FIRST/SECOND CLASS POWER ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL NOTES

Metric Units: Unit Tera Giga Mega Kilo Base Unit Milli Micro Nano Pico Symbol T G M k m n p Multiplier x 1012 x 109 x 106 x 103 x 10-3 x 10-6 x 10-9 x 10-12 8ariations o# 9att:s 6a+; since 7 & /,. t*en P & /2,. since / & 7 x . t*en P & 72 x . Wire Conductors: <$9$G$ - <merican 9ire Gage; Most common gage to in)icate +ire si=e$ >irc!lar Mil - t*e cross-sectional area o# a ro!n) con)!ctor$ 1 cir mil & < & $?('@)2 Circuit Laws: 1$ 0or an" circ!it- c!rrent strengt* is #o!n) to %e proportional to t*e 1oltage applie) across its en)s$ 2$ T*e c!rrent in an" circ!it- #or a constant 1oltage- is #o!n) to 1ar" in1ersel" +it* t*e resistance$ O ms Law: 7n a A> >irc!it- t*e c!rrent is )irectl" proportional to t*e 1oltage an) in1ersel" proportional to t*e resistance$ /&7x. / & 1oltage 482 7 & c!rrent 4<2 . & resistance 42 !irc o""s Laws: 1$ 8oltage 6a+ - T*e s!m o# t*e potential or 1oltage )rop taken ro!n) a circ!it m!st e !al to t*e applie) potentian )i##erence$ /t & /1 B /2 B /3 / & 1oltage 482 2$ >!rrent 6a+ - T*e c!rrent #lo+ing a+a" #rom a 3!nction point in a circ!it m!st e !al t*e c!rrent #lo+ing into t*at point$ 7t & 71 B 72 B 73 7 & c!rrent 4<2 #C $eries Circuits: a2 c!rrent is constant in all parts o# t*e circ!it

Coulomb: a !antit" meas!rement #or electrons$ 1 co!lom% & 6$2' x 10( electrons Ampere: c!rrent meas!rement )e#ine) as t*e #lo+ o# electrons per !nit o# time$ 1 amp & 1 co!lom%,secon) Electromotive Force: t*e #orce- or electrical press!re- t*at p!s*es t*e electrons t*ro!g* a con)!ctor$ .e#erre) to as /$M$0$ Magnetomotive Force: t*e total #orce pro)!cing a magnetic #iel)- or #l!x$ .e#erre) to as M$M$0$ Volt: t*e meas!rement o# electromoti1e #orce$ a2 t*e amo!nt o# potential necessar" to ca!se one co!lom% to pro)!ce one 3o!le o# +ork$ / & 1$6 x 10-19 3o!les %2 t*e protential )i##erence re !ire) to ca!se a #lo+ o# one amp t*ro!g* a resistance o# one o*m 45*ms 6a+2$ /&7x. Watts Law: a meas!rement o# t*e amo!nt o# po+er t*at is %eing !se) in a circ!it +*ic* is proportional to t*e amo!nt o# 1oltage an) t*e amo!nt o# c!rrent #lo+$ P&/x7

%2 s!m o# all 1oltage )rops e !als t*e applie) 1oltage$ c2 total resistance e !als t*e s!m o# all resistances; .t & .1 B .2 B .3 #C %arallel Circuits: a2 1oltage is constant across parallel %ranc*es %2 c!rrent in eac* %ranc* is )irectl" proportional to t*e 1oltage an) in1ersel" proportional to t*e resistance c2 total resistance e !als one )i1i)e) %" t*e s!m o# all t*e in1erse resistances; 1 .t & 1,.1 B 1,.2 B 1,.3 &nductance: c!rrent pro)!ce) in a con)!ctor %" t*e c!tting action o# a magnetic #iel)$ $el" &nduction: >*ange o# c!rrent ca!ses a c*ange o# #l!x an) t*ere#ore pro)!ces an in)!ce) /M0$ Mutual &nduction: c!rrent pro)!ce) in a secon) coil %" t*e c!tting action o# t*e #irst coil$ 'enr( )L*: < circ!it *as an in)!ction o# 1 Cenr" i# an /M0 o# 1 1olt is in)!ce) into t*e circ!it +*en t*e c!rrent c*anges at t*e rate o# 1 amp,secon)$ 1 8olt & 1 Cenr" x 1 <mp , 1 Decon) &nduced Voltage - 3 #actors e##ecting are; 1$ n!m%er o# t!rns o# +ire 2$ strengt* o# magnetic #iel) 3$ spee) o# c!tting action Farada(s Laws o" &nduction: 9*ene1er t*e n!m%er o# lines o# #orce t*rea)ing t*ro!g* a coil is c*ange)- a 1oltage is in)!ce) in t*at coil$ T*e amo!nt o# 1oltage in)!ce) is proportional to t*e rate at +*ic* t*e n!m%er o# lines o# #orce t*ro!g* t*e coil is c*anging$

Magnetic Flu+: n!m%er o# lines o# magnetic #orce !se) to )epict t*e strengt* o# t*e magnetic #iel)$ Unit is t*e 9e%er 4 2$ Flu+ #ensit(: n!m%er o# lines o# #l!x +*ic* are passes t*ro!g* a speci#ie) area$ T*e original !nit +as t*e +e%er per s !are meter$ T*e D7 !nit is t*e Tesla 42$ 1 Tesla 42 & 1 9%,m2 & 0l!x 42 <rea 4m22 Voltage induced in a conductor: to in)!ce 1 1olt- 10( lines o# magnetic #l!x m!st %e c!t per secon)$ Dince 1 +e%er & 10( lines o# #orce; /& / & 1olts t & +e%ers t & secon)s Voltage induced in a coil: /&Tx / & 1olts t T & t!rns & +e%ers t & secon)s e & /m x Din /m & 2<T x N,60 e & 2<T x N,60 x sin +*ere; /m & Peak 8oltage & #l!x )ensit" 9%,m2 < & area m2 T & E t!rns N & r$p$m$

Force on a Conductor: 0 & x 6 x 7 0 & #orce 4N2 & #l!x )ensit" 4+%,m22 6 & lengt* 4m2 7 & c!rrent 4amperes2 Len,s Law: <n in)!ce) 1oltage +ill ca!se a c!rrent to #lo+ in a close) circ!it in s!c* a )irection t*at its

magnetic #iel) +ill oppose t*e c*ange t*at pro)!ce) it$ Flemings -ig t 'and -ule: /xten) t*e t*!m%- #ore#inger an) t*e mi))le #inger o# t*e rig*t *an) m!t!all" at rig*t angles$ Point t*e #ore#inger in t*e )irection o# t*e magnetic #iel) an) t*e t*!m% in t*e )irection o# motion o# t*e con)!ctor$ T*e mi))le #inger t*en points in t*e )irection o# t*e in)!ce) 1oltage$ Edd( Currents: circ!lar in)!ce) c!rrent contrar" to t*e main c!rrents$ /))" c!rrents are a so!rce o# *eat an) po+er loss in magneticall" operate) )e1ices$ '(steresis: /nerg" +aste) in t*e process o# magneti=ing an) )e-magneti=ing o# t*e iron +*ic* is t"picall" ill!strate) as a C"sterisis >!r1e$ -esistance: t*e opposition to c!rrent #lo+ in an <> or A> circ!it$ 6oa)s are lig*ting*eating- an) simpl" t*e resistance in a con)!ctor to c!rrent #lo+$ -eactance: t*e opposition to c!rrent #lo+ in an <> circ!it %" p!re in)!ctance or p!re capacitance$ &nductive -eactance: t*e c!rrent-limiting propert" o# an in)!ctor in an <> circ!it$ < p!re in)!cti1e circ!it *as no tr!e po+er 4+atts2$ Po+er is %eing gi1en to t*e circ!it as t*e magnetic #iel) collapses an) in)!ces a 1oltage %ack into t*e circ!it$ 6oa)s are coils in trans#ormers- generators- motors$ T*is res!lts in a c!rrent t*at lags t*e 1oltage$ Meas!re) in *enr"s 462 F6 & 2# L Capacitive -eactance: t*e c!rrent-limiting propert" o# a capacitor in an <> circ!it$ < p!re capaciti1e circ!it *as no tr!e po+er 4+atts2$ T*e po+er re !ire) to c*arge t*e capacitor is ret!rne) to t*e circ!it +*en t*e capacitor )isc*arges$ 6oa)s are capacitorss"nc*rono!s motors- an) long transmission

lines$ T*is res!lts in a c!rrent t*at lea)s t*e 1oltage$ Meas!re) in #ara)s 4# or #2$ Fc & 1 , 2# > Calculating Capacitor Values: Deries; >T & 1,>1 B 1,>2 B 1,>3 F>T & F>1 B F>2 B etc$ Parallel; >T & >1 B >2 B >3 1 F>T & 1,F>1 B 1,F>2

Energ( stored in a capacitor: & 1,2 x > x /2 > & capacitance 4#2 / & applie) 1olts &mpedance: t*e total opposition to c!rrent #lo+ in an electrical circ!it 4G2 /&7xG Active %ower: D!m o# all t*e instantaneo!s pro)!cts o# c!rrent an) 1oltage- meas!re) in 9atts$ Apparent %ower: Pro)!ct o# t*e .MD 1al!es o# 1oltage an) c!rrent #or t*e circ!it- meas!re) in 8<$ -eactive %ower: 5!t o# p*ase po+er in a circ!it meas!re) in 1olt-amps-reacti1e or 8<.s$ 7n)!cti1e 8<.s an) capaciti1e 8<.s are 1(0o o!t o# p*ase +it* eac* ot*er$ %ower Factor: < comparison o# tr!e po+er- or acti1e po+er- to t*e apparent po+er in an <> circ!it$ P0 & 9 , 8< & >os . ree/% ase %ower: 3 8< & /6 x 76 x 3 3 9 & /6 x 76 x 3 x >os 3 8<. & /6 x 76 x 3 x Din Dtar 86 & 3 x 8P 76 & 7 P

Aelta 86 & 8P

7 6 & 3 x 7 P $eries Circuits

VA W Z R X IL IR IX VAR

/D %arallel Circuits
VA W VAR

/G & 8 across resistance /D & #!ll primar" 1olts

$ ort Circuit .est: t*e c!rrent t*e circ!it m!st *an)le to pre1ent )amage res!lting in a #a!lt in t*e trans#ormer$ 7Total & 100 x 7rate) HG -egulation: 1oltage )rop %et+een no-loa) an) #!ll-loa)$ H .eg!lation & /No-6oa) - /0!ll-6oa) /0!ll-6oa) .rans"ormer Construction: a2 >ore %2 D*ell &nstrument .rans"ormers: 7$ PT Potential Trans#ormer <$ installe) in parallel B$ meas!res 1oltage 77$ >T >!rrrent Trans#ormer <$ installe) in series B$ meas!res c!rrent Auto/.rans"ormer: Primar" an) secon)ar" s*are t*e same +in)ing$ <ll ratios same as normal trans#ormer except t*at t*e secon)ar" +in)ing c!rrent e !als t*e )i##erence %et+een t*e primar" c!rrent an) t*e loa) c!rrent$ .rans"ormer %olarit(: <))iti1e; C2 F1 C1 F2 D!%tracti1e; C2 F2 C1 F1 -eactors: a2 <))s reactance to compensate #or line capacitance controling po+er #actor %2 <cts as a series impe)ance +it* lo+ po+er loss c2 <lso !se) as #iltering t*at %locks *ig* #re !enc" 1oltages an) against 1oltage spikes$

No impe)ance V triangle- t*ere#ore; VX G& / , 76 Fre0uenc( o" alternator: 0 & pN,60 0 & #re !enc" 4C=2 p & pairs o# poles N & r$p$m$ Perio) & 1 0re !enc"
VR

-esonance: Point at +*ic* t*e in)!cti1e an) capaciti1e reactances are e !al$ 1 0 & 2 6 x > .MD 4root mean s !are2; t*e s !are root o# t*e a1erage o# t*e s !ares o# t*e c!rrent$ .MD & 712 B 722 B 732 B 7@2 n!m%er o# c!rrents .erminal Voltage: Generator; /T & /G - 7< x .< Motor; /T & /B B 7< x .< .rans"ormers: /P TP 7D /D & TD & 7P %ercent &mpedance: a meas!re o# t*e 1oltage )rop across t*e resistance an) t*e #!ll primar" 1oltage$ HG & /G G & impe)ance

$witc gear 1 Circuit/%rotection E0uipment: >irc!it-protection an) s+itc* )e1ices; a2 #!ses %2 s+itc*es 4circ!it %reakers2 c2 rela"s .atings; a2 contin!o!s %2 interr!pting - capa%le o# opening sa#el" )!ring #a!lt con)ition$ -ecti"ication: >on1erting <> c!rrent to p!lsating A> c!rrent$ 'al" Wave -ecti"ication: >!rrent is allo+e) to #lo+ in t*e loa) #or one *al# o# t*e inp!t c"cle$ Full Wave -ecti"ication: >!rrent is allo+e) to #lo+ in t*e loa) #or %ot* *al# c"cles o# in!t$ .(pes o" -ecti"ication: 1$ >opper-5xi)e .ecti#ication - < coating o# copper oxi)e on one si)e o# a copper s*eet allo+s c!rrent #lo+ #rom oxi)e to copper %!t not in t*e re1erse )irection$ 2$ Deleni!m .ecti#ier - < la"er o# seleni!m is )eposite) !pon an iron )isk an) t*en contact is ma)e to t*e seleni!m #ace %" a so#t metal )isk$ 3$ Merc!r"-<rc .ecti#ier @$ 7gnitrons - < n!m%er o# single ano)e tankseac* +it* its o+n cat*o)e an) arrange) in gro!ps o# t*ree- six- or t+el1e to pro)!ce large amo!nts o# recti#ie) po+er$ '$ Dilicon .ecti#iers #iodes: a t+o-element )e1ice t*at permits c!rrent to #lo+ t*ro!g* it in onl" one )irection$ <no)e >at*o)e

Forward 2ias: Positi1e s!ppl" connecte) to t*e IPJ t"pe material or I<no)eJ$ -everse 2ias: Positi1e s!ppl" connecte) to t*e INJ t"pe material or I>at*o)eJ$ 2arrier -egion: <rea +*ere t*e IPJ 4positi1e2 an) INJ 4negati1e2 t"pe material 3oin- res!lting in a ne!tral c*arge$ Avalanc e -egion: 8oltage at +*ic* a )io)e +ill %reak-)o+n- allo+ing a re1erse c!rrent #lo+$ #iode -atings: 1$ P78 - Peak-7n1erse 8oltage or P.8 Peakre1erse 8oltage; t*e rating o# a semicon)!ctor )e1ice t*at in)icates t*e maxim!m amo!nt o# 1oltage in t*e re1erse )irection t*at can %e applie) to t*e )e1ice$ 2$ 70 - Maxim!m c!rrent #lo+ t*ro!g* t*e )io)e +*en #or+ar) %iase)$ 'al" Wave $ingle % ase -ecti"ication: 5!tp!t #re !enc" & 7np!t #re !enc" 8A> & 0$@' x 8.MD Aio)e .ating; 1. 0or+ar) >!rrent .ating; 70 l6 2$ Peak 7n1erse 8oltage; 3. .esisti1e 6oa); P78 1$@1 x 8.MD 4. >apaciti1e 6oa); P78 2$(3 x 8.MD Full Wave $ingle % ase -ecti"ication: 2i/% ase or Center .apped .rans"ormer a2 5!tp!t #re !enc" & 2 x 7np!t #re !enc" %2 8A> & 0$90 x 8.MD Aio)e .ating; 1. 0or+ar) >!rrent .ating; 70 l6 , 2 2$ Peak 7n1erse 8oltage; 3. .esisti1e 6oa); P78 2$(3 x 8.MD @$ >apaciti1e 6oa); K

2ridge -ecti"ier a2 5!tp!t #re !enc" & 2 x 7np!t #re !enc" %2 8A> & 0$90 x 8.MD Aio)e .ating; 1. 0or+ar) >!rrent .ating; 70 l6 , 2 2$ Peak 7n1erse 8oltage; 3. .esisti1e 6oa); P78 1$@1 x 8.MD @$ >apaciti1e 6oa); K 'al" Wave . ree % ase %ower -ecti"ication: a2 5!tp!t #re !enc" & 3 x 7np!t #re !enc" %2 8A> & 0$6? x 8.MD Aio)e .ating; 1. 0or+ar) >!rrent .ating; 70 l6 , 3 2$ Peak 7n1erse 8oltage; 3. .esisti1e 6oa); P78 1$@1 x 8.MD @$ >apaciti1e 6oa); K Full Wave . ree % ase %ower -ecti"ication: a2 5!tp!t #re !enc" & 6 x 7np!t #re !enc" %2 8A> & 1$3' x 8.MD Aio)e .ating; 1. 0or+ar) >!rrent .ating; 70 l6 , 3 2$ Peak 7n1erse 8oltage; 3. .esisti1e 6oa); P78 1$@1 x 8.MD @$ >apaciti1e 6oa); K .ransistors: < c!rrent controlling )e1ice taken #rom t*e +or)s .rans#era%le .esistor$ Most common is t*e BLT - 2i-polar 3!nction . ransistor$ .(pes o" transistors: a2 NPN - Most common %2 PNP >ollector 4>2 Base 4B2 > 4/2 /mitter

/ *Arrow head always on the Emitter .ransistor -atings: 8>/5 & Maxim!m 1oltage applie) to collector )i1i)e) %" t*e emitter +it* %ase not collecte)$ 7> & Maxim!m c!rrent t*ro!g* t*e collector an) emitter PA & Maxim!m c!rrrent )issapation & Gain or Bata - ratio o# c*ange in collector to %ase c!rrent$ <lso kno+n as t*e ampli#ication ratio o# %ase to collector c!rrent$ & 7> , 7B Convertors: < mac*ine in +*ic* electrical energ" in one #orm is c*ange) to electrical energ" in anot*er #orm$ T*ree examples; 1$ D"nc*rono!s >on1ertor - <lso calle) a .otar" >on1ertor- is a rotating mac*ine #or con1erting <> s!ppl" to A> or 1ice 1ersa$ 2$ 0re !enc" >on1ertor - Pro)!ces an electrical s!ppl" +it* a #re !enc" )i##erent #rom t*e stan)ar) s"stem$ >an %e a s"nc*rono!s motor )ri1ing an <> generator$ 3$ P*ase >on1ertor - >*anges single-p*ase po+er to t*ree-p*ase po+er$ Dtator +in)ings +o!n) +it* t+o p*ases )isplace) at 90o$ Miscellaneous Formulae E""icienc( Formulae: /##icienc" & 5!tp!t , 7np!t x 100 /##icienc" & 5!tp!t , 45!tp!t B 6osses2 x 100 /##icienc" & 47np!t - 6osses2 , 7np!t x 100 .or0ue Formula:

T&0xA

T & tor !e 4Nm2 0 & #orce 4N2 A & )istance 4m2 P & Po+er 4+atts2 & ang!lar 1elocit" 4ra)s2 T & tor !e 4Nm2

%ower Formula: P&xT

Angular Velocit( Conversion: & 2 x N,60 & ang!lar 1elocit" 4ra)s2 N & r$p$m$