ref
'
test ref
+ =

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

38

2.2.3 Write-up
1. Prepare a report by combining the results of worksheets 1, 2 and 3.
2. Compare the measured E- and H-plane patterns with the theoretical patterns. Also compare
the experimental and theoretical values of directivity. Which value is higher? Explain.
3. Compare the measured gain of the antennas with the theoretical values. Which value is
higher? Explain.
4. What are the sources of error in pattern and gain measurements?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

39

Experiment II

Determination of Coupling and Isolation
Characteristics of Microstrip Directional Couplers

3.1 Theory

A directional coupler is a 4-port reciprocal passive network. The basic function of a coupler is to
sample power flowing in one direction in a transmission line and reject power flowing in the
opposite direction. It also performs the function of power division but with the output signals
having 90
o
phase difference between them.

In microstrip and stripline configurations, two basic forms of directional couplers are commonly
used. They are called branchline coupler and parallel-coupled directional coupler. These couplers
form the basic blocks of many other microwave components, such as balanced mixers, variable
attenuators and PIN diode phase shifters.

3.1.1 Basic Parameters of Directional Couplers

In order to define the parameters of a directional coupler, consider the schematic of a four port
network shown in Fig. 3.1. We designate ports 1, 2, 3 and 4 as the input port, direct output port,
coupled port and isolated port, respectively. As marked in Fig. 3.1, let P
1i
be the power fed to
port 1 from a matched source, P
1r
denote the power reflected back from the input port; and P
2s
,
P
3s
and P
4s
denote the power outputs from the direct output port, coupled port and isolated port,
respectively. These power outputs emerging out of ports 2, 3 and 4 look into matched loads so
that there is no power incident back at these ports.

An ideal directional coupler is defined as one in which there is no reflection of power back from
the input port (P
1r
=0) and no power goes to the isolated port (P
4s
= 0). Then part of the input
power P
1i
comes out of the coupled port and the remaining power comes out of the direct
coupled port.

3

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

40

In a practical directional coupler, due to mismatch at the ports and losses in the circuit, the
reflected power P
1r
at the input port and the output power P
4s
at the isolated port are not zero. For
a practical coupler, the performance is specified by the following parameters:

where
S
31
= Voltage transmission coefficient from the port 1 (input port) to port 3 (coupled port) with
ports 2 and 4 match terminated.
S
41
= Voltage transmission coefficient from port 1(input port) to port 4 (isolated port), with ports
2 and 3 match terminated.
S
11
= Voltage reflection coefficient at port 1 with ports 2, 3 and 4 match terminated.
S
21
= Voltage transmission coefficient from port 1 to port 2 (direct output port) with ports 3 and
4 match terminated.
The parameters S
11
, S
21
, S
31
and S
41
are also called the scattering parameters of the four port
network. Negative signs are used in equations (3.1) to (3.3) so that the values of coupling,
isolation and return loss expressed in dB will be positive (as per the convention).

Fig. 3.1 Four port network schematic of a directional coupler
( ) 1 3 20 10
31 10
1
3
10
. S log
P
P
log ) dB ( C Coupling
i
s
=
=
( ) 2 3 20 10
41 10
1
4
10
. S log
P
P
log ) dB ( ISOL Isolation
i
s
=
=
( ) 3 3 20 10
11 10
1
1
10
. S log
P
P
log ) dB ( RL Loss turn Re
i
r
=
=
Input port
P
3s
Isolated port Coupled port

Directional
coupler
P
1i
P
4s
P
2s
Direct output port
P
1r
1
2
3 4

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

41
3.1.2 Branchline Directional Coupler

Figure 3.2 shows two typical layouts of a branchline coupler in microstrip. Basically, the coupler
consists of two main transmission lines directly bridged by two shunt branches. In Fig.3.2, AA
and BB can be considered as the main transmission lines shunted by branches AB and AB. Z
0a

denotes the characteristic impedance of the main lines (series branches) and Z
0b
that of the shunt
branches. All input and output lines have the same characteristic impedance Z
0
. At the design
frequency (f =f
0
), the physical length of each branch and the separation between the branches are
all one- quarter wavelength (
g0
/4) in the microstrip or the electrical length =
0
= /2.

For an ideal branchline coupler, the scattering parameters are given by,
where

It can be seen that the coupling factor S
31
depends on the ratio of the impedances of the series and
shunt branches. Irrespective of the coupling factor, the two output signals at ports 2 and 3 are
always out of phase by 90
0
.

Ideal 3-dB Coupler and its Theoretical Response
For a 3dB coupler, we need to choose S
21
= -j/2 and S
31
= -1/2 so that half of the input power
goes to the coupled port (port 3) and the remaining half of the power comes out of port 2. Then
( ) 5 3
1 1 1
2
0
2
0
2
0
.
Z Z Z
b
a

=
( ) 4 3 0
0
0
31
0
0
21 41 11
.
Z
Z
S ,
Z
Z
j S , S S
b
a a
= = = =
Fig. 3.2. Two typical layouts of branchline coupler

2
3 4
B
A
B

A

Z
0a

Z
0a

Z
0b

Z
0b

Z
0

Z
0

Z
0

Z
0

Input
port
Coupled
port
Direct
output port
Isolated
port
1
Z
oa

Z
oa
Z
0b

Z
0

Z
0

1
2
3 4
Z
0b

Z
0

Z
0

(a)
(b)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

42
from (3.4), we get Z
0a
= Z
0
/2 and Z
0b
= Z
0
. Since all input and output ports are matched to Z
0
=
50, we get, Z
0a
= 35.35, and Z
0b
= 50.

With port 1 as the input port, power fed to this port is equally divided between ports 2 and 3 with
no power going to port 4. The two output signals at ports 2 and 3 have a phase difference of 90
0
.
The coupler is completely matched at all the ports. This property, however, is valid only at the
centre frequency at which the shunt arms and the spacing between them are equal to one- quarter
wavelength in the medium.
Figure 3.3 shows the ideal theoretical response of a 3dB branchline coupler. The graph is shown
with port 1 as the input port. We note that at the centre frequency (f = f
0
), the coupling is 3dB and
the isolation in dB becomes infinite. These parameters deteriorate as the frequency deviates from
the centre frequency.

0
4
8
12
16
20
24
0.2 0.6 1 1.4 1.8

Fig. 3.3. Theoretical characteristics of 3dB branchline coupler
as a function of normalized frequency.
S
1
1
,

S
2
1
,

S
3
1
,

S
4
1

(
d
B
)

S
41

S
31

S
11

f / f
0

S
21

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

43
3.1.3 Parallel Coupled Directional Coupler

The parallel coupled directional coupler is another equally important configuration that finds
practical utility. While the branchline configuration is mainly used as a 3dB coupler, the parallel
coupled configuration is more suitable for achieving loose coupling and hence is used popularly
for sampling microwave power.

Principle of Operation

The propagation parameters of a coupled microstrip line are discussed in section 1.4 of chapter1.
Corresponding to the even- and odd- mode property of the coupled microstrip, we designate two
different characteristic impedances; Z
oe
for the even- mode and Z
oo
for the odd- mode. The two
modes also travel with different phase velocities (v
ph,e
and v
pho
), but under the TEM
approximation, we can treat them as equal for the purpose of analysis.

The parallel coupled directional coupler is essentially a section of parallel coupled transmission
line of length equal to one-quarter wavelength in the propagating medium. Figure 3.4 shows a
layout of the coupler in microstrip. The electrical length of the coupled line section is . The
width of the strip conductors in the coupled section is w and the spacing between them is s. The
four ports of the coupled line are decoupled at the ends to form four single microstrip lines.

If one of the ports is excited, then due to the electric and magnetic field interaction, the signal
gets coupled to the auxiliary line and the coupled signal travels in the direction opposite to that
of the input signal. Because the coupling takes place in the backward direction, the parallel
coupled line coupler is also referred as backward wave coupler.

Any one of the four ports can be chosen as the input port. With the port designations as marked,
consider port 1 as the input port. The coupled signal travels backwards in the auxiliary line and
appears at port 3. The remaining power comes out of port 2. Port 4 is the isolated port. The
amount of coupling depends on the spacing s between the parallel coupled conductors. The
Fig. 3.4 Typical layout of a parallel coupled directional coupler
Coupled
port
3
2
1
4
w
0
w
w
s

Isolated
port
Input
port
Direct output
port

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

44
voltage signals appearing at ports 2 and 3 differ in phase by 90
0
. Further, the voltage at the
coupled port 3 attains a maximum value when the electrical length = /2 or the physical length
L=
g0
/4 where
g0
is the guide wavelength in microstrip.

Design Formulas
At the design frequency (f =f
0
), the electrical length =
0
= /2 and the voltage coupling
coefficient of the coupler attains a maximum value. The expression for the maximum coupling
factor, denoted as C
0
, is given by
C
0
is also called the mean coupling factor at the design frequency. The characteristic impedances
Z
oe
and Z
oo
are related by the expression
( ) 7 3
0
. Z Z Z
oo oe
=
Using (3.6) and (3.7), we can obtain Z
oe
and Z
oo
in terms of the port impedance Z
0
.

Equation (3.8) forms the basic design equation for a parallel coupled line coupler. In the design
of the coupler, the mean coupling factor C
0
and the port impedance Z
0
are specified. Using (3.8),
the values of Z
oe
and Z
oo
are calculated which in turn are used to determine the dimensions of the
coupled line.
Frequency Response of an Ideal Coupler

The expressions for the scattering parameters (voltage transmission coefficients) S
21
and S
31
as a
function of frequency (equivalently, the electrical length ) are given by

( ) 9 3
1
1
2
0
2
0
21
.
sin j cos C
C
S
+
=
( ) 10 3
1
2
0
0
31
.
sin j cos C
sin C j
S

+
=
( ) 11 3 0
41 11
. S S = =
( ) 8 3
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
.
C
C
Z Z ,
C
C
Z Z
oo oe
+
+
=
( ) 6 3
0
.
Z Z
Z Z
C
oo oe
oo oe
+
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

45
We note that with port 1 as the input port, the amount of power coupled to port 3 at other
frequencies depends both on the electrical length of the coupled section at that frequency and on
the coupling factor C
0
chosen in the design. Since port 1 is matched, the remaining power
emerges out of the direct output port (port 2). The coupler offers perfect match and infinite
directivity at all frequencies. This result is a direct consequence of the fact that the even- and
odd- mode phase velocities are equal in the TEM analysis.

The theoretical frequency response of the coupler can be obtained from (3.9) and (3.10). Figure
3.5 shows the variation in the coupling C in dB as a function of the normalized frequency where
C is given by

The graph is shown for couplers with mean coupling C
0
= 3dB, 6dB and 10dB at the centre
frequency (f = f
0
). As can be seen, couplers with tightly coupled lines offer slightly higher
bandwidth as compared with the weakly coupled lines. As compared with a branchline coupler,
the parallel line coupler offers much higher bandwidth. For example, the bandwidth of a 3dB
branchline coupler is approximately 10% whereas that of a 3dB parallel line coupler is around
30% for the same coupling variation.

( ) 12 3 20
31 10
. S log ) dB ( C =
Fig. 3.5 Theoretical variation in coupling of a parallel line directional
coupler as a function of normalized frequency
0
5
10
15
20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
f/f
0
C
o
u
p
l
i
n
g

C

(
d
B
)

C
0
(dB) = 3
10
6

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

46
The formulas presented above are based on the assumption that the even- and odd-modes in the
coupled section propagate with the same phase velocity and hence have the same guide
wavelength and same electrical length for both the modes. In a microstrip, the quasi-TEM mode
fields result in different phase velocities for the even- and odd-modes. This is because the even-
mode has less fringing field in the air region than the odd mode. The effective dielectric constant
for the even- mode is slightly higher and consequently the phase velocity is slightly lower than
for the odd-mode. Because of the unequal phase velocities, practical microstrip couplers offer
poor directivity as compared with stripline couplers.

3.2 Experiment

3.2.1 Measurement of Coupling and Isolation

Objective: (a) To measure the coupling characteristics of a microstrip directional coupler
(b) To measure the isolation characteristics of a microstrip directional coupler

Equipment/Components required
1. Microwave signal source (2.2 3 GHz)
2. VSWR meter
3. Detector
4. N (m) to SMA(F) adaptor
5. Attenuator pads 3dB, 6dB, 10dB
6. Matched loads (50) -2
7. SMA/BNC connector fitted cables
8. Directional couplers: Microstrip branchline coupler

Microstrip parallel coupled coupler

Note:
For both the couplers, the impedance of input/ouput lines is 50.
Choose any one coupler for your experiment. The procedure given below applies to both.

Identify any one port as the input port (port 1). With respect to the input port, identify the
coupled port (port 3) and the isolated port (port 4). Measurement of coupling involves measuring
the transmission response between the input port (port1) and the coupled port (port 3). Similarly,
measurement of isolation of the coupler involves measuring the transmission response between
the input port and the isolated port (port 4). While making the measurement between any two
ports, the remaining two ports will have to be terminated in 50 matched loads.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

47
Procedure

1. Assemble the set up as shown in Fig. 3.6. Do not switch on the microwave signal source or
the VSWR meter until you read the instructions given at Sl. Nos. 2 and 3 below.

Before switching on the signal source, rotate the RF power level knob on the front panel anti-
clockwise to minimum position (lowest power output). Remember to connect a 6dB (or
10dB) attenuator pad at the RF output port of the source as shown in the diagram.
Switch on the signal source in the following sequence:
First Power Switch to ON position, then RF Power Switch to ON position.
Set modulation switch to AM and modulation frequency to the 1 KHZ preset position (click
at extreme left).

Keep the Range Switch in the 40dB range position and the Variable Gain Knob to maximum.
[Choice of 40 dB range initially is to avoid the meter needle from kicking in case the input
power is high].
Switch ON the VSWR meter.

4. To Measure the Coupling
(a) First measure reference power level by connecting the cable end at P to Q directly (Refer
Fig. 3.6). Set the frequency of the source to 2.3 GHz. Increase the RF power output of the
source till the VSWR meter shows a reading in the 50dB range (say 55dB). Record the
frequency (in GHz) in column 1 and the VSWR meter readings as P
1i
dB (minus value) in
column 2 of Table 3.1. Increase the frequency of the source in steps of 0.1GHz up to 2.8GHz
and note the corresponding readings of the VSWR meter. Column 2 now gives the reference
input power at different frequencies.
(b) Next insert the coupler (branchline or parallel coupled) between P and Q with input port
(say port1) connected to P and the coupled port (port 3) to Q. Terminate ports 2 and 4 of the
coupler in 50 matched loads. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at the above
frequencies as P
3s
dB (minus value) in column 3 of Table 3.1.

6. To measure the Isolation
The value of isolation is generally much greater than coupling. Therefore, choose a higher
reference values so that with the device connected, the meter needle does not go below 70dB.
(a) Connect the cable end at P to Q directly (Refer Fig. 3.6). Set the frequency of the source
to 2.3 GHz. Increase the RF power output of the source till the VSWR meter shows reading
in the 40dB range (say 48dB). Record the frequency (in GHz) in column 1 and the VSWR
meter readings as P
1i
dB (minus value) in column 2 of Table 3.2. Increase the frequency of
the source in steps of 0.1GHz up to 2.8GHz and note the corresponding readings of the
VSWR meter. Column 2 now gives the reference input power at different frequencies.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

48
(b) Connect the isolated port (port 4) to Q. Terminate ports 2 and 3 in matched loads. Record
the readings of the VSWR meter at the same frequencies as P
4s
dB (minus value) in column
3 of the same Table.

3.2.2 Write-up
Table 3.1 : Measured Data and Calculation of Coupling

Freq.
f (GHz)

VSWR meter readings

Coupling
C(dB) = P
1i
- P
3s

P
1i
(dB)
P
3s
(dB)

P
1i
(dB)

P
3s
(dB)

2.3
:
:

2.8

Fig.3.6 Test setup for measurement of coupling and isolation of couplers
Matched
load
Detector
Attenuator
pad
Parallel line
coupler
P
Q
Source
(2.2 3GHz)

1KHz AM Mod.
3
2
4
1
1 2
3 4
Branchline
coupler
VSWR
meter

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

49
Table 3.2 : Measured Data and Calculation of Isolation

Freq.
f (GHz)

VSWR meter readings

Isolation
Isol.(dB) = P
1i
- P
4s

P
1i
(dB)
P
4s
(dB)

P
1i
(dB)

P
4s
(dB)

2.3
:
:
:
:
2.8

1. Determination of coupling in decibels:
Using the Calibration Graph, get the corrected values of P
1i
(column 2) of Table 3.1 and
record them as P
1i
(dB) in column 4 of the same Table.
Similarly, get the corrected values of P
3s
(column 3) and record them as P
3s
(dB) in column
5 of Table 3.1.
Coupling C (dB) = P
1i
(dB)

- P
3s
(dB). Enter this value at column 6 of Table 3.1.

2. Determination of Isolation in decibels:
Using the Calibration graph, get the corrected values of P
1i
record them as P
1i
4s
(column 3) and record them as P
4s
(dB) in column
5 of Table 3.1.
Isol. (dB) = P
1i
(dB)

- P
4s
(dB). Enter this value at column 6 of Table 3.2.
3. Plot C(dB) and Isol.(dB) as a function of frequency.
Note that C(dB) = |S
31
| (dB) and Isol.(dB) = |S
41
| (dB)

Branchline Directional Coupler

4. Plot of coupling versus frequency: In the ideal case coupling

is 3dB at the centre frequency.
In the actual device, because of the losses in the connectors and in the microstrip line, the
measured coupling may be slightly higher. Away from the centre frequency, observe the
variation in the coupling as a function of frequency. Explain the variation.

5. Plot of isolation versus frequency: In the ideal case, the isolation is infinite dB at the centre
frequency and then it deteriorates as the frequency is either increased or decreased. In a
practical microstrip coupler, the isolation is finite.
Observe the variation in isolation as a function of frequency. Explain the variation.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

50

6. Determine the % bandwidth of the branchline coupler corresponding to (a) coupling variation
between 3 and 4.5dB and (b) 12dB isolation. Compare these two bandwidths. Which of the
two parameters of the coupler limits the bandwidth?

Parallel Coupled Directional Coupler

7. Plot of coupling versus frequency: The coupling value of this coupler is provided on the
component. Observe the variation in coupling as function of frequency. Explain the variation.

8. Plot of isolation versus frequency: In the ideal case, the isolation is infinite dB at the centre
frequency and then it deteriorates as the frequency is either increased or decreased. Observe
the variation in isolation as a function of frequency. Explain the variation.

9. Determine the % bandwidth of the parallel coupled directional coupler corresponding to (a)
coupling variation of 1.5dB with respect to the mean value and (b) 12dB isolation. Compare
the bandwidths in the two cases. Which of the two parameters of the coupler limits the
bandwidth?

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

51

Experiment IIIA

Measurement of Resonance Characteristics of
Microstrip Ring Resonator and Determination of
Dielectric Constant of the Substrate

4.1 Theory of Ring Resonator

Microstrip ring resonators are commonly used in the design of MIC components such as filters,
oscillators, and mixers. Microstrip ring resonator is formed by bending the strip conductor of a
microstrip in the form of a ring. Figure 4.1 shows the configuration along with the input and
output feed lines. The gap between the feed line and the ring determines the coupling. Smaller
the gap, tighter is the coupling.
Resonance is established when the mean circumference of the ring is equal to integral multiples
of guide wavelength in microstrip.
where, R

is the mean radius of the ring and n is the mode number. The other symbols are,

g
= guide wavelength in the microstrip
ef
= effective (relative) dielectric constant of the microstrip
v
0
= free space velocity
f
r
= resonant frequency of the ring
The expression for
ef
is given in (1.3) and is repeated below:
4
( ) 1 4 3 2 1 2
0
. , , , n for ,
f
nv
n R
ef r
g
L L L = = =

( ) 2 4
10
1
2
1
2
1
2 1
.
w
h
/
r r
ef
+
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

52
where h is the height of the dielectric substrate, and w is the width of the strip conductor in the
ring. From (4.1), we note that the lowest order resonance occurs when the mean circumference is
one wavelength (n =1) in the microstrip.
Ring resonator provides a simple experimental means of characterizing a microstrip substrate.
For a given microstrip ring, the dimensions are R , w and the substrate height h are known. The
resonant frequency of the ring is determined experimentally by measuring its transmission
response and noting the frequency at which the output shows a peak. The value of
ef
is first
calculated using (4.1). In order to calculate
r
from the knowledge of
ef
and w/h, we can recast
(4.2) in the form

It may be noted that the resonant frequency of the ring can be affected if the coupling at the gap
is very strong. In the resonator provided for the experiment, the coupling is just adequate to
observe the resonance peak, but not strong enough to affect the intrinsic resonant frequency of
the ring.

Fig. 4.1 (a) Layout of microstrp ring resonator with input and output lines
(b) Cross- section of microstrip
( ) 3 4
1
10
1
1
10
1 2
2 1
2 1
.
w
h
w
h
/
/
ef
r
1
1
]
1
+
|
\
|
+
1
1
]
1
\
|
+ +
=
w
gap
Output
Input
R

(a)
h

r
(b)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

53
4.2 Experiment
4.2.1 Measurement of Resonant Frequency
Objective
(a) To measure the resonance characteristics of a microstrip ring resonator
(b) To calculate the (relative) dielectric constant
r
of the substrate.

1. Microwave signal source (2.2 3 GHz)
2. VSWR meter
3. Detector
4. N(m) to SMA(F) adapter
5. Attenuator pad (3dB)
7. Microstrip ring resonator.

The microstrip ring resonator provided has its lowest order resonance (n =1) around 2.5 GHz.
The following parameters are specified on the ring resonator:
Strip conductor width (in the ring) w
Height of the substrate h
Mean radius of the ring R

Procedure


clockwise to minimum position (low power output). Connect a 3dB attenuator pad at the RF
output port of the source as shown in the diagram.
at extreme left).

The VSWR meter is to be used in conjunction with the coaxial detector. Keep the Range
Switch in the 40dB range and the Variable Gain Knob to Maximum.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

54
4. Set the frequency of the source to 2.2GHz. Connect P to Q directly.
Increase the power output of the source till the VSWR meter shows a reading of about 45dB.

5. Next insert the ring resonator between P and Q.
You may notice that the power output suddenly drops. The VSWR meter may not even show
any indication. That is because the ring resonator offers large attenuation away from
resonance.
Vary the frequency of the source slowly from 2.3GHz to 2.8GHz and observe the frequency
at which the VSWR meter reading shows a sharp peak. If no peak is observed, increase the
power output of the source and vary the frequency again. Note the frequency at which the
VSWR meter shows a peak. This is the (first order) resonant frequency f
r
of the resonator.

4.2.2 Write-up

1. For the ring resonator provided in the experiment, the values of R, w and h are given on the
device.
Substitute the value of the measured resonant frequency f
r
in (4.1) and calculate the value of
ef
of the microstrip.
Next, substitute the value of
ef
in (4.3) and calculate the relative dielectric constant
r
of the
substrate.
Fig.4.2 Test setup for measuring the resonant response of ring resonator
VSWR
meter
Detector
Attenuator
pad (3dB)
P
Q
Source
(2.2 3GHz)

1KHz AM Mod.
2 1

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

55

Experiment IIIB

Measurement of Power Division and Isolation
Characteristics of Microstrip 3dB Power Divider

The function of a power division network is to divide the input power into two or more outputs.
In this experiment, we shall study the characteristics of a two-way 3 dB power divider.

5.1 Theory of Power Divider

Scattering Matrix of 3 dB Power Divider

Figure 5.1 shows the line diagram of Y- junction as a power divider. Let port 1 be the input port
that is matched to the source; that is, input reflection coefficient S
11
= 0.

As an equal-split power divider, power incident at port1 gets divided equally between the two
output ports 2 and 3. Equal power division implies |S
21
| = |S
31
| = 1/2. The phase factors of S
21

and S
31
can be made equal to zero (multiples of 360
0
) by choosing the reference planes of ports 2
and 3 symmetrical with respect to port 1. Further, the device is reciprocal. With this information,
the scattering matrix can be written as

1
2
3 Input
Fig. 5.1 Schematic of an equal-split power
divider.
5

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

56

According to the unitary property of the scattering matrix for lossless networks; we have
[ ] [ ] [ ] ( ) 2 5. U S S
T
=

where [U] is a unit matrix. Applying (5.2 ) to (5.1), it can be shown that

and
( ) 4 5
2
1
33 23 22
. S S S = = =

Equation (5.4) indicates that ports 2 and 3 are not matched and the voltage reflection coefficient
at each of these ports is 1/2. Furthermore, the two output ports 2 and 3 are not mutually isolated.
Equation (5.4) is consistent with the theorem that a lossless, reciprocal, three port junction
cannot be matched at all the three ports.

Figure 5.2 shows the layout of a power divider with standard port impedance Z
0
= 50 at each of
the three ports. The impedance Z
0
of each output arm is transformed to 2Z
0
at the junction via a
quarter wave transformer (where
g0
is the guide wavelength in the medium) so that at the
junction, looking from the input port, the two output arms appearing in parallel yield an
impedance of Z
0
. The impedance of the quarter wave transformer is (2 Z
0
Z
0
) = Z
0
2.

[ ] ( ) 1 5
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
0
33 23
23 22
.
S S
S S S
=
( ) 3 5
23 22
. S S =
Fig. 5.2 Layout of equal-split power divider
1
2
3
Z
0

Z
0

Z
0

Z
0
2
Input

g0
/ 4

g0
/ 4

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

57
The power divider considered above is reciprocal. That is, if two signals of equal amplitude and
equal phase enter ports 2 and 3, they will combine and come out of port 1. However, signals that
do not meet this requirement will be reflected and part of the signal will leak into the adjacent
output port. That means, the two output ports are not isolated from each other.

Matched Power Divider

Figure 5.3 shows a matched power divider, popularly known also as the Wilkinson power
divider. It uses an isolation resistor R of value 2Z
0
between ports 2 and 3. With this resistor, the
device is completely matched at all the three ports, and ports 2 and 3 are isolated from each other
at the centre frequency (f
0
).

( ) 5 5 0
33 22
. S S = =

Summarizing the above results and considering the symmetry of ports 2 and 3 with respect to
port 1, we can write the scattering matrix of the matched power divider (Fig. 5.3) as

Theoretical Response of Matched 3dB Power Divider

From (5.6), we note that when a signal is fed to port 1, the power is divided equally between
ports 2 and 3. When equal-amplitude, in-phase signals are fed to ports 2 and 3, the device acts as
a power combiner and the entire power appears at port 1. If power is fed only to port 2 or port 3,
then half the power goes to port 1 and the other half gets dissipated in the isolation resistor. In all
the cases, ports 2 and 3 are mutually isolated.
Fig. 5.3 Matched equal-split power divider in microstrip
R= 2 Z
0
1
2
3

2 Z
0

Z
0

Z
0

Z
0

2 Z
0

g
0
/4
g
0
/4
[ ] ( ) 6 5
0 0 1
0 0 1
1 1 0
2
.
j
S
=

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

58
The scattering matrix of the matched power divider as a function of frequency can be derived by
considering the electrical length of the transformer section at ports 2 and 3 as instead of /2.
Figure 5.4 shows the theoretical response of the matched power divider as a function of
frequency f normalized with respect to the centre frequency f
0
. Note that at f = f
0
, = /2.
In Fig.5.4, the power division, isolation and return loss are expressed in dB using the following

This power divider offers a theoretical bandwidth of approximately 1.44:1 for input VSWR of
1.22 and an isolation of 20dB between the two output ports.

Fig.5.4 Theoretical variation in power division (S
21
(dB)), isolation
(S
32
(dB)) and return loss (S
11
(dB)) of matched microstrip power
divider (Fig. 5.3) as a function of normalized frequency
( ) ( ) 7 5 20 2 1
21 10 21
. S log ) dB ( S port to port division Power =
( ) ( ) 9 5 20 3 2
32 10 32
. S log ) dB ( S port to port Isolation =
( ) ( ) 10 5 20 1
11 10 11
. S log ) dB ( S port loss turn Re =
0
1.25 1.0 0.75
0.
1.5
10
20

f/f
0
S
21

S
32

S
11

S
2
1
,

S
3
2
,

S
1
1
(
d
B
)

S
32

( ) ( ) 8 5 20 3 1
31 10 31
. S log ) dB ( S port to port division Power =

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

59

5.2 Experiment
5.2.1 Measurement of Power Division and Isolation

Objective
To measure the power division and isolation characteristics of a microstrip 3dB power divider
1. Microwave signal source (2.2 -3GHz)
2. VSWR meter
3. Coaxial detector
4. Attenuator pads (6dB, 10dB)
5. Matched load
7. Microstrip 3dB power divider

Note:
The impedance of the input/output lines of the microstrip power divider is 50 and the isolation
resistor connected between the two output lines has a value of 100.
Measuring the power division property involves measuring the transmission response between
the input port (port1) and the two output ports (ports 2 and 3). Measuring the isolation property
involves measuring the transmission response between ports 2 and 3.
While measuring the transmission response between any two ports, the third port has to be
terminated in a matched load.
Procedure


clockwise to minimum position. Remember to connect a 6dB (or 10dB) attenuator pad at the
RF output port of the source as shown in the diagram.
at extreme left).

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

60
Keep the Range Switch in the 40dB range position and the Variable Gain Knob to Maximum.

4. Measure the reference power level
Connect the cable end at P to Q directly (Refer Fig. 5.5).
Set the frequency of the source to 2.3 GHz. Increase the RF power output of the source till
the VSWR meter shows a reading in the 50dB range (say 55dB). Note this reading as -55dB.
Increase the frequency of the source in steps of 0.1GHz up to 2.8GHz and note the
corresponding readings of the VSWR meter. Record the frequencies in column 1 and the
VSWR meter readings as P
1i
dB in column 2 of Table 5.1.

5. To measure the power division property
Insert the power divider between P and Q with input port (port1) connected to P and coupled
port 2 to Q. Terminate port 3 in a matched load.
Set the frequency of the source to 2.3GHz. Record the reading of the VSWR meter as P
2s
dB
in column 3 of Table 5.1. Next, interchange connections at port 2 and port 3. That is, connect
port 3 to Q. Terminate ports 2 in matched load. Record the reading of the VSWR meter as P
3s

Increase the frequency in steps of 0.1 GHz and repeat the above measurements up to 2.8GHz.
For every frequency setting, note P
2s
dB and P
3s
dB and record at columns 3 and 4 of Table
5.1.

6. To measure the isolation property
Remove the power divider from the set-up. Measure the reference power level again at the
same frequencies by following the procedure given at Sl. No. 4 above. Since the values of
isolation are much higher, you can keep the reference level slightly higher.
(a) Set the frequency of the source to 2.3 GHz. Increase the RF power output of the source
till the VSWR meter shows reading in the 40dB range (say 48dB). Record the frequency (in
GHz) in column 1 and the VSWR meter readings as P
2i
Increase the frequency of the source in steps of 0.1GHz up to 2.8GHz and note the
corresponding readings of the VSWR meter in column 2.
Insert the power divider between P and Q with port 2 as the input port connected to P and
port 3 to Q. Terminate port 1 in a matched load. Record the readings of the VSWR meter at
the same frequencies as P
3s

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

61

5.2.2 Write-up

Table 5.1: Measured Data and Calculation of Power Division

Freq.
f (GHz)

VSWR meter readings
Power
division
Port1 to 2
S
21
(dB)
Power
division
Port1 to 3
S
31
(dB)

P
1i
(dB)
P
2s
(dB)

P
3s
(dB)
P
1i
(dB)

P
2s
(dB)

P
3s
(dB)

2.3
:
:
:
:
2.8

Fig.5.5 Test setup for measurement of power division and isolation of
microstrip power divider
Matched
load
VSWR
meter
Detector
Attenuator
pad
Power
divider
P
Q
Source
(2.2 3GHz)

1KHz AM Mod.
1
2
3

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

62

Table 5.2: Measured Data and Calculation of Isolation

Freq.
f (GHz)

VSWR meter readings

Isolation
Port 2 to 3
S
32
(dB)

P
2i
(dB)
P
3s
(dB)
P
2i
(dB)

P
3s
(dB)

2.3
:
:
:
2.8

1. Determination of Power Division
1i
record them as P
1i
2s
and P
3s
and record them as P
2s
(dB) and P
3s
(dB) in
columns 6 and 7, respectively of Table 5.1.
Power division (loss) from port 1 to port 2 = P
1i
(dB)

- P
2s
(dB) = - 20 log
10
|S
21
|. Denote this
loss as S
21
(dB) and enter at column 8 of the Table 5.1.
Power division (loss) from port 1 to port 3 = P
1i
(dB)

- P
3s
(dB) = - 20 log
10
|S
31
|. Denote this
loss as S
31
(dB) and enter at column 9 of the Table 5.1

2. Determination of Isolation
2i
(column 2) and P
3s
(column 3) of
Table 5.2 and record them as P
2i
(dB) and P
3s
(dB) in columns 4 and 5, respectively, of the
same Table.
Isolation (dB) = P
2i
(dB)

- P
3s
(dB) = - 20 log
10
|S
32
|. Denote this as S
32
(dB) and enter at
column 6 of the Table 5.2
3. Plot power division S
21
(dB) and S
31
(dB) as a function of frequency.
Ideally the values of both these should be 3dB at the centre frequency. In the actual device,
because of the losses in the connectors and in the microstrip line, the measured loss will be
slightly higher. Compare the variation in the loss characteristic with the ideal response given
in Fig. 5.4.
From the plot determine the centre frequency.

4. Plot isolation S
32
(dB) as a function of frequency. Compare with the ideal response and
explain the difference.

5. Calculate the magnitudes of the scattering parameters from the measured loss at the centre
frequency. Compare with the theoretical values.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

63
References

For Antenna Experiment (Expt. No.I)

1. A.R. Harish and M. Sachidananda, Antennas and Wave Propagation, Oxford Univ. Press,
2007.
2. J.D. Kraus, Antennas, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edition, 1997.
3. C.A. Balanis, Antenna Theory Analysis and Design, John Wiley & Sons, 2
nd
Edition, 1997.

For Microstrip Components (Expt. Nos II, IIIA and IIIB)

4. D. M. Pozar, Microwave Engineering, Edison-Wesley, 1990.
5. Bharathi Bhat and S. K. Koul, Stripline-like Transmission Lines for Microwave Integrated
Circuits, Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1989.
6. K.C. Gupta, Microwaves, Wiley Eastern Ltd., 1979.
7. T. C. Edwards, Foundations for Microstrip Circuit Design, John Wiley & Sons, 1981.

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, and they are related by the

in the E- and H- planes. The 3dB beam width is about 90

in these two principal planes are given below:

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