Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (May 5, 1818March 14, 1883) was a German-Jewish philosopher, political economist, sociologist,

humanist, political theorist, re olutionary, an! communist icon" Mar#$s approach to history an! politics is in!icate! %y the opening line o& the &irst chapter o& The Communist Manifesto (1848)' ()he history o& all hitherto e#isting society is the history o& class struggles*" Mar# argue! that capitalism, li+e pre ious socioeconomic systems, will pro!uce internal tensions which will lea! to its !estruction" Just as capitalism replace! &eu!alism, capitalism itsel& will %e !isplace! %y communism, a classless society which emerges a&ter a transitional perio!,socialism,in which the state woul! %e nothing else %ut the re olutionary !ictatorship o& the proletariat" -n the one han!, Mar# argue! &or a systemic un!erstan!ing o& socioeconomic change" -n this mo!el, it is the structural contra!ictions within capitalism which necessitate its en!, gi ing way to communism' -n the other han!, Mar# argue! that socioeconomic change occurre! through organi.e! re olutionary action" -n this mo!el, capitalism will en! through the organi.e! actions o& an international wor+ing class, le! %y a /ommunist 0arty' 1/ommunism is &or us not a state o& a&&airs which is to %e esta%lishe!, an i!eal to which reality 2will3 ha e to a!4ust itsel&" 5e call communism the real mo ement which a%olishes the present state o& things" )he con!itions o& this mo ement result &rom the premises now in e#istence"1 (&rom )he German 6!eology) 5hile Mar# was a relati ely o%scure &igure in his own li&etime, his i!eas %egan to e#ert a ma4or in&luence on wor+ers$ mo ements shortly a&ter his !eath" )his in&luence was gi en a!!e! impetus %y the ictory o& the Mar#ist 7olshe i+s in the 8ussian -cto%er 8e olution, an! there are &ew parts o& the worl! which were not signi&icantly touche! %y Mar#ian i!eas in the course o& the twentieth century" Biography 9arl :einrich Mar# was %orn in )rier, in the 9ing!om o& 0russia$s 0ro ince o& the ;ower 8hine, the thir! o& se en chil!ren" :is &ather, :einrich Mar# (1<<<1838), %orn :erschel Mor!echai (the son o& ;e y Mor!echai (1<4318=4) an! wi&e > a ;wow (1<53-18?3)) was !escen!e! &rom a long line o& ra%%is %ut con erte! to ;utheran /hristianity, !espite his many !eistic ten!encies an! his a!miration o& such >nlightenment &igures as @oltaire an! 8ousseau, in or!er to %e allowe! to practice ;aw" Mar#$s mother was :enriette ne 0ress%urg (1<8818A3), she was the gran!-aunt o& in!ustrialists Gerar! 0hilips an! Bnton 0hilips an! a maternal !escen!ant o& the 7arent-/ohen &amily through her parents" Coon a&ter losing his 4o% as e!itor o& Rheinische Zeitung, a /ologne newspaper, 9arl Mar# was marrie! to Jenny on 5estphalen, the e!ucate! !aughter o& a 0russian %aron" )heir engagement was +ept secret at &irst, an! &or se eral years was oppose! %y %oth the Mar#es an! 5estphalens" Drom 1844 to 1848, Mar# en4oye! a ery com&orta%le li&estyle, with income !eri e! &rom the sale o& his wor+s, his salary, gi&ts &rom &rien!s an! allies' a large inheritance &rom his &athers !eath, long !elaye!, also %ecame a aila%le in March 1848" Euring the &irst hal& o& the 185=s the Mar# &amily li e! in po erty an! constant &ear o& cre!itors in a three room &lat on Eean Ctreet in Coho, ;on!on" Mar# an! Jenny alrea!y ha! &our chil!ren an! three more were to &ollow" -& these only three sur i e! to a!ulthoo!" Mar#$s ma4or source o& income at this time was >ngels, who was !rawing a stea!ily increasing income &rom the &amily %usiness in Manchester" )his was supplemente! %y wee+ly articles written as a &oreign correspon!ent &or the New York Daily Tribune. 6nheritances &rom one o& Jenny$s uncles an! her mother who !ie! in 185A allowe! the &amily to mo e to somewhat more salu%rious lo!gings at F Gra&ton )errace, 9entish )own a new su%ur% on the then-outs+irts o& ;on!on" Mar# generally li e! a han!-to-mouth e#istence, &ore er at the limits o& his resources, although this !i! e#ten! to some spen!ing on relati ely %ourgeois lu#uries, which he &elt were necessities &or his wi&e an! chil!ren gi en their social status an! the mores o& the time"

9arl Mar#$s )om% at :ighgate /emetery ;on!on Dollowing the !eath o& his wi&e Jenny in Eecem%er 1881, Mar# !e elope! a catarrh that +ept him in ill health &or the last &i&teen months o& his li&e" 6t e entually %rought on the %ronchitis an! pleurisy that +ille! him in ;on!on on March 14, 1883" :e !ie! a stateless person an! was %urie! in :ighgate /emetery, ;on!on, on March 1<, 1883" )he messages car e! on Mar#$s tom%stone are' (5-89>8C -D B;; ;BGEC HG6)>*, the &inal line o& The Communist Manifesto, an! Mar#Is ersion o& the 11th

Thesis on Feuerbach' ():> 0:6;-C-0:>8C :B@> -G;J 6G)>808>)>E ):> 5-8;E 6G @B86-HC 5BJC - ):> 0-6G) :-5>@>8 6C )- /:BGG> 6)* )he tom%stone was a monument %uilt in 1F54 %y the /ommunist 0arty o& Great 7ritain with a portrait %ust %y ;aurence 7ra!shawK Mar#$s original tom% ha! %een hum%ly a!orne!" 6n 1F<=, there was an unsuccess&ul attempt to !estroy the monument, with a homema!e %om%" Ce eral o& Mar#$s closest &rien!s spo+e at his &uneral, inclu!ing 5ilhelm ;ie%+necht an! Drie!rich >ngels" >ngels$ speech inclu!e! the wor!s' (-n the 14th o& March, at a Luarter to three in the a&ternoon, the greatest li ing thin+er cease! to thin+" :e ha! %een le&t alone &or scarcely two minutes, an! when we came %ac+ we &oun! him in his armchair, peace&ully gone to sleep , %ut &ore er"* Education Mar# was e!ucate! at home until the age o& thirteen" B&ter gra!uating &rom the )rier Gymnasium, Mar# enrolle! in the Hni ersity o& 7onn in 1835 at the age o& se enteenK he wishe! to stu!y philosophy an! literature, %ut his &ather insiste! that it was more practical to stu!y law" Bt 7onn he 4oine! the )rier )a ern /lu% !rin+ing society an! at one point ser e! as its presi!ent" 7ecause o& Mar#$s poor gra!es, his &ather &orce! him to trans&er to the &ar more serious an! aca!emically oriente! :um%ol!t-Hni ersitMt in 7erlin" Euring this perio!, Mar# wrote many poems an! essays concerning li&e, using the theological language acLuire! &rom his li%eral, !eistic &ather, such as 1the Eeity,1 %ut also a%sor%e! the atheistic philosophy o& the Joung :egelians who were prominent in 7erlin at the time" Mar# earne! a !octorate in 1841 with a thesis title! The Difference etween the Democritean an! "#icurean $hiloso#hy of Nature, %ut he ha! to su%mit his !issertation to the Hni ersity o& Jena as he was warne! that his reputation among the &aculty as a Joung :egelian ra!ical woul! lea! to a poor reception in 7erlin" London Mar# mo e! to ;on!on in May 184F, where he was to remain &or the rest o& his li&e" :e %rie&ly wor+e! as correspon!ent &or the Gew Jor+ )ri%une in 1851" 6n ;on!on Mar# !e ote! himsel& to two acti ities' re olutionary organi.ing, an! an attempt to un!erstan! political economy an! capitalism" :a ing rea! >ngels$ stu!y o& the wor+ing class, Mar# turne! away &rom philosophy an! !e ote! himsel& to the Dirst 6nternational, to whose General /ouncil he was electe! at its inception in 18A4" :e was particularly acti e in preparing &or the annual /ongresses o& the 6nternational an! lea!ing the struggle against the anarchist wing le! %y Mi+hail 7a+unin (181418<A)" Blthough Mar# won this contest, the trans&er o& the seat o& the General /ouncil &rom ;on!on to Gew Jor+ in 18<?, which Mar# supporte!, le! to the !ecline o& the 6nternational" )he most important political e ent !uring the e#istence o& the 6nternational was the $aris Commune of %&'% when the citi.ens o& 0aris re%elle! against their go ernment an! hel! the city &or two months" -n the %loo!y suppression o& this re%ellion, Mar# wrote one o& his most &amous pamphlets, The Ci(il )ar in France, an enthusiastic !e&ense o& the /ommune" Gi en the repeate! &ailures an! &rustrations o& wor+er$s re olutions an! mo ements, Mar# also sought to un!erstan! capitalism, an! spent a great !eal o& time in )he 7ritish ;i%rary stu!ying an! re&lecting on the wor+s o& political economists an! economic !ata" 7y 185< he ha! accumulate! o er 8== pages o& notes an! short essays on capital, lan!e! property, wage la%our, the state, &oreign tra!e an! the worl! mar+etK this wor+ howe er was not pu%lishe! until 1F41, un!er the title *run!risse" 6n 185F, Mar# was a%le to pu%lish Contribution to the Criti+ue of $olitical "conomy, his &irst serious economic wor+" 6n the early 18A=s he wor+e! on composing three large olumes, the Theories of ,ur#lus -alue, which !iscusse! the theoreticians o& political economy, particularly B!am Cmith an! Ea i! 8icar!o" )his wor+, that was pu%lishe! posthumously un!er the e!itorship o& 9arl 9auts+y is o&ten seen as the Dourth %oo+ o& Ca#ital, an! constitutes one o& the &irst comprehensi e treatises on the history o& economic thought" 6n 18A<, well %ehin! sche!ule, the &irst olume o& Ca#ital was pu%lishe!, a wor+ which analy.e! the capitalist process o& pro!uction" :ere, Mar# ela%orate! his la%or theory o& alue an! his conception o& surplus alue an! e#ploitation which he argue! woul! ultimately lea! to a &alling rate o& pro&it an! the collapse o& in!ustrial capitalism" @olumes 66 an! 666 remaine! mere manuscripts upon which Mar# continue! to wor+ &or the rest o& his li&e an! were pu%lishe! posthumously %y >ngels" Marx's thought )he Bmerican Mar# scholar :al Eraper once remar+e!, 1there are &ew thin+ers in mo!ern history whose thought has %een so %a!ly misrepresente!, %y Mar#ists an! anti-Mar#ists ali+e"1 )he legacy o& Mar#$s thought is %itterly conteste! %etween numerous ten!encies who claim to %e Mar#$s most accurate interpreters, inclu!ing %ut not e#clusi ely Mar#ist-;eninism, )rots+yism, Maoism, an! li%ertarian Mar#ism"

Influences on Marx's thought Mar#$s thought was strongly in&luence! %y' )he !ialectical metho! an! historical orientation o& Georg 5ilhelm Drie!rich :egelK )he classical political economy o& B!am Cmith an! Ea i! 8icar!oK Drench socialist an! sociological thought, in particular the thought o& Jean-JacLues 8ousseau, :enri !e Caint-Cimon an! /harles DourierK >arlier German philosophical materialism, particularly ;u!wig Deuer%ach )he soli!arity with the wor+ing class o& Drie!rich >ngels

Mar#$s iew o& history, which came to %e calle! historical materialism (contro ersially a!apte! as the philosophy o& !ialectical materialism %y >ngels an! ;enin) is certainly in&luence! %y :egel$s claim that reality (an! history) shoul! %e iewe! !ialectically" :egel %elie e! that human history is characteri.e! %y the mo ement &rom the &ragmentary towar! the complete an! the real (which was also a mo ement towar!s greater an! greater rationality)" Cometimes, :egel e#plaine!, this progressi e un&ol!ing o& the B%solute in ol es gra!ual, e olutionary accretion %ut at other times reLuires !iscontinuous, re olutionary leaps , episo!al uphea als against the e#isting status Luo" Dor e#ample, :egel strongly oppose! sla ery in the Hnite! Ctates !uring his li&etime, an! he en isione! a time when /hristian nations woul! eliminate it &rom their ci ili.ation" Mar#$s critiLues o& German philosophical i!ealism, 7ritish political-economy, an! Drench socialism !epen!e! hea ily on the in&luence o& Deuer%ach an! >ngels" :egel was an i!ealist, an! Mar# sought to rewrite !ialectics in materialist terms" :e wrote that :egelianism stoo! the mo ement o& reality on its hea!, an! that it was necessary to set it upon its &eet" Mar#$s acceptance o& this notion o& materialist !ialectics which re4ecte! :egel$s i!ealism was greatly in&luence! %y ;u!wig Deuer%ach" 6n The "ssence of Christianity, Deuer%ach argue! that Go! is really a creation o& man an! that the Lualities people attri%ute to Go! are really Lualities o& humanity" Bccor!ingly, Mar# argue! that it is the material worl! that is real an! that our i!eas o& it are conseLuences, not causes, o& the worl!" )hus, li+e :egel an! other philosophers, Mar# !istinguishe! %etween appearances an! reality" 7ut he !i! not %elie e that the material worl! hi!es &rom us the 1real1 worl! o& the i!ealK on the contrary, he thought that historically an! socially speci&ic i!eology pre ente! people &rom seeing the material con!itions o& their li es clearly" Philosophy Mar#$s philosophy hinges on his iew o& human nature" Dun!amentally, Mar# assume! that it is human nature to trans&orm nature, an! he calls this process o& trans&ormation 1la%our1 an! the capacity to trans&orm nature 1la%our power"1 Dor Mar#, this is simultaneously a physical an! a mental act' (B spi!er con!ucts operations that resem%le those o& a wea er, an! a %ee puts to shame many an architect in the construction o& her cells" 7ut what !istinguishes the worst architect &rom the %est o& %ees is this, that the architect raises his structure in imagination %e&ore he erects it in reality"* (Ca#ital, @ol" 6, /hap" <, 0t" 1) Mar# !i! not %elie e that all people wor+e! the same way, or that how one wor+s is entirely personal an! in!i i!ual" 6nstea!, he argue! that wor+ is a social acti ity an! that the con!itions an! &orms un!er an! through which people wor+ are socially !etermine! an! change o er time" 7eyon! these %asic points, Mar# ma!e no claims a%out human nature" Mar#$s analysis o& history &ocuses on the organi.ation o& la%or an! is %ase! on his !istinction %etween the means N &orces o& pro!uction, literally those things such as lan!, natural resources, an! technology, that are necessary &or the pro!uction o& material goo!s, an! the relations o& pro!uction, in other wor!s, the social relationships people enter into as they acLuire an! use the means o& pro!uction" )ogether these compose the mo!e o& pro!uction, an! Mar# !istinguishe! historical eras in terms o& !istinct mo!es o& pro!uction" Dor e#ample, Mar# o%ser e! that >uropean societies ha! progresse! &rom a &eu!al mo!e o& pro!uction to a capitalist mo!e o& pro!uction" Mar# %elie e! that un!er capitalism, the means o& pro!uction change more rapi!ly than the relations o& pro!uction (&or e#ample, we !e elop a new technology, such as the 6nternet, an! only later !o we !e elop laws to regulate that technology)" Dor Mar# this mismatch %etween (economic) %ase an! (social) superstructure is a ma4or source o& social !isruption an! con&lict" Mar# un!erstoo! the 1social relations o& pro!uction1 to comprise not only relations among in!i i!uals, %ut %etween or among groups o& people, or classes" Bs a scientist an! materialist, Mar# !i! not un!erstan! classes as purely su%4ecti e (in other wor!s, groups o& people who consciously i!enti&ie! with one another)" :e sought to !e&ine classes in terms o& o%4ecti e criteria, such as their access to resources" Dor Mar#, !i&&erent classes ha e !i ergent

interests, which is another source o& social !isruption an! con&lict" /on&lict %etween social classes %eing something which is inherent in all human history' ()he history o& all hitherto e#isting society is the history o& class struggles"* (The Communist Manifesto. /hapter 1) Mar# was especially concerne! with how people relate to that most &un!amental resource o& all, their own la%or power" Mar# wrote e#tensi ely a%out this in terms o& the pro%lem o& alienation" Bs with the !ialectic, Mar# %egan with a :egelian notion o& alienation %ut !e elope! a more materialist conception" Hn!er capitalism, social relationships o& pro!uction, such as among wor+ers or %etween wor+ers an! capitalists, are me!iate! through commo!ities, inclu!ing la%or, that are %ought an! sol! on the mar+et" Dor Mar#, the possi%ility that one may gi e up ownership o& one$s own la%or , one$s capacity to trans&orm the worl! , is tantamount to %eing alienate! &rom one$s own natureK it is a spiritual loss" Mar# !escri%e! this loss in terms o& commo!ity &etishism, in which the things that people pro!uce, commo!ities, appear to ha e a li&e an! mo ement o& their own to which humans an! their %eha ior merely a!apt" )his !isguises the &act that the e#change an! circulation o& commo!ities really are the pro!uct an! re&lection o& social relationships among people" Mar# calle! this re ersal 1commo!ity &etishism1 (at the time Mar# wrote, historians o& religion use! the wor! &etish to !escri%e something ma!e %y people, which people %elie e! ha! power o er them)" /ommo!ity &etishism is an e#ample o& what >ngels calle! &alse consciousness, which is closely relate! to the un!erstan!ing o& i!eology" 7y i!eology they meant i!eas that re&lect the interests o& a particular class at a particular time in history, %ut which are presente! as uni ersal an! eternal" Mar# an! >ngels$ point was not only that such %elie&s are at %est hal&-truthsK they ser e an important political &unction" 0ut another way, the control that one class e#ercises o er the means o& pro!uction inclu!es not only the pro!uction o& &oo! or manu&acture! goo!sK it inclu!es the pro!uction o& i!eas as well (this pro i!es one possi%le e#planation &or why mem%ers o& a su%or!inate class may hol! i!eas contrary to their own interests)" )hus, while such i!eas may %e &alse, they also re eal in co!e! &orm some truth a%out political relations" Dor e#ample, although the %elie& that the things people pro!uce are actually more pro!ucti e than the people who pro!uce them is literally a%sur!, it !oes re&lect (accor!ing to Mar# an! >ngels) that people un!er capitalism are alienate! &rom their own la%or-power" Political economy Mar# argue! that this alienation o& human wor+ (an! resulting commo!ity &etishism) is precisely the !e&ining &eature o& capitalism" 0rior to capitalism, mar+ets e#iste! in >urope where pro!ucers an! merchants %ought an! sol! commo!ities" Bccor!ing to Mar#, a capitalist mo!e o& pro!uction !e elope! in >urope when la%or itsel& %ecame a commo!ity,when peasants %ecame &ree to sell their own la%or-power, an! nee!e! to !o so %ecause they no longer possesse! their own lan!" 0eople sell their la%or-power when they accept compensation in return &or whate er wor+ they !o in a gi en perio! o& time (in other wor!s, they are not selling the pro!uct o& their la%or, %ut their capacity to wor+)" 6n return &or selling their la%or power they recei e money, which allows them to sur i e" )hose who must sell their la%or power are 1proletarians1" )he person who %uys the la%or power, generally someone who !oes own the lan! an! technology to pro!uce, is a 1capitalist1 or 1%ourgeois1" )he proletarians ine ita%ly outnum%er the capitalists" Bccor!ing to Mar#, capitalists ta+e a! antage o& the !i&&erence %etween the la%or mar+et an! the mar+et &or whate er commo!ity is pro!uce! %y the capitalist" Mar# o%ser e! that in practically e ery success&ul in!ustry input unit-costs are lower than output unit-prices" Mar# calle! the !i&&erence 1surplus alue1 an! argue! that this surplus alue ha! its source in surplus la%our, the !i&&erence %etween what it costs to +eep wor+ers ali e an! what they can pro!uce" )he capitalism is capa%le o& tremen!ous growth %ecause the capitalist can, an! has an incenti e to, rein est pro&its in new technologies an! capital eLuipment" Mar# consi!ere! the capitalist class to %e the most re olutionary in history, %ecause it constantly impro e! the means o& pro!uction" 7ut Mar# argue! that capitalism was prone to perio!ic crises" :e suggeste! that o er time, capitalists woul! in est more an! more in new technologies, an! less an! less in la%or" Cince Mar# %elie e! that surplus alue appropriate! &rom la%or is the source o& pro&its, he conclu!e! that the rate o& pro&it woul! &all e en as the economy grew" 5hen the rate o& pro&it &alls %elow a certain point, the result woul! %e a recession or !epression in which certain sectors o& the economy woul! collapse" Mar# thought that !uring such a crisis the price o& la%or woul! also &all, an! e entually ma+e possi%le the in estment in new technologies an! the growth o& new sectors o& the economy" Mar# %elie e! that this cycle o& growth, collapse, an! growth woul! %e punctuate! %y increasingly se ere crises" Moreo er, he %elie e! that the long-term conseLuence o& this process was necessarily the enrichment an! empowerment o& the capitalist class an! the impo erishment o& the proletariat" :e %elie e! that were the proletariat to sei.e the means o& pro!uction, they woul! encourage social relations that woul! %ene&it e eryone eLually, an! a

system o& pro!uction less ulnera%le to perio!ic crises" 6n general, Mar# thought that peace&ul negotiation o& this pro%lem was impractica%le, an! that a massi e well-organi.e! iolent re olution woul! %e reLuire!, %ecause the ruling class woul! not gi e up power without struggle" :e theori.e! that to esta%lish the socialist system, a !ictatorship o& the proletariat - a perio! where the nee!s o& the wor+ing-class, not o& capital, will %e the common !eci!ing &actor - must %e create! on a temporary %asis" Bs he wrote in his 1/ritiLue o& the Gotha 0rogram1, 1%etween capitalist an! communist society there lies the perio! o& the re olutionary trans&ormation o& the one into the other" /orrespon!ing to this is also a political transition perio! in which the state can %e nothing %ut the re olutionary !ictatorship o& the proletariat"12?33 5hile he allowe! &or the possi%ility o& peace&ul transition in some countries with strong !emocratic institutional structures (e"g" 7ritain, the HC an! the Getherlan!s), he suggeste! that in other countries with strong centrali.e! state-oriente! tra!itions, li+e Drance an! Germany, the 1le er o& our re olution must %e &orce"12?43 Marx's influence Ci# years a&ter Mar#$s !eath, >ngels an! others &oun!e! the 1Cecon! 6nternational1 as a %ase &or continue! political acti ism" )his organi.ation was &ar more success&ul than the Dirst 6nternational ha! %een, containing mass wor+ers$ parties, particularly the large an! success&ul Cocial Eemocratic 0arty o& Germany, which was pre!ominantly Mar#ist in outloo+" )his international collapse! in 1F14, howe er, in part %ecause some mem%ers turne! to >!war! 7ernstein$s 1e olutionary socialism1, an! in part %ecause o& !i isions precipitate! %y 5orl! 5ar 6" 5orl! 5ar 6 also le! to the 8ussian 8e olution o& 1F1< in which a le&t splinter o& the Cecon! 6nternational, the 7olshe i+s, le! %y @la!imir ;enin, too+ power" )he re olution !ynami.e! wor+ers aroun! the worl! into setting up their own section o& the 7olshe i+s$ 1)hir! 6nternational1" ;enin claime! to %e %oth the philosophical an! political heir to Mar#, an! !e elope! a political program, calle! 1;eninism1 or 17olshe ism1, which calle! &or re olution organi.e! an! le! %y a centrally organi.e! 1/ommunist 0arty1" Mar# %elie e! that the communist re olution woul! ta+e place in a! ance! in!ustrial societies such as Drance, Germany an! >nglan!, %ut ;enin argue! that in the age o& imperialism, an! !ue to the 1law o& une en !e elopment1, where 8ussia ha! on the one han!, an antiLuate! agricultural society, %ut on the other han!, some o& the most up-to-!ate in!ustrial concerns, the 1chain1 might %rea+ at its wea+est points, that is, in the so-calle! 1%ac+war!1 countries, an! ignite re olution in the a! ance! in!ustrial societies o& >urope, where society is rea!y &or socialism, an! which coul! then come to the ai! o& the wor+ers state in 8ussia" Mar# an! >ngels ma+e a ery signi&icant comment in the pre&ace to the 8ussian e!ition o& the Communist Manifesto' (Gow the Luestion is' can the 8ussian o%shchina, though greatly un!ermine!, yet a &orm o& prime al common ownership o& lan!, pass !irectly to the higher &orm o& /ommunist common ownershipO -r, on the contrary, must it &irst pass through the same process o& !issolution such as constitutes the historical e olution o& the 5estO )he only answer to that possi%le to!ay is this' 6& the 8ussian 8e olution %ecomes the signal &or a proletarian re olution in the 5est, so that %oth complement each other, the present 8ussian common ownership o& lan! may ser e as the starting point &or a communist !e elopment"* (Mar# an! >ngels, $reface to the Russian e!ition of the Communist Manifesto) Mar#$s wor!s ser e! as a starting point &or ;enin, who, together with )rots+y, always %elie e! that the 8ussian re olution must %ecome a 1signal &or a proletarian re olution in the 5est1" Cupporters o& )rots+y argue that the &ailure o& re olution in the 5est along the lines en isage! %y Mar#, to come to the ai! o& the 8ussian re olution a&ter 1F1<, le! to the rise o& Ctalinism, an! set the cast o& human history &or se enty years" )his is terme! the theory o& the 0ermanent 8e olution, which %ecame o&&icial policy in 8ussia until ;enin$s !eath in 1F?4 an! the su%seLuent !e elopment o& the concept o& 1Cocialism in one country1 %y Ctalin" 6n /hina Mao Pe!ong also claime! to %e an heir to Mar#, %ut argue! that peasants an! not 4ust wor+ers coul! play lea!ing roles in a /ommunist re olution, e en in thir! worl! countries mar+e! %y peasant &eu!alism in the a%sence o& in!ustrial wor+ers" Mao terme! this the Gew Eemocratic 8e olution" 6t was a !eparture &rom Mar#, who ha! state! that the re olutionary trans&ormation o& society coul! ta+e place only in countries that ha e achie e! a capitalist stage o& !e elopment with a proletarian ma4ority" Mar#ism-;eninism as espouse! %y Mao came to %e internationally +nown as Maoism" 6n Mar/0s 0Das 1a#ital0 (?==A), %iographer Drancis 5heen reiterates Ea i! Mc;ellan$s o%ser ation that since Mar#ism ha! not triumphe! in the 5est, 1it ha! not %een turne! into an o&&icial i!eology an! is thus the o%4ect o& serious stu!y unimpe!e! %y go ernment controls"1

)he &ollowing countries ha! go ernments at some point in the twentieth century who at least nominally a!here! to Mar#ism (those in %ol! still !i! as o& ?==8)' Bl%ania, B&ghanistan, Bngola, 7ulgaria, China, Cuba, /.echoslo a+ia, >ast Germany, >thiopia, :ungary, Laos, Moldo a, Mongolia, Mo.am%iLue, Gicaragua, !orth Korea, 0olan!, 8omania, 8ussia, Jugosla ia, "ietnam" 6n a!!ition, the 6n!ian states o& 9erala, )ripura an! #est Bengal ha e ha! Mar#ist go ernments" Mar#ist political parties an! mo ements ha e signi&icantly !ecline! since the &all o& the Co iet Hnion, with some e#ceptions, perhaps most nota%ly Gepal"

Karl Kauts$y (%ctober &', &()* - %ctober &+, &,-() was a lea!ing theoretician o& social democracy" :e %ecame a signi&icant &igure in Marxist history as the e!itor o& the &ourth olume o& Karl Marx$s economic critiLue, Das Kapital" :e %ecame the lea!ing promulgator o& %rthodox Marxism a&ter the !eath o& .riedrich Engels" Life 9arl 9auts+y was %orn in 0rague o& artistic mi!!le class parents" )he &amily mo e! to @ienna when he was se en years ol!" :e was stu!ying history an! philosophy at the Hni ersity o& @ienna in 18<4, an! %ecame a mem%er o& the Cocial Eemocratic 0arty o& Bustria (C0Q) in 18<5" 6n 188= he 4oine! a group o& German socialists in Purich who were supporte! &inancially %y 9arl :Rch%erg, an! who smuggle! socialist material into the 8eich at the time o& the Bnti-Cocialist ;aws" 6n&luence! %y >!uar! 7ernstein, :Rch%erg$s secretary, he %ecame a Mar#ist an! in 1881 isite! Mar# an! >ngels in >nglan!" 6n 1883, 9auts+y &oun!e! the monthly Die Neue Zeit (1)he Gew )ime1) in Ctuttgart, which %ecame a wee+ly in 18F=, an! was its e!itor until Ceptem%er 1F1< which ga e him a stea!y income an! allowe! him to propagate Mar#ism" Drom 1885 to 18F=, he spent time in ;on!on, where he %ecame a close &rien! o& Drie!rich >ngels" 6n 18F1, he co-authore! the >r&urt 0rogram o& the Cocial Eemocratic 0arty o& Germany (C0E) together with Bugust 7e%el an! >!uar! 7ernstein" Dollowing the !eath o& >ngels in 18F5, 9auts+y %ecame one o& the most important an! in&luential theoreticians o& Mar#ism, representing the centre current o& the party together with Bugust 7e%el" 5hen 7ernstein attac+e! the tra!itional Mar#ist position on the necessity &or re olution in the later 18F=s, 9auts+y !enounce! him, arguing that 7ernstein$s emphasis on the ethical &oun!ations o& Cocialism opene! the roa! to a call &or an alliance with the 1progressi e1 %ourgeoisie an! a non-class approach" 6n 1F14, when the German Cocial-Eemocrat !eputies in the 8eichstag ote! &or the war cre!its, 9auts+y, who was not a !eputy %ut atten!e! their meetings, ha! suggeste! a%staining" 9auts+y claime! that Germany was waging a !e&ensi e war against the threat o& /.arist 8ussia" :owe er, in June 1F15, a%out ten months a&ter the war ha! %egun an! when it ha! %ecome o% ious that this was going to %e a sustaine!, appallingly %rutal an! costly struggle, he issue! an appeal with >!uar! 7ernstein an! :ugo :aase against the pro-war lea!ers o& the C0E an! !enounce! the go ernment$s anne#ationist aims" 6n 1F1< he le&t the C0E &or the 6n!epen!ent Cocial Eemocratic 0arty o& Germany (HC0E), which unite! Cocialists who oppose! the war" 9auts+y was !escri%e! as a 1renega!e1 %y @la!imir ;enin, an! he in turn castigate! ;enin in his 1F34 wor+ Mar/ism an! olshe(ism2 Democracy an! Dictatorshi#' 1)he 7olshe i+s un!er ;eninIs lea!ership, howe er, succee!e! in capturing control o& the arme! &orces in 0etrogra! an! later in Moscow an! thus lai! the &oun!ation &or a new !ictatorship in place o& the ol! )sarist !ictatorship"1 :is wor+ ,ocial Democracy (s. Communism treate! the 7olshe ist rule in 8ussia" 6n 9auts+y$s iew, 7olshe i+s (or, /ommunists) ha! %een a conspirational organisation, which gaine! power %y a coup an! initiate! re olutionary changes &or which there were no economic presumptions in 8ussia" 6nstea!, a %ureaucratic society !e elope!, misery o& which eclipse! the pro%lems o& the 5estern capitalism" )he attempts (%e it un!erta+en %y ;enin or Ctalin) o& %uil!ing a wor+ing an! a&&luent socialist society &aile!" (Doreign tourists in 8ussia stan! in silent ama.ement %e&ore the gigantic enterprises create! there, as they stan! %e&ore the pyrami!s, &or e#ample" -nly sel!om !oes the thought occur to them what ensla ement, what lowering o& human sel&-esteem was connecte! with the construction o& those gigantic esta%lishments" )hey e#tracte! the means

&or the creation o& material pro!ucti e &orces %y !estroying the most essential pro!ucti e &orce o& all-the la%oring man" 6n the terri%le con!itions create! %y the 0iatilet+a, people rapi!ly perishe!" Co iet &ilms, o& course, !i! not show this"* (ch" A 3s ,o(iet Russia 4 ,ocialist ,tate5) Eduard Bernstein (January A, 185= Eecem%er 18, 1F3?) was a German social !emocratic theoretician an! politician, a mem%er o& the C0E, an! the &oun!er o& e olutionary socialism or re&ormism" Life 7ernstein was %orn in 7erlin to Jewish parents" :is political career %egan in 18<?, when he %ecame a mem%er o& the so-calle! "isenachers (name! a&ter the German town >isenach), a socialist party with Mar#ist ten!encies" 7ernstein$s party conteste! two elections against a ri al socialist party, %ut in %oth elections neither party was a%le to win a signi&icant ma4ority o& the le&t-wing ote" /onseLuently, together with Bugust 7e%el an! 5ilhelm ;ie%+necht, 7ernstein prepare! the "inigungs#arteitag (1uni&ication party congress1) with the ;assalleans in Gotha in 18<5" 6n 18<8, 7ernstein accepte! the position o& pri ate secretary &or social !emocratic patron 9arl :Rch%erg, who li e! in PSrich" -n -cto%er 1?, 18<8, -tto on 7ismarc+$s strict anti-Cocialist legislation was passe! in the 8eichstag, an!, as a result, 7ernstein &oun! himsel& an e#ile" 6n 1888, 7ismar+ success&ully con ince! the Cwiss go ernment to e#pel a num%er o& +ey mem%ers o& the German social !emocratic mo ement &rom its country, an! so 7ernstein mo e! to ;on!on, where he ha! close contacts to Drie!rich >ngels an! 9arl 9auts+y" "ie/s Die -orausset6ungen was 7ernstein$s most signi&icant wor+ an! was principally concerne! with re&uting Mar#$s pre!ictions a%out the imminent !emise o& capitalism" 6n it, 7ernstein pointe! out simple &acts that he too+ to %e e i!ence that Mar#$s pre!ictions were not %eing %orne out' he note! that the centralisation o& capitalist in!ustry, while signi&icant, was not %ecoming wholescale an! that the ownership o& capital was %ecoming more, an! not less, !i&&use" :e also pointe! out some o& the &laws in Mar#$s la%or theory o& alue" 6n its totality, 7ernstein$s analysis &orme! a power&ul critiLue o& Mar#ism, an! this le! to his ili&ication among many ortho!o# Mar#ists" 7ernstein remaine!, howe er, ery much a socialist, al%eit an unortho!o# one (he was not hostile to )ra!e Hnions an! 0ro!ucers /o-operati es)K he %elie e! that socialism woul! %e achie e! through capitalism, not through capitalism$s !estruction (as rights were gra!ually won %y wor+ers, their cause &or grie ance woul! %e !iminishe!, an! conseLuently, so too woul! the &oun!ation o& re olution)" Blthough Mar# woul! argue that &ree tra!e woul! %e the Luic+est &ul&illment o& the capitalist system, an! thus its en!, 7ernstein iewe! protectionism as helping only a selecti e &ew, %eing fortschrittsfein!lich (anti-progressi e), &or its negati e e&&ects on the masses" Germany$s protectionism, 7ernstein argue!, was only %ase! on political e#pe!iency, isolating Germany &rom the worl! (especially &rom 7ritain), creating an autar+y that woul! only result in con&lict %etween Germany an! the rest o& the worl!" "ladimir Ilyich Lenin (Bpril ?? 18<= January ?1, 1F?4), %orn "ladimir Ilyich 0lyano was a 8ussian re olutionary, a communist politician, the principal lea!er o& the -cto%er 8e olution, the &irst hea! o& the 8ussian Co iet Cocialist 8epu%lic an!, &rom 1F??, the &irst !e facto lea!er o& the Co iet Hnion" 6n 1FFF, he was name! %y )ime

Maga.ine as one o& the 1== most in&luential people o& the ?=th century" :is contri%utions to Mar#ist theory are commonly re&erre! to as ;eninism" Early life 7orn in Cim%irs+ later rename! Hlyano s+ a&ter its most &amous son %esi!e the @olga 8i er in the 8ussian >mpire, ;enin was the son o& 6lya Gi+olae ich Hlyano an! Maria Ble#an!ro na Hlyano a" :is &ather was a success&ul 8ussian o&&icial in pu%lic e!ucation who wante! !emocracy" )he &amily was o& mi#e! ethnicity, his ancestry %eing (8ussian, Mor!o ian, 9almy+, Jewish (see 7lan+ &amily), @olgan German, an! Cwe!ish, an! possi%ly others* accor!ing to %iographer Emitri @ol+ogono " ;enin was %apti.e! into the 8ussian -rtho!o# /hurch" 6n January 188A, ;eninIs &ather, a schoolmaster, !ie! o& a cere%ral hemorrhage, an!, in May 188<, when ;enin was 1< years ol!, his el!est %rother Ble#an!er was arreste! an! hange! &or participating in a terrorist %om% plot threatening the li&e o& )sar Ble#an!er 666" :is sister Bnna, who was with Ble#an!er at the time o& his arrest, was %anishe! to his &amily estate in the illage o& 9o+ush+ino" )his e ent ra!icali.e! ;enin, an! his o&&icial Co iet %iographies !escri%e it as %eing central to the re olutionary trac+ o& his li&e" 6t is also signi&icant, perhaps, that this emotional uphea al transpire! in the same year as that which saw him enroll at the 9a.an Ctate Hni ersity" )he phrase (5e will &ollow a !i&&erent path* re&ers to ;enin$s choosing a Mar#ist approach to popular re olution, instea! o& anarchist or in!i i!ualist metho!s" Bs ;enin %ecame intereste! in Mar#ism, he was in ol e! in stu!ent protests an! was su%seLuently arreste!" :e was then e#pelle! &rom 9a.an Hni ersity &or his political i!eas" :e continue! to stu!y in!epen!ently, howe er, an! it was !uring this perio! o& e#ile that he &irst &amiliari.e! himsel& with 9arl Mar#Is Das 1a#ital" ;enin was later permitte! to continue his stu!ies, this time at the Hni ersity o& Caint 0eters%urg, an!, %y 18F1, ha! %een a!mitte! to the 7ar" 6n January 18F?, ;enin was awar!e! a &irst class !egree in law %y the Hni ersity" :e also !istinguishe! himsel& in ;atin an! Gree+, an! learne! German, Drench an! >nglish" :is +nowle!ge o& the latter two languages was limite!' he relie! on 6nessa Brman! to translate an article into Drench an! into >nglish in 1F1<" 1e olutionary acti ity2 tra el and exile ;enin practice! as a lawyer &or some years in Camara, a port on the @olga ri er, %e&ore mo ing to Ct 0eters%urg in 18F3" 8ather than pursuing a legal career, he %ecame increasingly in ol e! in re olutionary propagan!a e&&orts, 4oining the local Mar#ist group" -n Eecem%er <, 18F5, ;enin was arreste!, !etaine! %y authorities &or &ourteen months, in cell 1F3 o& the Ct 0eters%urg 8eman! 0rison, an! then release! an! e#ile! to the illage o& Chushens+oye in Ci%eria, where he mingle! with such nota%le Mar#ists as Georgy 0le+hano , who ha! intro!uce! socialism to 8ussia" 6n July 18F8, ;enin marrie! socialist acti ist Ga!e.h!a 9rups+aya an! he pu%lishe! the %oo+ The De(elo#ment of Ca#italism in Russia in Bpril 18FF"21=3 6n 1F==, his e#ile came to an en!, an! he %egan his tra els throughout 8ussia an! the rest o& >urope" ;enin li e! in Purich, Gene a (where he lecture! an! stu!ie! at Gene a Hni ersity), Munich, 0rague, @ienna, Manchester an! ;on!on, an!, !uring this time, he co-&oun!e! the newspaper 3skra (()he Cpar+*) with Julius Marto , who later %ecame a lea!ing opponent" :e also wrote se eral articles an! %oo+s relate! to the re olutionary mo ement, stri ing to recruit &uture Cocial Eemocrats" :e %egan using arious aliases, &inally settling upon 1;enin1" ;enin was acti e in the 8ussian Cocial Eemocratic ;a%our 0arty (8CE;0K TUVTW in 8ussian) an!, in 1F=3, le! the 7olshe i+ &action a&ter a split with the Menshe i+s" )he names X7olshe i+I, or XMa4orityI, an! XMenshe i+I, or XMinorityI, re&erre! to the narrow out oting o& the Menshe i+s in the !ecision to limit party mem%ership to re olutionary pro&essionals, rather than inclu!ing sympathi.ers" )he !i ision was inspire! partly %y ;eninIs

pamphlet )hat 3s to e Done5 (1F=1=?), which &ocuse! on his re olutionary strategy" 6t is sai! to ha e %een one o& the most in&luential pamphlets in pre-re olutionary 8ussia, with ;enin himsel& claiming that three out o& &i e wor+ers ha! either rea! it or ha! ha! it rea! to them" 6n Go em%er 1F=5, ;enin returne! &rom e#ile to 8ussia to support the 1F=5 8ussian 8e olution" 6n 1F=A, ;enin was electe! to the 0resi!ium o& the 8CE;0" Bt this time he shuttle! %etween Dinlan! an! 8ussia %ut, in Eecem%er 1F=<, with the re olution crushe! %y the )sarist authorities, he returne! %ac+ to >uropean e#ile" Hntil the re olutions o& 1F1<, he spent the ma4ority o& his time e#ile! in >urope, where, !espite relati e po erty, he manage! to continue his political writings" 5hen the Dirst 5orl! 5ar %egan in 1F14, an! the large Cocial Eemocratic parties o& >urope (at that time sel&!escri%e! as Mar#ist, an! inclu!ing luminaries such as 9arl 9auts+y) supporte! their arious countriesI war e&&orts, ;enin was a%solutely stunne!, re&using to %elie e at &irst that the German Cocial Eemocrats ha! ote! &or war cre!its" )his le! him to a &inal split with the Cecon! 6nternational, which was compose! o& these parties" ;enin (against the war in his %elie& that the peasants an! wor+ers were &ighting the %attle o& the %ourgeoisie &or them) a!opte! the stance that what he !escri%e! as an (imperialist war* ought to %e turne! into a ci il war %etween the classes" 6t was in Purich in the spring o& 1F1A that ;enin wrote the important theoretical wor+ 3m#erialism. the 7ighest ,tage of Ca#italism" 6n this wor+ ;enin argues that the merging o& %an+s an! in!ustrial cartels gi e rise to &inance capital" Bccor!ing to ;enin, in the last stage o& capitalism, in pursuit o& greater pro&its than the home mar+et can o&&er, capital is e#porte!" )his lea!s to the !i ision o& the worl! %etween international monopolist &irms an! to >uropean states coloni.ing large parts o& the worl! in support o& their %usinesses" 6mperialism is thus an a! ance! stage o& capitalism, one relying on the rise o& monopolies an! on the e#port o& capital (rather than goo!s), an! o& which colonialism is one &eature" 1eturn to 1ussia B&ter the 1F1< De%ruary 8e olution in 8ussia an! the a%!ication o& )sar Gicholas 66, ;enin reali.e! that he must return to 8ussia as soon as possi%le, %ut this was pro%lematic %ecause he was isolate! in neutral Cwit.erlan! as the Dirst 5orl! 5ar rage! throughout neigh%oring states" )he Cwiss communist Drit. 0latten nonetheless manage! to negotiate with the German go ernment &or ;enin an! his company to tra el through Germany %y rail, on the socalle! (seale! train*" )he German go ernment clearly hope! ;eninIs return woul! create political unrest %ac+ in 8ussia, which woul! help to en! the war on the >astern &ront, allowing Germany to concentrate on !e&eating the 5estern allies" -n Bpril 1A, 1F1<, ;enin arri e! %y train to a tumultuous reception at Dinlan! Ctation, in 0etrogra!" :e imme!iately too+ a lea!ing role within the 7olshe i+ mo ement, pu%lishing the 4#ril Theses, which calle! &or an uncompromising opposition to the pro isional go ernment" ;enin !isguise! as 8-iln9, wearing a wig an! his goatee sha e! o&&" Dinlan!, Bugust 11, 1F1<" B&ter the turmoil o& the July Eays, when wor+ers an! sol!iers in the capital clashe! with go ernment troops, ;enin ha! to &lee to Dinlan! &or sa&ety, to a oi! arrest %y 9erens+y" )he 7olshe i+s ha! not arrange! the July Hprising" )he time was still not ripe &or re olution, claime! ;enin' the wor+ers in the city were willing, %ut the 7olshe i+s still nee!e! to wait &or the support o& the peasants" Euring his short time in

Dinlan!, ;enin &inishe! his %oo+ ,tate an! Re(olution, which calle! &or a new &orm o& go ernment %ase! on wor+ersI councils, or so iets, electe! an! re oca%le at all moments %y the wor+ers" B&ter an a%orti e coup attempt %y General 9ornilo in late Bugust the masses rallie! to the 7olshe i+s an! their programme o& $peace, %rea! an! lan!$" 6mprisone! 7olshe i+ lea!ers were release! an! ;enin returne! to 0etrogra! in -cto%er, inspiring the -cto%er 8e olution with the slogan (Bll 0ower to the Co ietsY* ;enin !irecte! the o erthrow o& the 0ro isional Go ernment &rom the Cmolny 6nstitute %etween A an! 8 Go em%er 1F1<" )he storming an! capitulation o& the 5inter 0alace on the night o& the <th to 8th o& Go em%er mar+e! the %eginning o& Co iet rule" Head of the 3o iet state -n Go em%er 8, 1F1<, ;enin was electe! as the /hair o& the /ouncil o& 0eopleIs /ommissars %y the 8ussian /ongress o& Co iets" (/ommunism is Co iet power plus the electri&ication o& the entire country,* ;enin sai!, emphasi.ing the importance o& %ringing electricity to all corners o& 8ussia an! mo!erni.ing in!ustry an! agriculture" :e initiate! an! super ise! the !e ising an! realisation o& the G->;8- plan, the &irst-e er Co iet pro4ect &or national economic reco ery an! !e elopment" :e was ery concerne! a%out creating a &ree uni ersal health care system &or all, the rights o& women, an! teaching the illiterate 8ussian people to rea! an! write" 7ut &irst an! &oremost, the new 7olshe i+ go ernment nee!e! to ta+e 8ussia out o& the 5orl! 5ar" Dace! with the imposing threat o& a continuing German a! ance eastwar!s, ;enin argue! that 8ussia shoul! imme!iately sign a peace treaty" -ther 7olshe i+ lea!ers, such as 7u+harin, a! ocate! continuing the war as a means o& &omenting re olution in Germany" )rots+y, who le! the negotiations, a! ocate! an interme!iate position, o& (Go 5ar, Go 0eace*, calling &or a peace treaty only on the con!itions that no territorial gains on either si!e %e consoli!ate!" B&ter the negotiations collapse!, the Germans renewe! their a! ance, resulting in the loss o& much o& 8ussiaIs western territory" Bs a result o& this turn o& e ents, ;eninIs position conseLuently gaine! the support o& the ma4ority in the 7olshe i+ lea!ership" -n March 3, 1F18, ;enin remo e! 8ussia &rom 5orl! 5ar 6 %y agreeing to the )reaty o& 7rest-;ito s+, un!er which 8ussia lost signi&icant territories in >urope" Joseph Ctalin, @la!imir ;enin an! Mi+hail 9alinin, 1F1F" )he 8ussian /onstituent Bssem%ly was shut !own !uring its &irst session January 1F an! the 7olshe i+s in alliance with the le&t Cocialist 8e olutionaries then relie! on support &rom the so iets" )he 7olshe i+s ha! &orme! a coalition go ernment with the le&t wing o& the Cocialist 8e olutionaries" :owe er, their coalition collapse! a&ter the Cocial 8e olutionaries oppose! the 7rest-;ito s+ treaty, an! 4oine! other parties in see+ing to o erthrow the 7olshe i+ go ernment" ;enin respon!e! to these e&&orts %y a policy o& wholesale persecution, which inclu!e! 4ailing some o& the mem%ers o& the opposing parties" Drom early 1F18, ;enin campaigne! &or a single in!i i!ual (accounta%le to the state to which the wor+ers coul! as+ &or measures) to %e put in charge o& each enterprise (wor+ers ha ing to o%ey him until it was change! %y the state), contrary to most conceptions o& wor+ers$ sel&-management, %ut a%solutely essential &or e&&iciency an! e#pertise accor!ing to ;enin (it was argue! %y most proponents o& sel&-management that the intention %ehin! this mo e was to strengthen state control o er la%our an! that the &ailures o& sel&-management were mostly %ecause o& lac+ o& resources ,a pro%lem the go ernment itsel& coul! not sol e as his licensing &or a month o& all wor+ers o& most &actories pro e!)"

;enin ha! a certain a!miration &or the 6rish socialist re olutionary James /onnolly, an! the Co iet Hnion was the &irst country to recogni.e the 6rish 8epu%lic which &ought a war o& in!epen!ence against 7ritain" :e woul! o&ten meet with the &amous re olutionaryIs son, 8o!!y /onnolly an! !e elope! a close &rien!ship with him" Creation of the secret police )o protect the newly-esta%lishe! 7olshe i+ go ernment &rom counterre olutionaries an! other political opponents, the 7olshe i+s create! a secret police, the /he+a, in Eecem%er 1F1<" )he 7olshe i+s ha! planne! to hol! a trial &or the &ormer )sar, %ut in July 1F18, when the 5hite Brmy was a! ancing on Je+aterin%urg where the &ormer royal &amily was %eing hel!, C er!lo acce!e! to the reLuest o& the local Co iet to e#ecute the )sar right away, rather than ha ing him &ree! %y the 5hites" )he )sar an! the rest o& his imme!iate &amily were e#ecute!, though whether this was a !ecision o& the central go ernment or the local Co iet remains the su%4ect o& historical !ispute" ;enin was in&orme! a%out the e#ecution only a&ter it ha! ta+en place, %ut !i! not critici.e it" /ensorship was Luic+ly impose!, an! it was up to the /he+a to con&iscate the literature o& !issi!ent wor+ers" 5or+ers were re-&orming in!epen!ent so ietsK the /he+a %ro+e them up" 6n!epen!ent newspapers critici.e! ;eninIs go ernmentK the /he+a close! them !own, until the 7olshe i+-controlle! 0ra !a an! 6. estia ha! a monopoly on the supply o& news" Chapiro asserts that ()he re&usal to come to terms with the socialists an! the !ispersal o& the /onstituent assem%ly le! to the logical result that re olutionary terror woul! now %e !irecte! not only against tra!itional enemies, such as the %ourgeoisie or right-wing opponents, %ut against anyone, %e he socialist, wor+er or peasant, who oppose! 7olshe i+ rule"* 4ssassination attempts -n January 14, 1F18, an assassination attempt on ;enin was ma!e in his car in 0etrogra! %y unrecogni.a%le gunmen" ;enin an! Drit. 0latten were in the %ac+ o& the car together, a&ter ha ing gi en a pu%lic speech" 5hen the shooting starte!, (0latten gra%%e! ;enin %y the hea! an! pushe! him !own" Z 0lattenIs han! was co ere! in %loo!, ha ing %een gra.e! %y a %ullet as he was shiel!ing ;enin"* -n Bugust 3=, 1F18, Danya 9aplan, a mem%er o& the Cocialist 8e olutionary 0arty, approache! ;enin a&ter he ha! spo+en at a meeting an! was on the way to his car" :e ha! his &oot on the running %oar!" Che calle! out to ;enin, who turne! to answer" Che imme!iately &ire! three shots hitting ;enin twice' one %ullet, relati ely harmless, lo!ge! in the armK the secon! roun!, more seriously entering at the 4uncture o& ;eninIs 4aw an! nec+, the thir! shot stri+ing a woman who was tal+ing with ;enin when the shooting %egan" ;enin &ell to the groun!, unconscious" :e was ta+en to his apartment in the 9remlin, re&using to enture to a hospital since he %elie e! that other assassins woul! %e waiting there" Eoctors were summone! %ut !eci!e! that it was too !angerous to remo e the %ullets" 5hile ;enin %egan his slow reco ery 0ra !a ri!icule! 9aplan as a latter-!ay /harlotte /or!ayK assuring its rea!ers that imme!iately a&ter the shooting' (;enin, shot through twice, with pierce! lungs, spilling %loo!, re&uses help an! goes on his own" )he ne#t morning, still threatene! with !eath, he rea!s papers, listens, learns, an! o%ser es to see that the engine o& the locomoti e that carries us towar!s glo%al re olution has not stoppe! wor+ingZ* Blthough ;enin ha! no (pierce! lungs*, the potentially &atal nec+-4aw woun! ha! allowe! %loo! to enter one o& his lungs, which is still a ery serious con!ition" -ther than similar e#hortation %y the press, little was re eale! to the 8ussian pu%lic either a%out the attempte! assassination, the suspect, or ;eninIs con!ition" :istorian 8ichar! 0ipes wrote, ()he impression one gains Z is that the 7olshe i+s !eli%erately un!erplaye! the e ent to con ince the pu%lic that whate er happene! to ;enin, they were &irmly in control"* 0opular reaction to the assassination attempt on ;enin was !escri%e! at the time %y ;eoni! 9rasin, who wrote to his wi&e on < Cept 1F18'

(Bs it happens, the attempt to +ill ;enin has ma!e him much more popular than he was" -ne hears a great many people who are &ar &rom ha ing any sympathy with the 7olshe i+s, saying that it woul! %e an a%solute !isaster i& ;enin ha! succum%e! to his woun!s, as it was &irst thought he woul!" Bn! they are Luite right, &or in the mi!st o& all this chaos an! con&usion he is the %ac+%one o& the new %o!y politic, the main support on which e erything rests* B personal cult o& ;enin, which he himsel& trie! to !iscourage, %egan with this inci!ent" ;eninIs health !ecline! &rom this point" 6t is %elie e! %y some that the inci!ent contri%ute! to his later stro+es" Lenin and the 1ed 5error Dollowing the assassination attempt on ;enin an! the success&ul assassination o& 0etrogra! chie& o& secret police Moisei Hrits+y, Ctalin, in a telegram argue! that a policy o& (open an! systematic mass terror* %e instigate! against (those responsi%le*" )he other 7olshe i+s agree!, an! instructe! Deli# E.er.hins+y, whom ;enin ha! appointe! to hea! the /he+a in 1F1<, to commence a (8e! )error*, which was o&&icially announce! to the pu%lic on Ceptem%er 1, 1F18, %y the 7olshe i+ newspaper, 1rasnaya *a6eta" Bccor!ing to /hristopher 8ea!, at this time, !ue to the assassination attempt %y 9aplan, ;enin was lying se erely woun!e! in the hospital an! was too ill to a! ise retaliatory measures" 7ut while reco ering &rom his woun!s, ;enin instructe!' 16t is necessary - secretly an! urgently to prepare the terror"1 Cuspecte! enemies were shot, others !rowne!, %urie! ali e, or hac+e! to !eath %y swor!s" [uite o&ten those a%out to %e e#ecute! were &orce! to !ig their own gra es" 6t is un!ou%ta%le that such atrocities in!ee! occurre!" :istorian -rlan!o Diges claims the torture practice! %y the /he+as was matche! only %y the Cpanish 6nLuisition" )he only pu%lishe! Co iet statistics regar!ing /he+a e#ecutions are the semi-o&&icial ones pro i!e! %y the /he+ist Martin ;atsis, limite! to 8CDC8 o er the perio! 1F181F?=, gi ing the gran! total o& 1?,<33 e#ecute!, inclu!ing 3,=8? &or ta+ing part in re%ellions, ?,=?4 &or mem%ership o& counter-re olutionary organisations, A43 &or gangsterism, 455 &or incitement to re olution, ?=A &or corruption, 1=? &or !esertion an! the same num%er &or espionage" )hese statistics are consi!ere! %y many scholars to %e !eci!e!ly un!erstate!, as they !i! not em%race the war .ones o& the H+raine or the /rimea" 6n the latter at least 5=,=== people were shot or hange! a&ter General 5rangel was put !own at the en! o& 1F?=" Come historians estimate that %etween 1F1< an! 1F?? up to ?8=,=== people were +ille! %y the /he+as, o& which a%out hal& perishe! through summary e#ecutions an! the other hal& through the suppression o& re%ellions (e"g" )am%o 8e%ellion)" -rlan!o Diges goes so &ar as to assert that it is possi%le more people were +ille! %y the /he+a than !ie! in %attle" Euring the /i il 5ar, atrocities were carrie! out %y %oth 8e!s an! 5hites" Bccor!ing to the 7lac+ 7oo+ o& /ommunism, in May 1F1F there were 1A,=== people in la%our camps %ase! on the ol! )sarist +atorga la%our camps, an! in Ceptem%er 1F?1 there were more than <=,===" ;enin$s :anging -r!er !ocuments that ;enin himsel& or!ere! terror on Bugust 11, 1F18" Bccor!ing to -rlan!o Diges, ;enin ha! always %een an a! ocate o& (mass terror against enemies o& the re olution* an! was open a%out his iew that the proletarian state was a system o& organi.e! iolence against the capitalist esta%lishment" Diges also claims that the terror, while encourage! %y the 7olshe i+s, ha! its roots in a popular anger against the pri ilege!" 5hen 9amene an! 7u+harin trie! to cur% the (e#cesses* o& the /he+a in late 1F18, it was ;enin who !e&en!e! it" ;enin remaine! an a! ocate o& mass terror" 6n a letter o& March 1F, 1F??, to Moloto an! the mem%ers o& the 0olit%uro, &ollowing an uprising %y the clergy in the town o& Chuia, ;enin outline! a %rutal plan o& action against the clergy an! their &ollowers, who were !e&ying the go ernment !ecree to remo e church alua%les' (5e must (Z) put !own all resistance with such %rutality that they will not &orget it &or se eral !eca!es" (Z) )he greater the num%er o& representati es o& the reactionary clergy an! reactionary %ourgeoisie we succee! in e#ecuting (Z) the %etter"* >stimates o& the num%ers o& the clergy +ille! ary" Bccor!ing to The lack ook of Communism, ?,AF1 priests,

1,FA? mon+s an! 3,44< nuns were +ille! in 1F??" )he late Ble#an!er Ja+o le , hea! o& the 0resi!ential /ommittee &or the 8eha%ilitation o& @ictims o& 0olitical 8epression, cites !ocuments that con&irm nearly 3,=== were put to !eath in 1F18 alone" 6n Ceptem%er 1F18, !uring the 8e! )error, ?5 &ormer tsarist ministers an! high ci il ser ants along with <A5 socalle! 5hite Guar!s were shot in Moscow" ;enin personally signe! the e#ecution lists" Eespite this attempt %y ;enin to stop them the 5hites continue! acti e an! in!ulge! in a massi e anti-8e! terror an! also pogroms against the Jews" Dor instance the 5hites +ille! 115,=== H+rainian Jews in 1F1F alone" Bccor!ing to )he 7lac+ 7oo+ o& /ommunism, the two types o& terror were not on the same le el" )he 8e! )error, which was o&&icial policy, was more systematic, %etter organi.e!, an! targete! at whole social classes" )he 5hite )error was ne er systemati.e! in such a &ashion, an! was almost in aria%ly the wor+ o& !etachments that were ta+ing measures not authori.e! %y the military comman!" 1ussian Communist Party and ci il /ar 6n March 1F1F, ;enin an! other 7olshe i+ lea!ers met with re olutionary socialists &rom aroun! the worl! an! &orme! the /ommunist 6nternational" Mem%ers o& the /ommunist 6nternational, inclu!ing ;enin an! the 7olshe i+s themsel es, %ro+e o&& &rom the %roa!er socialist mo ement" Drom that point onwar!s, they woul! %ecome +nown as communists" 6n 8ussia, the 7olshe i+ 0arty was rename! the (8ussian /ommunist 0arty (7olshe i+s),* which e entually %ecame the /0CH" Meanwhile, the ci il war rage! across 8ussia" B wi!e ariety o& political mo ements an! their supporters too+ up arms to support or o erthrow the Co iet go ernment" Blthough many !i&&erent &actions were in ol e! in the ci il war, the two main &orces were the 8e! Brmy (communists) an! the 5hite Brmy (tra!itionalists)" Doreign powers such as Drance, 7ritain, the Hnite! Ctates an! Japan also inter ene! in this war (on %ehal& o& the 5hite Brmy)" > entually, the more organi.ationally pro&icient 8e! Brmy, le! %y ;eon )rots+y, won the ci il war, !e&eating the 5hite 8ussian &orces an! their allies in 1F?=" Cmaller %attles continue! &or se eral more years, howe er" )he ci il war has %een !escri%e! as one (unprece!ente! &or its sa agery,* with mass e#ecutions an! other atrocities committe! %y %oth si!es" 7etween %attles, e#ecutions, &amine an! epi!emics, many millions woul! perish" 6n late 1F1F, successes against the 5hite 8ussian &orces con ince! ;enin that it was time to sprea! the re olution to the 5est, %y &orce i& necessary" 5hen the newly in!epen!ent Cecon! 0olish 8epu%lic %egan securing its eastern territories anne#e! %y 8ussia in the partitions o& 0olan! in the late 18th century, it clashe! with 7olshe i+ &orces &or !ominance in these areas, which le! to the out%rea+ o& the 0olish-Co iet 5ar in 1F1F" 5ith the re olution in Germany an! the Cpartacist ;eague on the rise, ;enin iewe! this as the per&ect time an! place to (pro%e >urope with the %ayonets o& the 8e! Brmy"* ;enin saw 0olan! as the %ri!ge that the 8e! Brmy woul! ha e to cross in or!er to lin+ up the 8ussian 8e olution with the communist supporters in the German 8e olution, an! to assist other communist mo ements in 5estern >urope" :owe er the !e&eat o& Co iet 8ussia in the 0olish-Co iet 5ar in ali!ate! these plans" ;enin was a harsh critic o& imperialism" 6n 1F1<, he !eclare! the uncon!itional right o& separation &or national minorities an! oppresse! nations" :owe er, when the 8ussian /i il 5ar was won he use! military &orce to assimilate the newly in!epen!ent states o& Brmenia, Georgia, an! B.er%ai4an" :e argue! that the inclusion o& those countries into the newly emerging Co iet go ernment woul! shelter them &rom capitalist imperial am%itions" Euring the ci il war, as an attempt to maintain &oo! supply to the cities an! the army in the con!itions o& economic collapse, the 7olshe i+s a!opte! the policy o& war communism" )hat in ol e! (reLuisitioning* supplies &rom the peasantry &or little or nothing in e#change" )his le! the peasants to !rastically re!uce their crop pro!uction" )he resulting con&licts %egan with the /he+a an! the army shooting hostages, an!, accor!ing to )he 7lac+ 7oo+ o&

/ommunism, en!e! with a secon! &ull-scale ci il war against the peasantry, inclu!ing the use o& poison gas, !eath camps, an! !eportations" )he same source emphasi.es that in 1F?=, ;enin or!ere! increase! emphasis on the &oo! reLuisitioning &rom the peasantry, at the same time as the /he+a ga e !etaile! reports a%out the large scale &amine" )he long war an! a !rought in 1F?1 also contri%ute! to the &amine" >stimates on the !eaths &rom this &amine are %etween 3 an! 1= million" )he long years o& war, the 7olshe i+ policy o& war communism, the 8ussian &amine o& 1F?1, an! the encirclement o& hostile go ernments too+ their toll on 8ussia, howe er, an! much o& the country lay in ruins" )here were many peasant uprisings, the largest %eing the )am%o re%ellion" B&ter an uprising %y the sailors at 9ronsta!t in March 1F?1, ;enin replace! the policy o& 5ar /ommunism with the Gew >conomic 0olicy (G>0), in a success&ul attempt to re%uil! in!ustry an! especially agriculture" )he new policy was %ase! on recognition o& political an! economic realities, though it was inten!e! merely as a tactical retreat &rom the socialist i!eal" )he whole policy was later re erse! %y Ctalin" Later life and death ;eninIs health ha! alrea!y %een se erely !amage! %y the strains o& re olution an! war" )he assassination attempt earlier in his li&e also a!!e! to his health pro%lems" )he %ullet was still lo!ge! in his nec+, too close to his spine &or me!ical techniLues o& the time to remo e" 6n May 1F??, ;enin ha! his &irst stro+e" :e was le&t partially paraly.e! on his right si!e, an! his role in go ernment !ecline!" B&ter the secon! stro+e in Eecem%er o& the same year, he resigne! &rom acti e politics" 6n March 1F?3, he su&&ere! his thir! stro+e an! was le&t %e!ri!!en &or the remain!er o& his li&e, no longer a%le to spea+" ;enin with &uture !ictator Ctalin, whom ;enin warne! was %ecoming too power&ul an! calle! to %e remo e!" B&ter his &irst stro+e, ;enin !ictate! to his wi&e se eral papers regar!ing the go ernment" Most &amous o& these is ;enin$s )estament, which was partially inspire! %y the 1F?? Georgian B&&air an! among other things critici.e! topran+ing communists, inclu!ing Joseph Ctalin, Grigory Pino ie , ;e 9amene , Gi+olai 7u+harin an! ;eon )rots+y" -& Ctalin, who ha! %een the /ommunist 0artyIs general secretary since Bpril 1F??, ;enin sai! that he ha! (unlimite! authority concentrate! in his han!s*" :e suggeste! that (comra!es thin+ a%out a way o& remo ing Ctalin &rom that post* %ecause his ru!eness woul! %ecome (intolera%le in a Cecretary-General*" Hpon ;eninIs !eath, his wi&e maile! his )estament to the central committee, to %e rea! at the 13th 0arty /ongress in May 1F?4" :owe er, the committee an! especially the ruling (trium irate* Ctalin, 9amene an! Pino ie ha! a este! interest in not releasing the will to the wi!er pu%lic" :enin;s Testament was &irst o&&icially pu%lishe! in 1F?5 in the Hnite! Ctates %y Ma# >astman" ;enin !ie! at 18'5= Moscow time on January ?1, 1F?4, age! 53, at his estate in Gor+i ;enins+iye" - er F==,=== people passe! through the :all o& /olumns !uring the &our !ays an! nights that ;enin lay in state" ;arge sections o& the population in other countries e#presse! their grie& at the !eath o& ;enin" Cpea+ing at a memorial meeting, /hinese premier Cun Jat-sen" sai!' ()hrough the ages o& worl! history thousan!s o& lea!ers an! scholars appeare! who spo+e eloLuent wor!s, %ut these remaine! wor!s" Jou, ;enin, were an e#ception" Jou not only spo+e an! taught us, %ut translate! your wor!s into !ee!s" Jou create! a new country" Jou showe! us the roa! o& 4oint struggle""" Jou, great man that you are, will li e on in the memories o& the oppresse! people through the centuries"*

5inston /hurchill, who ha! supporte! the 7ritish inter entionist &orces which, in league with the 5hites, ha! trie! to suppress the 7olshe i+s, later commente! that' (:e alone coul! ha e &oun! the way %ac+ to the causeway""")he 8ussian people were le&t &loun!ering in the %og" )heir worst mis&ortune was his %irth"""their ne#t worst his !eath"* Euring the early 1F?=s the 8ussian mo ement o& cosmism was so popular that ;eoni! 9rasin an! Ble#an!er 7og!ano propose! to cryonically preser e ;eninIs %o!y in or!er to re i e him in the &uture" Gecessary eLuipment was purchase! a%roa!, %ut &or a ariety o& reasons the plan was not reali.e!" 6nstea! his %o!y was em%alme! an! place! on permanent e#hi%ition in the ;enin Mausoleum in Moscow on January ?<, 1F?4" ;enin state! that he wante! to %e %urie! ne#t to his mother an! !i! not want any monuments to himsel&"