ORGANIZATION BEHAVIOUR Module-I Understanding and Managing Individual Behavior: Organi ation !

ehavior:
"on#e$ts: Organizational Behavior is field of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups and structure have on behavior within organization. It is the study and application of knowledge about how people act within organizations. It is a human tool for human benefit. It applies broadly to the behavior of people in all types of organizations, such as business, government, schools and services organizations. It covers three determinants of behavior in organizations: individuals, groups, and structure. OB is an applied field. It applies the knowledge gained about individuals, and the effect of structure on behavior, in order to make organizations work more effectively. OB covers the core topics of motivation, leadership behavior and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and process, learning, attitude development and perception, change process, conflict, job design and work stress. Before studying organizational behavior, it is desirable to know the meanings of organization and management. Organi ation Organization as a purposeful system with several subsystems where individuals and activities are organized to achieve certain predetermined goals through division of labor and coordination of activities. ivision of labor refers to how the work is divided among the employees and coordination refers to how all the various activities performed by the individuals are integrated or brought together to accomplish the goals of the organization. !he term organizing is used to denote one aspect of the managerial activities when he or she is preparing and scheduling the different tasks that need to be completed for the job to be done.

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Manage%ent It refers to the functional process of accomplishing the goals of the organization through the help of others. " manager is an individual who is given the responsibility for achieving the goals assigned to him or her as part of the overall goals of the organization and who is e#pected to get the job done. !he terms o f top management, lower management are fre$uently used to indicate the hierarchical levels of those who are engaged in the process of getting the goals of the organization accomplished. efinition of organization behavior: A##ording to Aldag and Brie& Organization behavior is a branch of the social sciences that seeks to build theories that can be applied to understanding and controlling behavior in work origination. A##ording to "allahan Organization behavior is a subset of management activities concerned with understanding, predicting and influencing individual behavior in organization settings. "ccording to both these definitions the basic ingredients of organization behavior are the same that is understood, predicting and controlling human behavior. %o we can define organization behavior as It is the study and application of knowledge about human behavior related to other elements of the organization such as structure, technology and social system. Organizational behavior can then be defined as: &!he study of human behavior in organizational settings, the interface between human behavior and the organizational conte#t, and the organization itself.&

'e( Ele%ents o& Organi ational Behavior

Ele%ents o& Organisational Behaviour

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!he key elements in the organizational behavior are people,, structure, technology and the environment in which the organisation operates. People: 'eople make up the internal and social system of the organisation. !hey consist of individuals and groups. !he groups may be big or small( formal or informal( official or unofficial. )roups are dynamic and they work in the organisation to achieve their objectives. Structure: %tructure defines the formal relationships of the people in organisations. ifferent people in the organisation are performing different type of jobs and they need to be *elated in some structural way so that their work can be effectively co+ordinate. Technology: !echnology such as machines and work processes provide the resources with which people work and affects the tasks that they perform. !he technology used has a significant influence on working relationships. It allows people to do more and work better but it also restricts, people in various ways. Environment: "ll organisations operate within an e#ternal environment. It is the part of a larger system that contains many other elements such as government, family and other organisations. "ll of these mutually influence each other in a comple# system that creates a conte#t for a group of people. Nature o& organi ation !ehavior: Organization behavior present nature is as follows: -. " field of study and not a discipline .. Interdisciplinary approach /. "n applied science 0. 1ormative and value centered 2. 34umanistic and optimistic 5. Oriented towards organization objective
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6. " total system approach

)#o$e o& organi ation !ehavior: -. 7nderstanding human behavior : OB provides a way for understanding human behavior at: Individual level Interpersonal level )roup level Intergroup level

.. 8ontrolling and directing human behavior: 9or this purpose, OB helps managers in many areas: 7se of power and sanction :eadership 8ommunication Organisation climate Organisational adaptation

/. Organisational behavior models: -. "utocratic;managers have the prime authority in the organization . minimal performance results are assured. .. 8ustodial;managerial orientation is the money, resources. <mployees are oriented towards dependence on the organization in terms of security and benefits
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/. %upportive;leadership with managerial orientation of support. towards job performance and participation.

<mployees are oriented

0. 8ollegial =partnership with managerial orientation of teamwork <mployees are oriented towards self discipline and responsible behavior

)-O-B-" Model: %+O+B+8 stands for %timulus, Organism *a person>, Behavior and 8onse$uence. 9or the e#ample I will define each part and give an e#ample of it separately:

)ti%ulus: is any event that happens in the environment, it can be a sound *like someone shouting> a scene *a car accident, a fight. etc...>, events *like receiving a paycheck>.

Organis%: is a person, nothing more can be said about this, so in OB you can consider that to be an employee or an employer.

Behavior: the organism behavior and response in regards to the stimulus *for e#ample a child *Organism> may hit *Behavior> his brother after seeing a violent movie *%timulus>.

"onse*uen#e: is the outcome that comes after the behavior, it either reinforces *thus repeated> the behavior or punished *thus not repeated>. In the child e#ample previously mentioned, his mother can reprimand *8onse$uence: punishment> him for doing what he did.

+ER)ONA,IT.e&inition: "ccording to )luck + &'ersonality is a pattern of stable states and characteristics of a person that influences his or her behaviour toward goal achievement. <ach person has uni$ue ways of protecting these states&. 'ersonality is the particular combination of emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral response patterns of an individual. ifferent personality theorists present their own definitions of the word
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based on their theoretical positions. 'sychologists such as 9reud and <rickson have attempted to come up with personality theories/ "o%$onents o& +ersonalit( ?hile there are many different theories of personality, the first step is to understand e#actly what is meant by the term personality. " brief definition would be that personality is made up of the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings and behaviors that make a person uni$ue. In addition to this, personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. %ome of the fundamental characteristics of personality include:

"onsisten#( + !here is generally a recognizable order and regularity to behaviors. <ssentially, people act in the same ways or similar ways in a variety of situations.

+s(#hologi#al and $h(siologi#al + 'ersonality is a psychological construct, but research suggests that it is also influenced by biological processes and needs.

It i%$a#ts !ehaviors and a#tions + 'ersonality does not just influence how we move and respond in our environment( it also causes us to act in certain ways.

Multi$le e0$ressions + 'ersonality is displayed in more than just behavior. It can also be seen in our thoughts, feelings, close relationships and other social interactions.

.eter%inants o& +ersonalit(: I/ Biologi#al 1a#tors

!he study of the biological contributions to personality may be studied under three heads: 2a3 Heredity: 4eredity refers to those factors that were determined at conception. 'hysical stature, facial attractiveness, se#, temperament, muscle composition and refle#es, energy level, and biological rhythms are characteristics that are considered to be inherent from one@s parents. !he heredity approach argues that the ultimate e#planation of an individual,s personality is the molecular structure of the genes, located in the chromosomes. Aesearch on animals has showed that both physical and psychological characteristics can be transmitted through heredity. But

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research on human beings is inade$uate to support this viewpoint. 4owever, psychologists and geneticists have accepted the fact that heredity plays an important role in one,s personality. 2!3 Brain: !he second biological approach is to concentrate on the role that the brain plays in personality. !hough researchers make some promising inroads, the psychologists are unable to prove empirically the contribution of human brain in influencing personality. !he most recent and e#citing possibilities come from the work done with electrical stimulation of the brain *<%B> and split+brain psychology. 2d3 Physical features: " vital ingredient of the personality, an individual,s e#ternal appearance, is biologically determined. !he fact that a person is tall or short, fat or skinny, black or white will influence the person,s effect on others and this in turn, will affect the self+concept. 'ractically all would agree that physical characteristics have at least some influence on the personality. "ccording to 'aul 4 Bussen &a child,s physical characteristics may be related to his approach to the social environment, to the e#pectancies of others, and to their reactions to him. !hese, in turn, may have impacts on personality development&. If personality characteristics were completely dictated by heredity, they would be fi#ed at birth and no amount of e#perience could alter them. But personality characteristics are not completely dictated by heredity. !here are other factors, which also influence personality. II/ "ultural 1a#tors

!he culture largely determines attributes toward independence, aggression, competition, and cooperation. 8ulture re$uires both conformity and acceptance from its members. !here are several ways of ensuring that members comply with the dictates of the culture. !he culture in which one life in that may involve traditional practices, norms, customs, procedures, rules and regulations, precedents and values, all are important determinants of personality. Boreover, the creed, religion and believes are also very important factors of personality determinants. III/ 1a%il( 1a#tors !he culture generally prescribes and limits what a person can be taught, it is the family, and later the social group, which selects, interprets and dispenses the culture. !hus, the family probably has the most significant impact on early personality development. IV/ )o#ial 1a#tors
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Social factors also play a vital role in determining one@s personality. !he things that revolve and evolve around us on a regular basis determine our personality. !he society that we live in, the cultural environment that we face daily, the community we get interacted to, all are included in this factor. Aelationships, co+ordination, co+operation, interaction, environment in the family, organizations, workplaces, communities, societies all contribute in way or another as personality determinants. V/ )ituational 1a#tors

4uman personality is also influenced by situational factors. !he effect of environment is $uite strong. Cnowledge, skill and language are obviously ac$uired and represent important modifications of behaviour. "n individual,s personality, while generally stable and consistent, does change in different situations. !he different demands of different situations call forth different aspects of one,s personality.

BIG +ER)ONA,IT- TRAIT)

!here are five Big 'ersonality !raits which have a significant impact in individual@s life. !hey are as follows: a> E0troversion: <#troverts are sociable, lively, and gregarious and seek outward interaction. %uch individuals are likely to be most successful working in marketing division, public relations etc. where they can interact face to face with others. Introverts are $uite, reflective, introspective and intellectual people, preferring to interact with a small intimate circle of friends. Introverts are more likely to be successful when they can work on highly abstract ideas *accountant, AD atmosphere. b> Agreea!leness: !his refers to the e#tent to which individuals agreeing and cooperating with others. 4ighly agreeable people are cooperative, warm and trusting. 'eople who score low on agreeableness are cold, disagreeable and antagonistic. !his characteristic is very important and critical in attaining a successful achievement in their life. c> "ons#ientiousness: !his refers to the e#tent to which people are responsible and dependable in their work and life. " highly conscientiousness person is responsible,
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work etc> in a relatively $uite

organized, dependable and persistent. !hey are likely to move upward direction very $uickly and attain remarkable achievement in their life. !hose who score low on this dimension are easily distracted, disorganized and unreliable. d> E%otional )ta!ilit(: !his refers to the e#tent to which people have the ability to withstand stress. 'eople with positive emotional stability tend to be calm, self confident and secure. !hose with highly low level of emotional stability tend to be nervous, an#ious, depressed and insecure. e> O$enness to e0$erien#e: !his refers to the e#tent to which people are more imaginative, artistic sensitivity and intellectualism. Individuals tend to vary widely ranging from conservative to creative or artistic. <#tremely open people are creative, and artistically sensitive. ?hereas not so open category personnel are very conservative and find comfort in the familiar or routine activities.

Theories o& +ersonalit(:

Behavioral theories

It suggests that personality is a result of interaction between the individual and the environment. Behavioral theorists study observable and measurable behaviors, rejecting theories that take internal thoughts and feelings into account. Behavioral theorists include B. 9. %kinner and Eohn B. ?atson. +s(#hod(na%i# Theories

'sychodynamic theories of personality are heavily influenced by the work of %igmund 9reud, and emphasize the influence of the unconscious mind and childhood e#periences on personality. 'sychodynamic theories include %igmund 9reud,s psychose#ual stage theory and <rik <rikson,s stages of psychosocial development. 9reud believed the three components of personality were the id, the ego, and the superego. !he id is responsible for all needs and urges, while the superego for ideals and moral. !he ego moderates between the demands of the id, the superego, and reality.

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<rikson believed that personality progressed through a series of stages, with certain conflicts arising at each stage. %uccess in any stage depended upon successfully overcoming these conflicts. Hu%anist Theories

4umanist theories emphasize the importance of free will and individual e#perience in the development of personality. 4umanist theorists emphasized the concept of self+actualization, which is an innate need for personal growth that motivates behavior. 4umanist theorists include 8arl Aogers and "braham Baslow. Trait Theories

!he trait theory approach is one of the largest areas within personality psychology. "ccording to this theory, personality is made up of a number of broad traits. " trait is basically a relatively stable characteristic that causes an individual to behave in certain ways. %ome of the best known trait theories include <ysenck,s three+dimension theory and the five factor theory of personality. +ersonalit( "hara#teristi#s In organi ations:

Banagers should learn as much as possible about personality in order to understand their employees. 4undreds of personality characteristics have been identified. ?e have selected eight characteristics because of their particular influences on individual behaviour in organizations. !hey are: 4/ ,o#us o& "ontrol 5/ Ma#hiavellianis% +ersonalit( 6/ )el&-estee% 7/ )el&-e&&i#a#( 8/ )el&-%onitoring 9/ +ositive:Negative a&&e#ts ;/ Ris< Ta<ing
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=/ T($e A +ersonalit(>

4/ ,o#us o& "ontrol %ome people believe they are masters of their own fate. Other people see themselves as pawns of fate, believing that what happens to them in their lives is due to luck or chance. "n individual,s generalized belief about internal *self> versus e#ternal *situation or others> control is called locus of control. 2a3 Internals: !hose who believe they control their destinies have been labeled internals. Internals *those with an internal locus of control> have been found to have higher job satisfaction, to be more likely to assume managerial positions, and to prefer participative management styles. In addition, internal,s have been shown to display higher work motivation, hold stronger beliefs that effort leads to performance, receive higher salaries and display less an#iety than e#ternals *those with an e#ternal locus of control>. 2!3 Externals: <#ternals are those individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance. <#ternals prefer a more structured work setting and they may be more reluctant to participate in decision making. !hey are more compliant and willing to follow directions. Internals do well on sophisticated tasks = which includes most managerial and professional jobs = that re$uire comple# information processing and learning. "dditionally, internals are more suited to jobs that re$uire initiative and independence of action. In contrast, e#ternals should do well on jobs that are well structured and routine and where success depends heavily on complying with the directions of others. 5/ Ma#hiavellianis%

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Bachiavellianism is a personality characteristic indicating one,s willingness to do whatever it takes to get one,s way. "n individual high in Bachiavellianism is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance and believes that ends can justify means. &If it works use it&, is consistent with a high+Bach perspective. 4igh +Bach@s are likely to justify their manipulative behaviour as ethical. !hey are skilled manipulators of other people, relying on their persuasive abilities. 4igh Bachs are suitable in jobs that re$uire bargaining skills or where there are substantial rewards for winning *e#ample commissioned sales>. 6/ )el&-Estee% %elf+esteem is an individual,s general feeling of self+worth. Individuals with high self+esteem have positive feelings about themselves, perceive themselves to have strength as well as weaknesses, and believe their strengths are more important than their weaknesses. Individuals with low self+esteem view themselves negatively. !hey are more strongly affected by what other people think of them, and they compliment individuals who give them positive feedback while cutting down people who give them negative feedback. a3 High-)Es: +eo$le ?ith High )Es believe they possess more of the ability they need in order to succeed at work, will take more risks in job selection and are more likely to choose unconventional jobs, "re more satisfied with their jobs. !3 ,o?-)Es: - +eo$le ?ith lo? )Es are more susceptible to e#ternal influence, depend on the receipt of positive evaluations from others, tend to be concerned with pleasing others and therefore, are less likely to take unpopular stands, "re less satisfied with their jobs. %elf+esteem may be strongly affected by situations. %uccess tends to raise self+esteem, whereas failure tends to lower it. )iven that high self+esteem is generally a positive characteristic( managers should encourage employees to raise their self+esteem by giving them appropriate challenges and opportunities for success. 7/ )el&-E&&i#a#(

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%elf+efficacy refers to an individual,s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. !he higher your self+efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a task. %o, in difficult situations, we find that people with low self+efficacy are more likely to lessen their effort or give up altogether whereas those with high self efficacy will try harder to master the challenge. In addition, individuals high in self+ 'ersonality efficacy seem to respond to negative feedback with increased effort and motivation( those low in self+efficacy are likely to lessen their effort when given negative feedback. !here are four sour#es o& sel&-e&&i#a#(: +rior e0$erien#es@ Behavior %odels - ?itnessing the su##ess o& others@ +ersuasion &ro% other $eo$le@ and Assess%ent o& #urrent $h(si#al and e%otional #a$a!ilities/ Believing in one,s own capability to get something done is an important facilitator of success. !here is strong evidence that %elf+efficacy lead to high performance on a wide variety of physical and mental tasks. Banagers can help employees develop their self+efficacy. !his can be done by providing performance, and rewarding employee,s achievements. 8/ )el&-Monitoring " characteristic with great potential for affecting behaviour in organisations is self monitoring. %elf+monitoring refers to an individual,s ability to adjust his or her behavior to e#ternal situational factors. 4igh self+monitors pay attention to what is appropriate in particular situations and to the behaviour of other people, and they behave accordingly. :ow self+monitors, in contrast, is not as vigilant to situational cues and act from internal states rather than paying attention to the situation. "s a result, the behaviour of low self+monitors, because their behaviour varies with the situation appear to be more unpredictable and less consistent. 4igh self+monitors are capable of presenting striking contradictions between their public persona and their private self. :ow self+monitors can,t disguise themselves this way.

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9/ +ositive:Negative E&&e#t Individuals who focus on the positive aspects of themselves, other people, and the world in general are said to have positive effect. In contrast, those who accentuate the negative in themselves, others, and the world are said to possess negative effect. <mployees with positive effect are absent from work less often. Individuals with negative effect report more work stress. 1egative individual effect produces negative group effect and this leads to less cooperative behaviour in the work group. Banagers can do several things to promote positive effect, including allowing participative decision making and providing pleasant working conditions. ;/ Ris<-Ta<ing 'eople differ in their willingness to take chances. 4igh+risk+taking managers made more rapid decisions and used less information in making their choices than the low+risk taking managers. =/ T($e A and T($e B +ersonalit( !ype " behaviour pattern is a comple# of personality and behavioural characteristics, including competitiveness, time urgency, social status insecurity, aggression, hostility and a $uest for achievements. !ype " personality individual is &aggressively involved in a chronic, struggle to achieve more and more in less and less time, and if re$uired to do so, against the opposing efforts of other things or other persons&. i. ii. iii. iv. v. T($e A $ersonalit(: "re always moving, walking, and eating rapidly: 9eel impatient with the rate at which most events take place( %trive to think or do two or more things simultaneously( 8annot cope with leisure time( and "re obsessed with numbers, measuring their success in terms of how much of everything they ac$uire. i. T($e B $ersonalit(: 1ever suffer from a sense of time urgency with its accompanying impatience(
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ii.

9eel no need to display or discuss either their achievements or accomplishments unless such e#posure is demanded by the situation(

iii. iv.

'lay for fun and rela#ation, rather than to e#hibit their superiority at any cost( and 8an rela# without guilt.

+ER"E+TION
"ON"E+T AN. .E1INITION

'erception may be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. 'erception is the process of receiving information about and making sense of the world around us. It involves deciding which information to notice, how to categorize this information and how to interpret it within the framework of e#isting knowledge. 'erception can be defined as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.

1IVE )TAGE) IN +ER"E+TUA, +RO"E)):

)tage I: O!servation +hase = It depicts the environmental stimuli being observed by the five senses of the perceived )tage II: )ele#tion o& the )ti%uli: !his is governed both by factors e#ternal to the perceived, such as the characteristics of the stimulus, and internal to the individual, such as the personality disposition and motivations of the perceiver. )tage III: Organi ing )tage = In this stage, the perceiver is influenced by figure and ground, grouping, and several perceptual errors such as stereotyping halo effects, projection and perceptual defense.
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)tage IV: Inter$retation )tage: !his stage is governed by the perceiver@s assumptions of people and events and attributions about causes of behavior and feelings. )tage V: Behavior Res$onse: In this stage the response of the perceiver takes on both covert and overt characteristics. 8overt response will be reflected in the attitudes, motives, and feelings of the perceiver and overt responses will be reflected in the actions of the individual.

,EARNING +RO"E))
.E1INITION AN. "ON"E+T:

:earning is an important psychological process that+determines human behavior. :earning can be defined as Frelatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of e#perience or reinforced practice&. !here are four important points in the definition of learning: -. :earning involves a change in behavior, though this change is not necessarily an improvement over previous behavior. :earning generally has the connotation of improved behavior, but bad habits, prejudices, stereotypes, and work restrictions are also learned. .. !he, behavioral change must be relatively permanent. "ny temporary change in behavior is not a part of learning. /. 0. !he behavioral change must be based on some form of practice or e#perience. !he practice or e#perience must be reinforced in order so as to facilitate learning to occur.
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"OM+ONENT) O1 THE ,EARNING +RO"E))

!he components of learning process are: drive, cue stimuli, response, reinforcement and retention. i3 .rive :earning fre$uently occurs in the presence of drive + any strong stimulus that impels action. rives are basically of two types +primary *or physiological>( and secondary *or psychological>. !hese two categories of drives often interact with each other. Individuals operate under many drives at the same time. !o predict a behavior, it is necessary to establish which drives are stimulating the most.

ii3 "ue )ti%uli 8ue stimuli are those factors that e#ist in the environment as perceived by the individual. !he idea is to discover the conditions under which stimulus will increase the probability of eliciting a specific response. !here may be two types i of stimuli with respect to their results in terms of response concerned: generalization and discrimination. )eneralization occurs when a response is elicited by a similar but new stimulus. If two stimuli are e#actly alike, they will have the same probability of evoking a specified response. !he principle of generalization has important implications for human learning. Because of generalization, a person does not have to ,completely relearn each of the new tasks. It allows the members to adapt to overall changing conditions and specific new assignments. !he individual can borrow from past learning e#periences to adjust more smoothly to new learning situations. iscrimination is a procedure in which an organization learns to emit a response to a stimulus but avoids making the same response to a similar but somewhat different stimulus. iscrimination has wide applications in ,organizational behavior. 9or e#ample, a supervisor can discriminate between two e$ually high producing workers, one with low $uality and other with high $uality.
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iii3 Res$onses !he stimulus results in responses. Aesponses may be in the physical form or may be in terms of attitudes, familiarity, perception or other comple# phenomena. In the above e#ample, the supervisor discriminates between the worker producing low $uality products and the worker producing high $uality products, and positively responds only to the $uality conscious worker.

iv3 Rein&or#e%ent Aeinforcement is a fundamental condition of learning. ?ithout reinforcement, no measurable modification of behavior takes place. Aeinforcement may be defined as the environmental event,s affecting the probability of occurrence of responses with which they are associated. v3 Retention !he stability of learned behavior over time is defined as retention and its contrary is known as forgetting. %ome of the learning is retained over a period of time while others may be forgotten. ,EARNING THEOR- AN. ORGANIZATIONA, BEHAVIOR

!he relevance of the learning theories for e#plaining and predicting of organizational behavior is marginal. !his does not mean that learning theories are totally irrelevant. :earning concepts provide a basis for changing behaviors that are unacceptable and maintaining those behaviors that are acceptable. ?hen individuals engage in various types of dysfunctional behavior such as late for work, disobeying orders, poor performance, and the manager will attempt to educate more functional behaviors. :earning theory can also provide certain guidelines for conditioning organizational behavior. Banagers know that individuals capable of giving superior performance must be given more reinforces than those with average or low performance. Banagers can successfully use the operant conditioning process to control and influence the behavior of employees( by manipulating its reward system.

ATTITU.E
MEANING AN. .E1INITION)
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 "ttitudes can be defined as an individual@s feelings about or inclinations towards other persons, objects, events, or activities. In simple words, an &attitude& is an individual,s point of view or an individual,s way of looking at something. !o be more e#plicit, an &attitude& may be e#plained as the mental state of an individual, which prepares him to react or make him behave in a particular pre+determined way. "n attitude is defined as, &a learned pre+disposition to respond in a consistently favorable or unfavorable manner with respect to a given object&. "ttitude is the combination of beliefs and feelings that people have about specific ideas, situations or other people. "ttitude is important because it is the mechanism through which most people e#press their feelings.

1UN"TION) O1 ATTITU.E

"ttitudes are known to serve at least four important functions in an organisation setting: i. Attitudes deter%ine %eaning: Buch of what is seem in the environment and in other people,s behavior is determined by attitudes. If one has a overall favorable attitude towards a person, one tends to judge his activities as &good& or &superior&. On the other hand, negative attitudes or prejudices generally prompt disagreement with the individual concerned or failure to appreciate the good work done by him. ii. Attitudes re#on#ile #ontradi#tions: It is not uncommon to come across people who hold contradictory opinions. ?ith the proper attitude as a background, intelligent people can reconcile or rationalize the same actions, which to others are obvious contradictions. 9or e#ample when a worker takes a little rest a superior consider it &idling&. iii. Attitudes organi e &a#ts: "s already seen, objective events can be differently perceived by different people because of different attitudes. Beanings can be concocted and falsely
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communicated to others by changing the attitudes of the recipients towards wider social issues. iv. Attitudes sele#t &a#ts: 9rom the plethora of environmental facts and stimuli, one tends to select those, which are in consonance with one,s cherished beliefs and attitudes. "ttitudes, thus, act as a screen or filter. "OM+ONENT) O1 ATTITU.E

"ttitude has three components, which are as follows: i3 A&&e#tive #o%$onent ii3 "ognitive #o%$onent iii3 Intentional #o%$onent i3 "ognitive "o%$onent: + 8ognitive component deals with thinking, evaluation, comparison, rational, logical issues with respect to the targeted object. !his will facilitate to form a strong belief or further strengthen the belief system towards various objects. By observing and analyzing the various features of %ony lap top computer, you may form a very good opinion stating that %ony laptop is best among others. %uch an evaluation is based on the cognitive component of attitudes. ii3 A&&e#tive "o%$onent: - "ffective component deals with feelings or emotional issues of the targeted objects. I do not like Aamesh as he had hunted down a rare species of deer@s in the forest. "s deer@s are harmless creatures, I love them very much. !he disliking of Aamesh is due to emotional aspects or personal feelings towards the targeted object. iii3 Behavioral "o%$onents: - !his refers to intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something. "s I do not like rock music, I am not interested to attend the concert. !he action of not attending is due to a part of disliking of rock music concert. "ll these three components collectively act together for the formation of attitudes. ATTITU.E 1ORMATION:

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!here are basically two sources of formation of attitude: a3 )o#ial ,earning> and !3 .ire#t E0$erien#e: a3 )o#ial ,earning: it is ac$uiring attitudes from others. !here are broadly three processes of ac$uiring attitudes through social learning: 8lassical 8onditioning, instrumental 8onditioning, and Bodeling. Classical Conditioning is a basic form of learning in which one stimulus regularly precedes another. It is learning based of association, that when first stimulus is represent, the second would follow. 'rejudices and preferences are created through classical conditioning. 8lassical 8onditioning can play a role in the development of attitudes. Instrumental Conditioning is concerned with learning to e#press the FrightG views. Instrumental 8onditioning is created through rewarding a desirable behavior and discouraging an undesirable behavior. !hus a particular type of attitude is created towards a particular type of action through Instrumental 8onditioning. Modeling as a concept, deals with individuals ac$uiring new behaviours through observing the actions of others. Individuals tend to do what others do, not what others say. !hus attitudes may be transmitted from one person to other or from one group to other or from one generation to other. !3 .ire#t E0$erien#e: "ttitudes are also formed through real life e#perience, which may be also called as direct e#perience or personal e#perience. Harious studies suggest that strength of the attitudes ac$uired through direct e#perience is stronger than the strength of attitudes ac$uired indirectly. "ttitudes ac$uired through direct e#perience are held more confidently and are more difficult to be subjected to change. If you hold strong attitude about an object, issue, or a person, and you want others to properly understand your stand, it is better to let others have direct e#perience with the attitude object. Attitude #an !e #hara#teri ed in three ?a(s:

9irst, they tend to persist unless something is done to change them.

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%econd, attitudes can fall anywhere along a continuum from very favorable to very unfavorable.

!hird, attitudes are directed toward some object about which a person has feelings *%ometimes called FaffectG> and beliefs.

MEA)UREMENT O1 ATTITU.E):

!here are various methods of measuring attitudes have been developed. 4owever, all of them have limitations. In particular the different measures focus on different components of attitudes = cognitive, affective and behavioral = and as we know, these components do not necessarily coincide. "ttitude measurement can be divided into two basic categories

.ire#t Measure%ent 2,i<ert s#ale and se%anti# di&&erential3 Indire#t Measure%ent 2$roAe#tive te#hni*ues3

)e%anti# di&&erential te#hni*ue: !he semantic differential techni$ue of Osgood et al. *-I26> asks a person to rate an issue or topic on a standard set of bipolar adjectives *i.e. with opposite meanings>, each representing a seven point scale. Evaluation o& .ire#t Methods "n attitude scale is designed to provide a valid, or accurate, measure of an individual@s social attitude. 4owever, as anyone who has every FfakedG an attitude scales knows there are shortcomings in these self report scales of attitudes. !here are various problems that affect the validity of attitude scales. 4owever, the most common problem is that of social desirability. IN.IRE"T METHO.
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Indirect methods typically involve the use of a projective test. " projective test is involves presenting a person with an ambiguous *i.e. unclear> or incomplete stimulus *e.g. picture or words>. !he stimulus re$uires interpretation from the person. !herefore, the person@s attitude is inferred from their interpretation of the ambiguous or incomplete stimulus. <#amples of projective techni$ues include: J Aorschach Inkblot !est J !hematic "pperception !est *or !"!> J raw a 'erson !ask

MO.U,E: II +ER)ON TO +ER)ON RE,ATION)HI+ AN. )MA,, GROU+ BEHAVIOUR GROU+):

Introdu#tion:

" group consists of a number of individuals working together for a common objective. )roups have significant influence on an organization and are inseparable from an organization. !hey are useful for the organization as they form foundation of human resources.

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!he study of group behavior is essential for an organization to achieve its goals. Individual and group behaviors vary from each other. In -I.K, <lton Bayo and his associates conducted the 4awthorne e#periments and came to know that the group behavior has great impact on productivity. !he importance of group behavior has been realized from time to time. 4uman behavior consists of individuals, who move in groups. !he knowledge of group behavior as well as individual behavior is necessary for a manager. 4e must understand group psychology and should also understand individual behavior in the conte#t of group behavior. !he group in which he moves influences individual work, job satisfaction and effective performance. .E1INITION:

" group is a two or more individual who interact regularly with each other to accomplish a common purpose or goal. "ccording to Barvin %haw, &a group comprises, of two or more persons who interact with one another in such a manner that each person influences and is influenced by each other person,. !he key parts of this definition are the concepts of interaction and influence, which also limit the size of the group. It is difficult for members to interact sufficiently in a large group. )roups or work teams are the primary tools used by managers. Banagers need groups to co+ordinate individual behavior in order to reach the organizational goals. )roups can make a manager,s job easier because by forming a group, he need not e#plain the task to each and every individual. " manager can easily coordinate with the work of an individual by giving the group a task and allow them to co+ordinate with each other. But for a group to work effectively, the interactions between its members should be productive. !herefore, managers must pay attention to the needs of individuals. Need &or a Grou$

!he reasons for the need, of groups are as follows:

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 Banagement of modern organizations makes mutual efforts to introduce industrial democracy at workplace. !hey use project teams and work committees where workers get due recognition. !hey willingly participate in decision+making. !he tasks in modern industries are becoming more comple#, tedious arid of repetitive nature. ?ork committees, work groups and teams are formed to monitor the work. !hey also make the environment at workplace livelier. )roups help in making participative management more effective. )roups of all kinds and types help by cooperating in all the matters related to production and human relations to work effectively in the organization. "n individual cannot perform each and every task. )roup efforts are re$uired for its completion. 9or e#ample, building a ship, making of a movie, construction of a fly+over, etc. "ll these re$uire coordinated and unified efforts of many individuals, working in a group. " group can judge in a better way as compared to an individual. ?hile accomplishing tasks, all members of a group together use their creative and innovative ideas than a single individual. In a group, individuals communicate with each oilier, discuss their work performances and take suggestions from each other to make it better. )roup efforts affect an individual, his attitude and behavior. )roup has the ability to satisfy the needs of its members. T-+E) O1 GROU+) In an organization, there are three types of groups, which are as follows: i/ 1un#tional or &or%al grou$s

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9unctional groups are the groups formed by the organization to accomplish different organizational purposes. "ccording to " : %tencombe, &a formal group is said to be any social arrangement in which the activities of some persons are planned by others to achieve a common purpose&. !hese groups are permanent in nature. !hey have to follow rules, regulations and policy of the organization. " formal organizational group includes departments such as the personnel department, the advertising department, the $uality control department and the public relations department. ii/ Tas< grou$

!asks groups are the groups formed by an organization to accomplish a narrow range of purposes within a specified time. !hese groups are temporary in nature. !hey also develop a solution to a problem or complete its purpose. Informal committees, task forces and work teams are included in task groups. !he organization after specifying a group membership, assigns a narrow set of purposes such as developing a new product, evaluating a proposed grievance procedure, etc.

iii/

In&or%al grou$

Informal groups are the groups formed for the purposes other than the organizational goals. Informal groups form when individuals are drawn together by friendship, by mutual interests or both. !hese groups are spontaneous. "ccording to Ceith avid, &the network of persons and social relations which is not established or re$uired forms an informal organization&. !hese are the groups formed by the employees themselves at the workplace while working together. !he organization does not take any active interest in their formation. Informal groups are very effective and powerful. !hese groups work as an informal communication network forming a part of the grapevine to the organizations. !hey are also like a powerful force, which an organization cannot avoid. %ome managers consider them to be harmful to the interest of an organization. !hey suspect their integrity and consider as a virtual threat. %ome managers do not consider them as threat and seek the help of group members in getting the organizational task accomplished. Informal groups are of following types:
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 Interest group: Interest groups are the groups formed to attain a common purpose. <mployees coming together for payment of bonus, increase in salary, medical benefit and other facilities are the e#amples of interest groups Mem ership group: Bembership groups are the groups of individuals, belonging to the same profession and knowing each other. 9or e#ample, teachers of the same faculty in a university. !riendship group: 9riendship groups are the groups of individuals belonging to same age group, having similar views, tastes and opinions. !hese groups can also be formed outside the plant or office and can be in the form of clubs and associations. "eference group: Aeference groups are the group where individuals shape their ideas, beliefs, values etc. !hey want support from the group. GROU+ NORM): 1orms refer to group behavior standard, beliefs, attitudes, traditions and e#pectations shared by group members. "ccording to Bichael "rgyle, &)roup norms are rules or guidelines of accepted behavior which are established by a group and used to monitor the behavior of its members&. !hey are framed to achieve objectives of the group. !hey can be social and fair in nature. 1orms define boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behavior. !hey make the members to identify themselves with the group. 1orms play a significant role in disciplining the members of a group to make them to work regularly and properly. !his reduces absenteeism and employee turnover. !he members of the group are e#pected follow the norms strictly. !his will make the group more organized T($es o& Grou$ Nor%s

!here are two types of group norms, which are as follows: Behavior norms: Behavior norms are rules that standardize how individuals act while working on a day+to+day basis. <#amples are. &do not come to committee meetings unless you have read the reports to be ,&discussed&,, &greet every customer with a smile,,, etc.

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!hese norms tend to reflect motivation, commitment to the organization and therefore result in high level of performance. Performance norms: 'erformance norms are rules that standardize employee

output and number of hours worked. Reasons &or )trong En&or#e%ent o& Nor%s )roups don,t have the time or energy, to regulate each and every action of the group members. Only those behaviors that sound to+be important by group members should be brought under control. )roups, like individuals, try to operate in such a way that they ma#imize their chances of task success and minimize *heir chances of task failure. )roups want to facilitate their performance and overcome barriers to reach their goals. Boreover, groups want to increase morale and prevent any interpersonal discomfort to their members. 1orms that will help groups meet these aims of performing successfully and keeping morale high are likely to be strongly enforced. "onditions ?here grou$ nor%s ?ill !e strongl( en&or#ed are as &ollo?s: If the norms facilitate group success or ensure group survival, If the norms simplify or predict regarding the behavior which is e#pected from group members. If the norms emphasize the roles of specific members within a group and If the norms help the group to solve the inter+personal problems themselves.

Uni*ueness o& Grou$ Nor%s !he norms of one group cannot be easily mi#ed with another group. %ome differences are primarily due to the difference in structure of the groups. 4owever, even very similar work groups may develop different norms+. !he members of one group may be friendly with their supervisor whereas those of another group may not
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Nor% "on&or%it( 1orms have the power to force a certain degree of conformity. !here are several factors consist of norm conformity, which are as follows: %ome groups may e#ert more pressure for conformity than others because of the personalities of the group members. !he history of the group and its members also plays a part in conformity. 9or e#ample, if the group has always been successful by following certain behaviors, new group members are also asked to follow the same. If the group was not successful in the past, a new group member may have greater freedom to e#hibit other behaviors. GROU+ "OHE)IVENE)) "ccording to Aensis :ikert, &cohesiveness is the attractiveness of the members towards the group or resistance of the members leaving it&. It refers to the attachment of members with the group. "ccording to C. "swathappa, &cohesiveness is understood as the e#tent of liking each member has towards others and how far everyone wants to remain as the member of the group&. "ttractiveness is the key to cohesiveness. 8ohesiveness is the e#tent to which group members are loyal and committed lo the group and to each other. In a highly cohesive group, the members work well together, support and trust one another and are generally effective at achieving their chosen goals. " group that lacks cohesiveness will not be very much coordinated. Its members will not support one another and they may face difficulty in reaching their goals. Banagers should develop an understanding of the factors that increase and reduce group cohesiveness.

Advantages o& Grou$ "ohesiveness !he advantages of group cohesiveness are as follows:
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 !he members of cohesive groups have high morale. !he members don,t have conflicting views, which decreases the chances of in clash among the views of group members at the workplace or elsewhere. Individuals of cohesive groups have no an#iety at the workplace. Bembers of cohesive groups are regular at their work. 8ohesiveness increases productivity. Organizations gain from the members of cohesive group because they communicate better they share ideologies and respect opinions of fellow employees. The &ollo?ing &a#tors #an in#rease grou$ #ohesiveness: 8ompetitiveness with other groups. Inter+personal attraction. 9avorable evaluation from outsiders. "greement on goals. 9re$uent interaction. !he following factors decrease cohesiveness: :arge group size. isagreement on goals.

8ompetitiveness within group. omination by one or more members.

7npleasant e#periences.

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 TEAM BUI,.ING: !eam building is an ongoing process that helps a work group evolve into a cohesive unit. !he team members not only share e#pectations for accomplishing group tasks, but trust and support one another and respect one another,s individual differences. Lour role as a team builder is to lead your team toward cohesiveness and productivity. " team takes on a life of its own and you have to regularly nurture and maintain it, just as you do for individual employees. Benefits of team building: J 7nderstanding of team members communication patterns J Involvement in decision+making J Observation of group conflict in a safe environment J <#perience elements of cooperation in problem solving J %urface latent or hidden issues J emonstrate specific techni$ues to improve team work $uality "ON1,I"T: 8onflict may be regarded as the disagreement or hostility between individuals or groups in the organization. !homas has defined conflict as: B"on&li#t is a $ro#ess that !egins ?hen one $art( $er#eives that another $art( has negativel( a&&e#ted or is a!out negativel( a&&e#t> so%ething that the &irst $art( #ares a!out/C

T-+E) O1 "ON1,I"T
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!he levels of group conflict are as follows: +ersonal #on&li#t: "re the conflicts that arise among employees, individuals because of their competitive roles. Grou$ #on&li#t: "re the conflicts arising within two or more groups due to difference in their attitudes and behavior. In&ra-organi ational #on&li#t: "re the conflict arising between levels of an organization, which are of two types. Hertical conflict arises between higher and lower level of management. 4orizontal conflict arises among the employees at same level. 9ollowing is the se$uence in which a conflict can arise: ,atent #on&li#t: Is a situation when the conditions for conflict arise. 9or e#ample, two groups competing for scarce resources. +er#eived #on&li#t: Is a situation when both the groups realize that there e#ists conflict between them. 9elt conflict: Is a situation when members involved in the conflict feel tense or an#ious. Mani&est #on&li#t: Is a situation when both the group tries to frustrate each other. "on&li#t out#o%e: Is a situation or conse$uence arising after the conflict is eliminated. REA)ON) 1OR "ON1,I"T !here are many reasons for conflicts among groups and its members. %ome of them are related to limited resources, communication problems, differences in interests and goals, different perceptions, attitudes and lack of clarity about responsibilities. !he reasons for group conflicts are as follows: "o%%uni#ation $ro!le%s: )roups often become very involved with their own areas of responsibility. !hey tend to develop their own uni$ue vocabulary. 'aying attention to an area of responsibility is a worthy <ndeavour, but it can result in communication problems. !he receiver of information should be considered when a group communicates
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an idea, a proposal, or a decision. Bisinformed receivers often become irritated and then hostile. In#o%$ati!le goals: Inter+group conflict arises because of goal incompatibility. In other words, goal attainment by one group may reduce the level of goal attainment by other groups. !his may be due to horizontal differentiation and task specialization. !he conflict between production and marketing departments, line and staff departments, union and management are few e#amples of inter+group conflicts that arise because of in+ compatibility of goals. Tas< interde$enden#e: !ask interdependence means to what e#tent a work, group relies on other organizational groups to complete its tasks. In simple words, it refers to the dependence of one group on another for resources or information. It can be said in generaM that as interdependence increases, the potential for conflict increases. "ccording to E. !hompson, there are three types of interdependence among groups, which are as follows: +ooled interde$enden#e: It arises when groups have little interaction with each other but are affected by each other,s activities. 9or e#ample, a branch in elhi does not need to interact with a branch in 8hennai. !he only linkage between the two is that they share financial resources from a common pool and the success of each branch contributes to the success of the organization. )e*uential tas< interde$enden#e: It arises when one group is unable to commence its work until the work of other group gets completed. In se$uential task interdependence, the output of one group becomes the input of another group. In such situations, the potential for conflict is greater. :ife and staff groups often have conflicts resulting from this type of interdependence. Re#i$ro#al interde$enden#e: It arises between the groups, which depend on each other for their respective task such as production department and $uality department. !he production department provides the goods to the marketing department to sell and the marketing department prepares the orders and estimates
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on the basis of the volume produced by the production department. Inter+group conflict arises from reciprocal task interdependence over difference in performance e#pectations. <ach group is dissatisfied will the $uality or $uantity of work received( from the other group. Tas< a%!iguit(: !he lack of clarity over job responsibilities is called task ambiguity and it fre$uently leads to aggression between groups. Inter+group conflict also arises when it is not clear which group is responsible for certain activities. !ask ambiguity often arises where the organization is growing $uickly or the organization,s environment is changing rapidly. " good e#ample of task ambiguity is inter+group conflict arising in the recruitment of new employees. It may be the responsibility of either the personnel department or any of the functional departments such as marketing, finance. !he confusion may also arise regarding who has the final authority to e#ecute the final decisions. Resour#e sharing: !he relation between two groups can be affected by the degree to which they make use of a common pool of resources and the degree to which this common pool of resources is ade$uate to meet the demands of both the groups. !hus, conflict of this nature( arises because of the differences between aggregate demand of a group and available resources to meet them. <ach party of the conflict competes with each other to get a larger share. !he conflict between management and the labor union+is the best e#ample. %uch conflicts take place in the $uantum of wages, amenities, working conditions and other related matters. .i&&eren#e in ?or< orientation: !he ways in which employees do their work and deal with others vary widely with the functional areas of an organization. 9irst, functional groups differ in their time perspectives. 9or e#ample, AD scientists have a longer+range of goals than manufacturing groups. !he range of work of manufacturing group is evaluated on how $uickly it can manufacture high+$uality products while the range of AD scientists can be evaluated on the basis of product development and testing after a long period of time. %econd, the goals of different functional groups vary to a large e#tent. !he goals of manufacturing

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groups are more specific and clear+cut than the goals of AD

groups. !he greater

the differences in goal and time between two groups, the more likely it is that conflict will arise between them while co+coordinating their work efforts. !hese differences between groups result in frustration, misinterpretation of the behaviors and activities of other groups. "on&li#ting re?ard s(ste%s: %ometimes the ways in which reward systems in organizations arc designed create a situation in which one group can only. "ccomplish its goal at the e#pense of other groups. 9or e#ample, staff departments may be rewarded for cutting costs and personnel while line departments are rewarded for increasing the amount of products sold or services provided. !o increase the amount of products sold, the line group may have to depend even more heavily on staff groups such as advertising. 4owever the staff groups are being rewarded for cutting costs and personnel provided the types of services asked for by line groups can prevent them from meeting their own goals. 8onflicting reward systems inevitably result in poor inter+group relations. .i&&erent $er#e$tions and attitudes: !he attitudes, values and perceptions of members of various groups towards each other can be a cause and a conse$uence of the nature of their relationship. If the group relations begin with the attitudes of distrust, competitiveness, secrecy and closed communications, there is a possibility of conflicts, disagreements in their views and among themselves. !his can affect the success of a group to accomplish their work in an effective manner.

"ON1,I"T RE)O,UTION: 8onflict can be easily resolved by the following methods: i. +ro!le% solving: !his techni$ue is considered to be the most positive techni$ue available for conflict resolution because it emphasis the attaining of the common goal of both interesting parties.
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ii.

Avoidan#e: in this method parties to the conflict may either withdraw from the conflict or conceal incompatibility.

iii.

)%oothing: it is defined as the process of playing down differences that e#ist between individuals or groups while emphasizing common interest. and similarities are leveled. ifferences are suppressed

iv.

"o%$ro%ise: this is a well = accepted techni$ue for resolving conflict, yielding neither a definite loser nor a distinct winner. 8ompromise is done by third party or internally.

v.

"on&rontation: the various actions given above may not bring resolution of conflict between parties if they take rigid stand. In such case the parties are left to confrontation to settle the conflict themselves.

,EA.ER)HI+
.E1INITION :eadership is the art of influencing and inspiring subordinates to perform their duties willingly, competently and enthusiastically for achievement of group@s objectives. "ccording to 'oont and OD.onnell, &:eadership is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals&. "ccording to +eter .u#<er> &:eadership means the lifting of man,s visions to higher sights, the raising of man,s performance to higher standard, the building of man,s personality beyond its normal limitations&. !hus, leaders are people who are able to influence the behavior of others without recourse to threats or other forms of force towards the individuals. :eaders are the people who are accepted by the other individuals, as a superior person to them. 1EATURE) O1 ,EA.ER)HI+ !he features of leadership are as follows: :eadership is the process of influencing behavior of individuals of an organization.
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:eadership uses non+coercive methods to direct and coordinate the activities of the individuals of an organization.

:eadership directs the individuals to attain the tasks assigned to them by following the instructions of their leaders.

" leader possesses $ualities to influence others. :eadership gives the individuals, a vision for future. :eadership is a group activity. :eader influences his followers and followers also e#ercise influence over his leader.

:eadership is meant for a given situation, given group for a pre+determined period of lime.

:eadership is continuous process of influencing behavior. It encourages liveliness in the group.

I%$ortan#e o& ,eadershi$ !he following points can judge the importance of leadership: " leader should act as a friend of the people whom he is leading. " leader must have the capacity to recognize the potentials of the individuals and transform them into realities. " leader should have the confidence of the individuals of the organization. " leader must be able to unite the people as a team and build up team spirit. " leader should be able to maintain discipline among his group and develop a sense of responsibility.

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" leader must be able to build up a high morale among the individuals of the organization. " leader should motivate his people to achieve goals. " leader should try to raise the morale of the individuals and should maintain ethical standards among the individuals. " leader should act as a link between the work groups and the forces outside the organization.

T-+E) O1 ,EA.ER)HI+ )T-,E) 9ollowing are the main types of leadership: i/ Auto#rati# or Authoritarian

In this type of leadership, there is a complete centralization of authority in the leader, i.e., authority is centered in the leader himself. 4e has all the powers to make decisions. 4e uses coercive measures and adopts, negative method of motivation. 4e wants immediate obedience of his orders and instructions. "ny negligence on the part of subordinates results in punishment. !here is no participation from the subordinates in decision+making. " leader thinks that he is the only competent person in the organization. "ccording to <dwin B. 9ilippo, there are following three types of leaders in autocratic: -. Hard Boiled or Strict #utocrat: :eader, under such type uses negative influence and e#pects that the employees should obey his orders immediately. 1on+compliance of his orders results in punishment. 4e makes all decisions and does not disclose anything to anyone. 4e is $uite rigid on performance. .. Benevolent #utocrat: Benevolent autocrat leader uses positive influences and develops effective human relations. 4e is known as paternalistic leader. 4e praises his employees if they follow his orders and invites them to get the solutions of the problems from him. 4e feels happy in controlling all the actions of his subordinates.

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/.

Manipulative #utocrat: :eader, under such type is manipulative in nature. 4e creates a feeling in the minds of his subordinates and workers that they are participating in decision+making processes. But he makes all decisions by himself. 1on+compliance of his orders also results jn punishment.

ii/

.e%o#rati# or +arti#i$ative

emocratic or 'articipative leadership is also known as group centered or consultative leadership. In this type of leadership, leaders consult their groups and consider their opinion in the decision+making process. :eaders encourage discussion among the group members on the problem under consideration and arrive at a decision depending on their consent. 'articipation or involvement of the employees in the decision+making process is also rewarded. <#change of ideas among subordinates and with the leader is given encouragement. :eaders give more freedom to their group members, who feel that, their opinions arc honored and they are given importance. It develops a sense of confidence among subordinates and they derive job satisfaction. It improves $uality of decision as it is taken after due consideration of valued opinions of the talented group members. !he demerit of this type of leadership is that it takes more time to arrive at a decision, as a lot of time is wasted while taking the views from the employee. It is, therefore, very time consuming.

iii/

,aisse -&aire or 1ree Rein

In this type of leadership, there is virtual absence of direct leadership. It is, therefore, known as &no leadership at all&. !here is complete delegation of authority to subordinates so that they can make decisions by themselves. "bsence of leadership may have both positive and negative effects. 9ree rein leadership may be effective if members of the group are highly committed to their work. !he negative aspect shows that the leader is not competent enough to lead his group effectively. Bembers may feel insecure and develop frustration for lack of decision+making authority.

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iv/

Bureau#rati#

!his type of leadership emphasizes the rules and regulations of an organization. !he behavior of a leader is determined by the rules, regulations and procedure to be followed under his leadership. !he leader and the subordinates both follow these rules and regulations. !herefore, there is no difference between the management and the administration in this type of leadership. !he employees, themselves cannot do anything in this regard. It is the rules that determine their performance.

v/

Mani$ulative

!his type of leadership manipulates the employees to attain their assigned tasks. " manipulative leader is $uite selfish and e#ploits the aspirations of the employees for his gains. 4e knows very well the needs and desires of the employees but he does very little to fulfill them. attitude, he has to face the hatred of the employees at times. vi/ +aternalisti# ue to such

!he paternalistic leadership believes in the concept that the happy employees work better and harder. It maintains that the fatherly altitude is the right one for better relationship between the manager and the employees. <veryone within the organization should work together like a family. vii/ E0$ert ,eadershi$

!he e#pert leadership emerged as a result of comple# structure of modern organizations. !his type of leadership is based on the ability, knowledge and competence of the leaders. 4e handles the situation skillfully with his talent. !he employees feel relieved as they are working under a person who is e#pert and can handle the situation without any problem. In modern organizations, human resources vary in terms of skill, knowledge and competences. !hey differ in $uality, determination and their attitude towards the organization. !hey e#hibit
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different behaviors as they differ in attitude and outlook also. !he leader must understand their behavior and accordingly can make use of the various types@ leaderships. !he manager should assess the situation and adopt that type of leadership, which suits that situation. 4e should remember that leadership is situational. If situation changes, the use of leadership among its various types also changes. " successful leader is the one who assesses the situation, studies the psychology of the subordinates and adopts the most useful type of leadership to lead the people at work to accomplish the organizational goals. THEORIE) O1 ,EA.ER)HI+ " number of theories and approaches to study leadership have been developed. !here are broadly three theories of leadership. !rait !heory Behavior !heory 8ontingency !heory

2a3

Trait Theor(

!his theory of studying leadership is taken into consideration to analyze the personal, psychological and physical traits of strong leaders. !he assumption made in this theory was that some basic traits or set of traits differentiates leaders from non+leaders. 9or e#ample, the leadership traits might include intelligence, assertiveness, above average height, self+confidence, initiative and understanding of interpersonal human relations. !he e#istence of these traits determines the importance of leadership. 'ossession of these traits helps the individuals to gain possession of leadership. %ince all individuals do not have these $ualities, only those who have them would be considered potential leaders. %ome of the weakness of this theory is: "ll the traits are not identical with regard to essential characteristics of a leader.

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%ome traits may not be inherited, but can only be ac$uired by training. It does not identify the traits that are most important and that are least important for a successful leader.

It does not e#plain the leadership failures, in spite of the re$uired traits. It has been found that many traits e#hibited by leaders are also found among followers without e#plaining as to why followers could not become leaders.

It is difficult to define traits in absolute terms. !hus, the trait theory has been criticized for lack of conclusiveness and predictability.

2!3

BEHAVIOR THEOR-

!he behavioral theory assumed that effective leaders behaved differently from ineffective leaders. It also identified the need of consistency of behavior of good leaders. !his theory can be more clearly understood with the help of following case studies. Managerial Grid:

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!he five basic approaches to management identified by Black and Bouton are based on the two dimensions of concern of people and concern for production that are associated with leaders. " managerial grid is formed based on these two dimensions which are rated on I point scale. If manager is securing the lowest score on these two dimensions I,I is identified as impoverished style of managers who are low on both their concern of people and production, -,I or country club style is designated to those managers who are having high concern for people but low concern for production. !he 2, 2 or the middle+of+the road style concerns the moderate levels of concern for both people and production. !he I,- or task management style is one where there is a high concern for production but very little concern for people and finally, I,I or team management style is one where the manager has high concern for both people and production. "ccording to Black and Bouten the one best style for all mangers is the I,I or team management style. ,I'ERTE) )-)TEM 1OUR MO.E,: Aensis :ikert suggests that managers operate fewer than four different systems.
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)(ste% I F E0$loitative Authoritative: !he manager believes in very authoritarian manner and actually e#ploits the subordinates )(ste% II F Benevolent Authoritative: !he manager takes a paternalistic approach while still being autocratic. Behaving as benevolent autocratic, the leader maintains strict control over the subordinates albeit in a paternalistic manner. )(ste% III F "onsultative: !he manager consults the subordinates and sill maintains the right to make the final decision. )(ste% IV F +arti#i$ative Grou$s: !he manager uses a democratic style and makes decision by consensus and majority vote. :ikert feels that the best way for all organizations to manage employees is to move towards %ystem IH. The Michigan Studies: Aesearchers at the 7niversity of. Bichigan, led by Aensis :ikert, began studying leadership in the late -I0Ks. behavior. !hey are discussed as below: $o %centered leadership ehavior: !he first was called job+centered leadership behavior, which focuses on performances and efficient completion of the assigned tasks. " job+centered leader interacts with group members to e#plain task procedures and oversee their work. Employee centered leadership ehavior: !he second behavior was identified as employee centered leader behavior, which focuses on, high performance standards to be accomplished. !his can be done by developing a cohesive work group and ensuring that employees are satisfied with their jobs. !hus, the leader,s primary concern is the welfare of the ordinates. !he Bichagan researchers thought a leader could show signs of one kind of behavior, but not both. epending on broad discussions with both the managers and sub+ordinates, the Bichigan studies identified two forms of leadership

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The &hio State Studies: "t about the same time, a group of researchers at Ohio %tate also began studying leadership. !he Ohio %tate leadership studies also identified two major kinds of leadership behaviors or styles, which are as follows: Initiating%structure ehavior: In initiating+structure behavior, the leader clearly defines the leader+subordinate roles so that everyone knows what is e#pected. !he leader also establishes formal lines of communication and determines how tasks will be performed. Consideration ehavior: In consideration behavior, the leader shows concern for subordinates feelings, and ideas. 4e attempts to establish a warm, friendly and supportive.

!he most obvious difference between Bichigan and Ohio %tate studies is that the Ohio %tate researchers did not position their two forms of leader behavior at opposite ends of a single continuum. Aather, they assumed the behaviors to be independent variables, which means that a leader could e#hibit varying degrees of initiating structure and consideration at the same time i.e. a particular leader could have higher ratings on both measures, low ratings on both or high ratings on one and low on the other. !he Ohio %tate researchers found that a leader@s behavior remains consistent over a period of time, if the situation also remains same. But the researchers could not come up with one best combination of behavior suitable to all the situations. !he researchers used to believe that the leaders in possession of both types of behavior are most effective. 4owever, their studies at International 4arvester found that leaders rated highly on initiating structure behavior have higher performing but dissatisfied sub+ordinates, whereas leaders rated highly on consideration structure had lower+performing sub+ordinates who showed signs of higher satisfaction. Bost e#perts now agree that no single set of traits or behaviors appears to be common to all good leaders. !he universal approaches to leadership can help managers e#amine their own leadership characteristics and match them against the traits most commonly identified with good leaders. In order to understand the full comple#ity of leadership, contingency theory is to be studied.

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2#3 "ontingen#( Theor( !he main assumption of contingency theory is that the behavior of an appropriate leader varies from one situation to another. !he motive of a contingency theory is to identify key situational factors and to specify how they interact to determine appropriate behavior of a leader !he three most important and widely accepted contingency theories of leadership are as follows: The 'PC theory: !he first contingency theory of leadership is 9red 9ielder,s :east 'referred 8o+worker *:'8> Bodel. 9ielder identified two types of leadership: task+ oriented and relationship+oriented. 9ielder believes that a leader,s tendency to be task+ oriented or relationship oriented remains constant. In+ other words, a leader is either task+ oriented or relationship+oriented while leading his group members. 9ielder used the :east 'referred 8o+worker *:'8> scale to measure the type of leadership. " leader is asked to describe characteristics of the person with whom he or she is least comfortable while working. !hey can do this by marking in a set of si#teen scales at each end, by a positive or negative adjective. 9or e#ample, three of the scales 9ielder uses in the :'8 are: 4elpful !ense Boring ++++++++++++++++++++ +++++++++++++++++++ +++++++++++++++++++ 9rustrating N 6 5 2 0 / . Aela#ed -./0256N

Interesting - . / 0 2 5 6 N

!he leader,s :'8 score is *hen calculated by adding up the numbers below the line checked on each scale. " high total score is assumed to reflect a relationship orientation and a low score, a task orientation by the leader. !he :'8 measure is controversial because researchers disagree about its validity. !his is because some of the :'8 measures show whether the score is an inde# of behavior, personality or some other unknown factor. "ccording to 9ielder, the contingency factor favors the situation from the leader,s point of view. !his factor is determined by leader+member relations, task+structure and position+power, which are discussed as below:

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'eader%mem er relations: A :eader+member relation refers to the nature of relationship between the leader and his work group. If the leader and the group enjoy mutual trust, respect, confidence and they like one another, relations will remain good. If there is little trust, respect or confidence and. if they do not like one another, relations will remain bad. )ood relations are assumed to be favorable and bad relations unfavorable.

Tas(%structure: !ask+structure is the degree to which the group,s task is clearly defined. ?hen the task is routine, easily understood, and unambiguous and when the group has standard procedures, the structure is assumed to be high. ?hen the task is non+routine, ambiguous, comple#, with no standard procedures and precedents, structure is assumed to be low. 4igh structure is more favorable for the leader and low structure is unfavorable. If the task structure is low, the leader will have to play a major role in guiding and directing the group,s activities. If the task structure is high, the leader will not have to pay much attention.

Position%po)er: 'osition+power is the power vested in the position of a leader in an organization. If the leader has the power to assign work, administer rewards and punishment, recommend employees for promotion or demotion, position+power is assumed to be strong. If the leader does not have re$uired powers, the position+power is weak. 9rom the leader,s point of view, strong position power is favorable and weak position power is unfavorable. 9ielder and his associates conducted various studies highlighting if a situation favors

the leadership and group effectiveness or not. ?hen the situation includes good relations, high structure and strong power, a risk+ oriented leader to lie most effective. 4owever, when relations are good but task structure is low and position+power is weak, relationship+oriented leader is considered to be most effective. " final point about :'8 theory is that, 9ielder argues that any particular+type of leadership, which is measured by the :'8, is infle#ible and cannot be changed. In other words a leader cannot change his behavior to fit a particular situation. 9ielder,s

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contingency theory has been criticized on the ground that :'8 measure lacks validity and that the assumption about the infle#ibility of the leader,s behavior is unrealistic.

2d3

The +ath-Goal theor(

!he path+goal model of leadership was introduced by Bartin <vans and Aobert 4ouse. 'ath+goal theory says that a leader can motivate subordinates by influencing their e#pectations. :eaders can motivate sub+ordinates by making clear what they have to do to get the reward they desire. !he path+goal model assumes that leaders can change their style or behavior to meet the demands of a particular situation. !his model identifies four kinds of leader behavior: directive, supportive, participative and achievement+oriented. "ccording to this model managers can adjust their behavior to include any four kinds of leadership behavior mentioned above. 9or instance, while leading a new group of sub+ordinates, the leader may be directive in giving guidance and instructions to them. 4e may also adopt supportive behavior to encourage group cohesiveness, to look after their needs and ensuring that they get the rewards and benefits. "s the group becomes more familiar with the task and as new problems are taken into consideration, the leader may use participative behavior by which he can participate with employees in making decisions and take their suggestions as well. 9inally, the leader may use achievement+oriented behavior to encourage continued high performance of sub+ordinates.

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<nvironmental characteristics are factors, which are beyond the control of subordinates. It includes task structure, the primary work group and the formal authority system. 9or instance, when structure is high, directive leadership is less effective than when structure is low. %ub+ ordinates do not usually need their boss to repeatedly tell them how to do a routine job. "ccording to the path+goal theory, these environmental factors can create uncertainty for employees. " leader who helps employees reduce such uncertainty can motivate them. !he figure shows the path goal model of leadership. :eaders do not always have control over environmental factors, but the theory emphasizes that leaders can use the control they want, to adjust the environment and to motivate sub+ordinates. 2e3 The Vroo%--etton-Gago Theor( 2V-G3

!he Hroom+Letton+Eago model was first introduced by Hroom and Letton in -I6/ and was revised by Hroom and Eago in -INN, this model has a much less focus than the path+goal theory. It helps a leader to determine the e#tent, to which employees should participate in the decision+ making processes,
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!he HLE theory argues that decision+effectiveness is best judged by the $uality of decision and by the acceptance of that decision on the part of employees. which employees accept and are loyal to their decisions. !o ma#imize decision effectiveness, the HLE theory suggests that leaders adopt one of five decision+making leaderships. !he appropriate leadership depends on the situation. "s summarized in the following table, there are two autocratic types of leadership, which are "I and "ll, two consultative types of leadership, which are 8I and 8II and the other one is group )II. *ecision%Ma(ing Styles in the +,$ model *ecision Style "I "II *escription Banager makes the decision alone. Banager asks for information from subordinates but makes *he decision alone. %ub+ ordinates may or may mil be informed about what the situation is. 8I Banager shares the situation with individual subordinates and asks for information and evaluation. %ubordinates do not meet as a group and the manager alone makes the decision. ecision acceptance is the e#tent to

8 II

Banager and subordinates meet as a group to discuss the situation but the manager makes the decision.

) II

Banager and subordinates meet as a group to discuss the situation and the group makes the decision.

" O "utocratic( 8O 8onsultative( ) O )roup

!he situation is defined by a series of $uestions about the characteristics or attributes of the problem under consideration. !o address the $uestions, the leader uses one of the four decisions. !wo of them are used when the problem affects the entire group. 9or e#ample, a decision about
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the facilities to be given to employees in a new office affects the entire group and the other two are appropriate when the decision affects a single individual only. e.g. a new office for that individual only. Boreover, one of each is to be used when the decision has to be made $uickly because of some urgency and the others arc to be used when the decision can be made more slowly and the leaders wants to use the opportunity to develop subordinates, decision+making abilities. !he HLE model was criticized because of its comple#ity. 8omputer software has been developed to aid leaders in defining the situation, answering the $uestions about the problem attributes and developing a strategy for decision+making participation. "lthough the HLE model is too new to have been thoroughly tested, evidence so far indicates that this model can help leaders to choose the most effective way to include the sub+ordinates in decision+making.

OTHER "ONTINGEN"- A++ROA"HE) In addition to these three major theories, there are other contingency models or theories developed in recent years. !he other models are as follows: +ertical *yad 'in(age Model: !his model stresses the .fact that leaders actually have different kinds of working relationship with different subordinates. <ach manager+ subordinate relationship represents one vertical dyad. !he Hertical yad :inkage model suggests that leaders establish special working relationships with some subordinates based on some combination of respect, trust and liking. !hese people constitute the 3in+ group@. Other subordinates remain in the 3out+group@s, who receive less of leader,s time and attention. !hose in the ,in+group, receive more of the manager,s time and attention and are better performers. Aesearch shows that people in the 3in+group@ are more productive and more satisfied with their work than 3out group@ members. 'ife Cycle Model: !he life cycle model suggests+that appropriate leader behavior depends on the maturity of the followers. In this conte#t, maturity includes motivation,
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competence and e#perience. !he model suggests that as followers become more mature, the leader needs to move gradually from high to low task orientation. %imultaneously, the leader,s employee+oriented behavior should start low, increase at a moderate rate and then decline again. Bany leaders are familiar with the life cycle theory because it is both simple and logical. 4owever, it has received little scientific support from researchers. :eadership styles:

4/ Authoritarian leadershi$ st(le !he authoritarian leadershi$ st(le or auto#rati# leader keeps strict, close control over followers by keeping close regulation of policies and procedures given to followers. !o keep main emphasis on the distinction of the authoritarian leader and their followers, these types of leaders make sure to only create a distinct professional relationship. irect supervision is what they believe to be key in maintaining a successful environment and follower ship. In fear of followers being unproductive, authoritarian leaders keep close supervision and feel this is necessary in order for anything to be done.

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<#amples of authoritarian communicative behavior: a police officer directing traffic, a teacher ordering a student to do his or her assignment, 5/ +aternalisti# leadershi$ st(le: " type of fatherly managerial style typically employed by dominant males where their organizational power is used to control and protects subordinate staffs that are e#pected to be loyal and obedient. " manager with a paternalistic leadership style might be appropriate for a business with a more formal and hierarchical structure where creative thinking is not re$uired of staff.

6/ .e%o#rati# leadershi$ st(le: Involves a team guided by a leader where all individuals are involved in the decision making process to determine what needs to be done and how it should be done. !he group,s leader has the authority to make the final decision of the group. 7/ ,aisse &aire leadershi$ st(le: It is a non+authoritarian leadership style. :aissez faire leaders try to give the least possible guidance to subordinates, and try to achieve control through less obvious means. !hey believe that people e#cel when they are left alone to respond to their responsibilities and obligations in their own ways.

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MO.U,E-III MOTIVATION "ON"E+T:

The word motivation is derived from motive', which means an active form of a desire, craving or need that must be satisfied. Motivation is the key to organizational effectiveness. The manager in general has to get the work done through others. These 'others' are human resources who need to be motivated to attain organizational objectives.

.E1INITION:

Botivation is the comple# forces starting and a keeping a person at work in an organization. Botivation is something that moves the person to action, and continues him in the course of action already initiated.

"ccording to Bc9arland:GBotivation refers to the ways in which urges, drives ,desires, strivings or needs direct, control, or e#plain the behavior.G

Botivation is the desire within an individual that stimulates him or her to action.&

In the words of Aobert

ubin, it is &the comple# of forces starting and keeping a person

at work in an organization&. Hiteles defines motivation as &an unsatisfied need which creates a state of tension or dise$uilibrium, causing the individual to move in a goal directed pattern towards restoring a state of e$uilibrium, by satisfying the need.&

Nature o& %otivation:

-. It is based on motives
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.. "ffected by motivating /. )oal+directed behavior 0. Aelated to satisfaction 2. 'erson motivated in totality 5. It is a comple# process 6. It is an internal feeling and forces a person to action. N. It is a continuous activity. I. It varies from person to person and from time to time. -K. It may be positive or negative. IM+ORTAN"E O1 MOTIVATION

Botivation is an important part of managing process. " team of highly $ualified and motivated employees is necessary for achieving objectives of an organization because of the following reasons: Botivated employees make optimum use of available resources for achieving objectives. Botivation is directly related to the level of efficiency of employees. Botivated employees make full use of their energy and other abilities to raise the e#isting level of efficiency. Botivated employees make goal+directed efforts. !hey are more committed and cooperative for achieving organizational objectives. Botivated employees are more loyal and sincere to an organization. !hese factors help reduce absenteeism and labor turnover. Botivation is considered as a backbone of good industrial relations.

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 <ffectively motivated employees get more job satisfaction and possess high morale. Botivation also helps in improving the image of an organization. Motivation +ro#ess:

!he motivation process begins with identi&i#ation o& individual needs. 9or e#ample, when an employee feels underpaid then what, then he tries to fulfill his needs by asking for a raise or by working harder to earn a raise or by seeking a new job. 4e then chooses to $ursue one or %ore o& these o$tions for instance, working harder while simultaneously looking for a job. If his hard work resulted in a pay rise, he probably feels satisfied and will continue to work hard. But if no raise has been provided he is likely to try another option. %ince people have many different needs, the satisfaction of one need or set of needs is likely to give rise to the identification of other needs. !hus, the cycle of motivation is constantly repeated. 7nderstanding human motivation is crucial for managing people. <#tensive research has been performed to find out what makes people work and how to motivate them. !his includes managers, social scientists, behaviorists and psychologists. " number of theories have been developed, even though there is no universally acceptable motivation theory. 7nderstanding these theories facilitates the managers to get a better insight into the human behavior.

THEORIE) O1 MOTIVATION:
NEED-BASED THEORIES TO MOTIVATION

1eed+based theories try to answer the $uestion, &what factor*s> motivate people to choose certain behaviorsP& %ome of the widely known need+based theories are as follows: 2a3 Maslo?Ds Hierar#h( o& Needs Baslow "braham proposed his theory in the -I0Ks. !his theory, popularly known as the 4ierarchy of 1eeds assumes that people are motivated to satisfy five levels of needs: physiological, security, belongingness, esteem and self+actualization needs.

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B asl o w

suggested that the five levels of needs are arranged in accordance with their importance, starting from the bottom of the hierarchy. "n individual is motivated first and foremost to satisfy physiological needs. ?hen these needs are satisfied, he is motivated and ,moves up, the hierarchy to satisfy security needs. !his ,moving up process continues until the individual reaches the self+ actualization level. +h(siologi#al needs represent the basic issues of survival such as food, se#, water and air. In organizational settings, most physiological needs are satisfied by ade$uate wages and by the work environment itself, which provides employees with rest rooms, ade$uate lighting, comfortable temperatures and ventilation. )e#urit( or sa&et( needs refer to the re$uirements for a secure physical and emotional environment. <#amples include the desire for ade$uate housing and clothing, the need to be free from worry about money and job security and the desire for safe working
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conditions. %ecurity needs are satisfied for people in the work place by job continuity, a grievance resolving system and an ade$uate insurance and retirement benefit package. Belonging or so#ial needs are related to the, social aspect of human life. !hey include the need for love and affection and the need to be accepted by one,s peers. 9or most people these needs are satisfied by a combination of family and community relationships and friendships on the job. Banagers can help ensure the ,satisfaction of these important needs by allowing social interaction and by making employees feel like part of a team or work group. Estee% needs actually comprise of two different sets of needs: !he need for a positive self+image and self+respect. !he need for recognition and respect from others.Organizations can help address esteem needs by providing a variety of e#ternal symbols of accomplishment such as job titles and spacious offices. "t a more fundamental level, organizations can also help satisfy esteem needs by providing employees with challenging job assignments that can induce a sense of accomplishment. "t the top of the hierarchy are those needs, which Baslow defines the sel&-a#tuali ation needs. !hese needs involve realizing one,s potential for continued: growth and individual development. %ince these needs are highly individualized and personal, self+actualization needs are perhaps the most difficult for managers to address. !herefore, an employee should try to meet these needs on his own end. 4owever, an organization can help his employee by creating a climate for fulfillment of self+actualization needs. 9or instance, an organization can help in fulfillment of these needs by encouraging employee@s participation in decision+making process and by providing them with an opportunity to learn new things about their jobs and organization. !his process of contributing to actual organizational performance helps employees e#perience personal growth and development associated with self+actualizing. Baslow,s concept of the need hierarchy possesses a certain intuitive logic and has been accepted universally by managers. But research has revealed several shortcomings of the
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theory such as some research has found that five levels of needs are not always present and that the order of the levels is not always the same as assumed by Baslow. Boreover, it is difficult for organizations to use the need hierarchy to enhance employee motivation. ERG THEOR- O1 MOTIVATION 8layton "lderfer has proposed an alternative hierarchy of needs + called the <A) !heory of Botivation. !he letters <, A and ) stand for <#istence, Aelatedness and )rowth.

<A) !heory the need hierarchy developed by Baslow into three !he e#istence needs in this theory refers to the physiological and security needs of Baslow. Aelatedness needs refers to belongingness and esteem needs. )rowth needs refers to both self+esteem and self+actualization needs. "lthough <A) !heory assumes that motivated behavior follows a hierarchy in somewhat the same fashion as suggested by Baslow, there are two important differences.

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9irstly, <A) theory suggests that more than one kind of need might motivate a person at the same time. 9or e#ample, it allows for the possibility that people can be motivated by a desire for money *e#istence>( friendship *relatedness>, and an opportunity to learn new skills *growth> all at the same time.

%econdly, <A) theory has an element of frustrations+regression that is missing from Baslow,s need hierarchy. Baslow maintained that one heed must be satisfied before an individual can progress to needs at a higher level, for e#ample, from security needs to belongingness. !his is termed as satisfaction;progression process. "lthough the <A) theory includes this process, it also suggests that if needs remain unsatisfied at some higher level, the individual will become frustrated, regress to a lower level and will begin to pursue low level needs again. 9or& e#ample, a worker previously motivated by money *e#istence needs> is awarded a pay rise to satisfy this needs. !hen he attempts to establish more friendship to satisfy relatedness needs. If for some reason an employee finds that it is impossible to become better friends with others in the work place, he may eventually become frustrated and regress to being motivated to earn even more money. !his is termed as 3frustration+regression, process.

!he <A) theory emphasis on the following key points regarding needs: %ome needs may be more important than others. 'eople may change their behavior after any particular set of needs has been satisfied. 2#3 The .ual-)tru#ture A$$roa#h to Motivation "nother popular need+based approach to motivation is the dual+structure approach developed by 9rederick 4erzberg. !his is also known as !wo+factor !heory. 4erzberg developed this approach after interviewing .KK accountants and engineers in 'ittsburg. 4e asked them to recall such occasions when they had been dissatisfied and less motivated. 4e found that entirely different sets of factors were associated with satisfaction and dissatisfaction. 9or instance, an individual who identified ,low pay, as causing dissatisfaction did not necessarily mention ,high pay, as a

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cause of satisfaction. Instead, several other factors, such as recognition or accomplishment, were cited as causing satisfaction.

!his finding suggests that satisfaction and dissatisfaction are at opposite ends of a single scale. <mployees would, therefore, be satisfied, dissatisfied or somewhere in between. 4erzberg argued that attitudes and motivation consists of a dual structure. One structure involves a set of factors that result in feelings ranging from satisfaction to no satisfaction. !he other structure involves a set of factors that result in feelings ranging from dissatisfaction to no satisfaction. 4erzberg identified two sets of factors responsible for causing either satisfaction or dissatisfaction. !he factors influencing satisfaction are called motivation factors or motivators, which are related specifically to the job itself and the factors causing dissatisfaction are called hygiene factors, which are related to the work environment in which the job is performed. Motivators A#hieve%ent Re#ognition
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 Advan#e%ent The ?or< itsel& The $ossi!ilit( o& $ersonal gro?th Res$onsi!ilit( Hygiene or Maintenance !actors "o%$an( $oli#ies Te#hni#al su$ervision Inter$ersonal relations ?ith su$ervisor Inter$ersonal relations ?ith $eers Inter$ersonal relations ?ith su!ordinates )alar( Go! se#urit( +ersonal li&e Hor< #onditions )tatus Based on these findings, 4erzberg recommended that managers seeking to motivate employees should first make sure that hygiene factors are taken care of and that employees are not dissatisfied with pay, security and working conditions. Once a manager has eliminated employee dissatisfaction, 4ertzberg recommends focusing on a different set of factors to increase motivation, by improving opportunities for advancement, recognition, advancement and growth. %pecifically, he recommends job enrichment as a means of enhancing the availability of motivation factors. "lthough widely accepted by managers, 4ertzberg@s dual structure approach however suffers from certain drawbacks. Other researchers who measured satisfaction and dissatisfaction based on different aspects reached very different conclusions. !hey have also criticized 4erzberg,s theory for its inability to define the relationship between satisfaction and motivation and to pay enough attention to differences between individuals. 4ence, at present 4erzberg,s theory is not
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held in high esteem by researchers in the field of motivation. !he theory, however, had a major impact on managers and has played a key role in increasing their awareness of motivation and its importance in type work place.

DID AN. J-D THEORIE) O1 MOTIVATION ouglas Bc)regor observed two diametrically opposing viewpoints of managers ,about their employees( one is negative called &!heory of Q& and another is positive called &!heory of L&. Theor( o& I 9ollowing are the assumptions of managers who believe in the &!heory of Q& regarding their employees. <mployees dislike work. <mployees must be coerced, controlled or threatened to do the work. <mployees avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction. Bost employees consider security of job, most important of all other factors in the job and have very little ambition. Theor( o& 9ollowing are the assumptions of managers who believe in the &!heory of L& regarding their employees. <mployees love work as play or rest. <mployees are self+directed and self+controlled and committed to the organizational objectives. <mployees accept and seek responsibilities. Innovative spirit is not confined to managers alone, some employees also possess it.

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A$$li#a!ilit( o& Theories DID and D-D !heory ,Q, in its applicability, places e#clusive reliance upon e#ternal control of human behavior, while theory ,L,, relies heavily on self+control +and self+direction. !heory ,Q, points to the traditional approach of management. :iterally, this theory of behavior is related to organizations that lay hard and rigid standards of work+behavior. %ome e#amples of such organizations are organizations that break down jobs into specialized elements( establish ,norms of production, design e$uipment to control worker,s pace of work, have rigid rules and regulations, that are sometimes very vigorously enforced. !heory ,L@, on the other hand, secures the commitment of employees to organizational objectives. !his motivational theory places emphasis on satisfaction of employees. ?hile applying this theory, the use of authority, as an instrument of command and control is minimal. <mployees e#ercise self+direction and self+control. !he concepts of ,Eob, <nlargement,, ,'articipation, and ,Banagement by Objectives, are $uite consistent with theory , L,. Bc)regor supports the applicability of motivational theory ,L,, instead of theory 3Q,. Organization should keep in mind that once theory ,Q, is employed for organizational working, it
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is difficult for the management to shift to theory , L,, all of a sudden. 4owever, with systematic, judicious and slow steps, shifting in the practical applicability of theory ,Q, to theory , L, usually can be achieved.

M"-",E,,AN.Ds NEE. THEOR- O1 MOTIVATION

avid 8. Bc8lelland and his associate "tkinson have contributed to an understanding of motivation by identifying three types of basic motivating needs. !hese needs have been classified as: -. .. /. 1eed for 'ower 1eed for "ffiliation 1eed for "chievement :
:

4/ Need &or +o?er

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"ccording to this theory the need for power, which might be defined as the desire to be influential in a group and to control one,s environment is an important motivation factor. Aesearch suggests that people with a strong need for power, are likely to be superior performers and occupy supervisory positions. %uch types of individuals generally look for positions of leadership, they act effectively, are outspoken, have a stubborn character and e#ert authority. 5/ Need &or A&&iliation !he need for affiliation means the desire for human companionship and acceptance. !hose with a high need for affiliation often behave the way they think other people want them to, in an effort to maintain friendship. !hey prefer a job that entails a good deal of social interaction and offers opportunities to make friends. !he principal characteristics of such peoples, traits are as follows: esire to like and be liked. <njoy company and friendship. 'refer cooperative situation. <#cel in group task. %tar attraction in gathering. :eadership $ualities.

!his need is closely associated with the &social+typeG of personality, who are sociable, friendly, cooperative and understanding. 'ersons with high motivation for power and affiliation have better chances of becoming good managers. 6/ Need &or A#hieve%ent 'eople with a high need for achievement, always feel ambitious to be successful( are ever prepared to face challenging situations and set arduous goals .for themselves. !hey are prone to take calculated risks( and possess a high sense of personal responsibility in getting jobs done. !hese people are concerned with their progress, and feel inclined to put in longer hours of work& 9ailures never dishearten them and they are always ready to put in their best efforts for e#cellent performance.

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THEOR--Z Eapanese consensus management style based on the assumptions that *-> employees want to build cooperative relationships with their employers, peers, and other employees in the firm( *.> for this they re$uire high degree of support in the form of secure employment and facilities for development of multiple skills through training and job rotation. */> they value family life, culture and as material success, *0> they have well+developed sense of dedication, moral obligations, and self+discipline, and *2> !hey can make collective decisions through consensus. traditions, and social institutions as much

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MO.U,E-IV ORGANIZATIONA, ",IMATE AN. "U,TURE

MANAGEMENT O1 )TRE)): Ruick, F%tress, or the stress response, is the

"ccording to E. 8. Ruick and E. demandG.

unconscious preparation to fight or flee a person e#periences when faced with any "ccording to Bikhail "., F%tress refers to a psychological and physiological state those results when certain features of an individual@s environment challenge that person, creating an actual or perceived imbalance between demand and capability to adjust those results in a non+specific responseG. )OUR"E) O1 )TRE))

%tress is a reality of our everyday life. !here are both positive and negative stresses that come from our work and non+work lives. "s pointed out by near. Aice, and 4unt *-INK> and %ckaran *-IN5>, among others, the work and non+work domains of one,s life are closely interrelated. !he stresses and strains e#perienced in one domain are carried over to the other. !hus, if one e#periences stress at work, that stress will be carried over to the home. One major source of job stress is the job itself. !he way the job is designed, the amount of time pressure an individual faces and the amount of e#pectations others have of a person at work can all lead to job stress. Interpersonal relationships are a second source of job stress. 4ow much contact an individual has with coworkers and managers, how much time he or she deals with clients or consumers, and how pleasant those interactions are all influences of how much stress an individual e#periences at work. !hird source is problems in personal lives, which can spill over into the work environment, adding further tension to an already stressful work situation. )OUR"E) O1 GOB )TRE)) Go! "hara#teristi#s

Aole ambiguity
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 Aole conflict Aole overload <thical dilemmas Inter$ersonal Relationshi$s

"mount of contact with others ealing with people in other departments

Organizational climate Organi ational 1a#tors +ersonal 1a#tors

8areer concerns )eographical mobility Aate of life change

Go! "hara#teristi#s " major source of job stress is a person,s role in the organization. " role is simply the set of e#pectations that other people in the organization have for an individual, 9or e#ample, supervisors, coworkers, customers and suppliers e#pect an employee to behave in certain predictable ways. !he e#pectations others have of an employee arc sometimes unclear, in conflict, or too high for the employee to meet within the time allotted, and he or she e#periences stress. "ole #m iguity: ?hen there is a lot of uncertainty surrounding job definitions or job e#pectations, people e#perience role ambiguity. ?ith the recent increase in mergers and ac$uisitions among major organizations, more and more employees arc e#periencing job stress as a result of role ambiguity. Aole ambiguity is an#iety arousing among employees that leads to job stress. "ole Conflict: Often employees discover that different groups of people in an organization have widely varying e#pectations of them, and that they cannot meet all

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those e#pectations. !his inconsistency of e#pectations associated with a role is called role conflict, which results in stress. "ole &verload: Aole overload is a situation in which employees feel they are being asked to do more than time or ability permits. ?orking under time pressure is especially stressful. "ole -nder load: Aole 7nder load is the condition in which employees have too little work to do or too little variety +in their work. 9or e#ample, salespeople in a store with no customer, standing around all day with nothing to do, could be said to e#perience role under load. Ironically, role under load leads to low self+esteem, increased fre$uency of nervous symptoms and increased health problems. Ethical *ilemmas: <thical dilemmas such as whether or not one should report the observed unethical behaviors of another person can cause e#treme levels of stress in individuals. !his will be especially true for those who have strong moral values of right and wrong and a deep sense of personal and corporate social responsibility. !ensions arise because one might have to contend against one,s own colleagues who might be close friends, and may fear of reprisal and other undesirable conse$uences. Inter$ersonal Relationshi$s "nother major source of stress in organization is poor interpersonal relationships with supervisors, subordinates, coworkers. or clients. ?hen interpersonal relationships at work are unpleasant, employees develop a generalized an#iety, a diffuse feeling of dread about upcoming meetings and interactions. !hree aspects of interpersonal relationships at work, which have a negative impact on job stress, are as follows: #mount of contact )ith others: Eobs vary in terms of how much interpersonal contact is built into them. !oo much prolonged contact with other people can cause stress. #mount of contact )ith people in other departments: 4aving contacts with people outside one,s own department creates a special sort of stress. 'eople in other departments

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do not always have an ade$uate understanding of jobs outside their own areas, which can cause stress. &rgani.ational climate: !he overall psychological climate of the organization can create stress. ?hen day+to+day life in an organization is marked by unfriendly, distant, or hostile e#changes, employees are continually tense and this causes stress.

Organi ational 1a#tors 9ollowing are the organizational factors that cause stress in individuals: ?ork environment factors such as noise, heal, poor lighting, radiation and smoke are stress+inducing agents. Insufficient resources such as time, budget, raw materials, space or manpower also induce stress in the work environment. ?hen one has to produce and perform with inade$uate resources on a long+term basis, this naturally imposes stresses and strains on the individuals who are responsible for getting the job done. %tructural factors in the organizational setting such as staff rules and, regulations and reward systems, may cause stress. :ack of career promotion in organizations may be sometime cause stress. <nvironmental factors of stress include sudden and unanticipated changes in the marketplace, technology, the financial market and so on. +ersonal 1a#tors <mployees@ personal lives have a marked effect on their lives at work. If things are going well personally, they are more likely to be upbeat and optimistic. !hey have more energy and patience for dealing with problems at work. On the other hand, if employees are having some personal problems, they might be more tense or distracted when they go to work.
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9actors that influence how much stress people bring from their personal :ives to the work setting are as follows: Career Concerns: One major career concern that can cause stress is lack of job security. " second career concern that can cause employees stress is status incongruity, i.e., having jobs with less status, power and prestige than they think they deserve. /eographical Mo ility: )eographical moves create stress because they disrupt the routines of daily life. ?hen geographical moves arc undertaken as part of a job transfer, the moves can be even more stressful. !he transferred employees are likely to feel out of control at work, too, and e#perience their new work environments as unpredictable.

"ON)EKUEN"E) AN. "O+ING )TRATEGIE) 1OR )TRE))

E11E"T) OR "ON)EKUEN"E) O1 GOB )TRE)) 1egative stress has unpleasant conse$uences for them, their families and for the organizations they serve. E&&e#ts on the Individual !he impacts of distress on individuals are of following types: !he subjective or intrapersonal effects of stress are feelings of an#iety, boredom, apathy, nervousness, depression, fatigue, and anger. %ometimes e#periencing the stress may cause aggressive behaviors on the part of the individual. !he cognitive effects include poor concentration, short attention span, mental blocks and inability to make decisions. !he physiological effects can be seen in increased heart and pulse rate, high blood pressure, dryness of throat, and e#cessive sweating. !he behavioral effects arc manifest in such things as accident proneness, drinking, e#cessive eating, smoking, impulsive behaviors, depression, and withdrawal behaviors.

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!he manifest health effects could be stomach disorders, asthma, eczema, and other psychosomatic disorders. In addition, the mental health, i.e. the ability lo function effectively in one,s daily life, will also decline as e#cessive stress is e#perienced.

"onse*uen#es &or the 1a%il( 1egative stress, which is handled by individuals in dysfunctional ways, such as drinking or withdrawal behaviors, will have an adverse effect on their home life. %pouse abuse, child abuse, alienation from family members, and even divorce could result from dysfunctional coping mechanisms. "onse*uen#es to Organi ations !he adverse conse$uences on an organization include low performance and productivity, high rates of absenteeism and poor decision+making. It also leads to lots of customers because of poor worker attitudes, increased alienation of the worker from the job, and even destructive and aggressive behaviors resulting in strikes and sabotage. !he stresses e#perienced by employees who take on critical roles and are responsible for safety can sometimes be detrimental to the public. 9or instance, the stresses e#perienced by a train driver or railway guard, or that of an airline pilot, navigator, or air traffic controller may result in serious accidents. 1eedless to say that the costs of employee stress to the organization in terms of lost profits, poor image and loss of future business are enormous.

METHO.) O1 MANAGING )TRE)) %tress is a factor that everybody has to contend with on a daily basis both in the work and non+ work spheres of life. %ince the body has only a limited capacity to respond to stress, it is important for individuals to optimally manage their stress level to operate as fully functioning human beings. !here are several ways in which stress can be handled so that the dysfunctional conse$uences of stress can be reduced. %ome of them are:

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Role Anal(sis Te#hni*ue 2RAT3 !he Aole "nalysis !echni$ue helps both the manager and the employee to analyze the re$uirements and e#pectations from the job. Breaking+down the job into various components clarifies the role of the job for the entire system. !his also helps to eliminate reduction of work and thus lowering down the stress level. Go! Relo#ation Eob relocation assistance is offered to employees who are transferred, by finding alternative employment for the spouses of the transferred employees and getting admissions in schools for their children in the new place. !hese arrangements help to reduce the an#iety and stress for the moving family.

Re#reational +rogra% 'roviding recreational facilities, arranging group meditation programs, help to reduce the stress levels of the employees. E%$lo(ee Assistan#e +rogra% "nother widely used strategy is the employee assistance 'rograms, which offer a variety of assistance to employees. !hese include counseling employees who seek assistance on how to deal with alcohol and drug abuse, handling conflicts at the work place, dealing with marital and other family problems. "areer "ounseling 8areer 8ounseling helps the employee to obtain professional advice regarding career that would help the individual to achieve personal goals. It also makes the employees aware of what additional educational $ualifications or specialized technical training, if any, *hat they should ac$uire. By becoming knowledgeable about the possible avenues for advancement, the

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employees who consider their careers to be important can reduce their stress levels by becoming more realistic about their options and can start preparing themselves for it. Ti%e Manage%ent "nother way of coping with stress is to manage time more effectively. 'eople can learn to get better organized so that they can do their work more efficiently.

.elegation "nother way of coping with job stress is to delegate some responsibilities to others. can directly decrease workload upon the manager and helps to reduce the stress. S More In&or%ation and Hel$ %ome new employees have to spend more time on a job than necessary because they are not sure what they are doing. %o it is necessary that some help should be provided before doing the work that would lead to much efficient, effective work. It would also reduce an#iety and stress among the employees. Health Maintenan#e 'robably the most fre$uently used organizational stress management program is health maintenance. Bany companies invest large sum of money in gym and sport facilities for maintaining the health of the employees. )u$ervisor Training "nother type of stress management 'rogram that organizations are e#perimenting with is elegation

supervisor training. !he emphasis on supervisory training 'rogram is how to prevent job stress. Banagers are trained to give better performance appraisals, to listen to employees@ problems more effectively, and to communicate job assignments and instructions more clearly. Individual )tress Redu#tion Hor<sho$s
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%ome organizations have also sponsored individual stress reduction workshops for their employees. !hese programs include biofeedback, meditation to career counseling, time management and interpersonal skills workshops. In lectures and seminars, participants are given a basic understanding of the causes of stress and its conse$uences. !hen, participants are given materials to help them identify the major sources of stress in their own lives, and some strategies for dealing with that stress more effectively.

ORGANIZATIONA, "U,TURE:
"on#e$t: Organizational culture is the set of values that states what an organization stands for, how it operates and what it considers important. "ccording to eal and Cennedy, a strong culture is. &It is a system of informal rules that

spells out how people have to behave most of the time&. "ll the above definitions stress acceptable and unacceptable behavior of its members. 9or instance, one organization might value solidarity and loyalty to organization more than any other value whereas another organization might stress on good relations with customers. %uch values are part of organizational culture in spite of not being formally written like rules and regulations of the organization. !hey do not usually appear in the organizational training 'rogram and in fact, many organizations have difficulty in e#pressing their cultural values. 4owever, an organization,s values automatically enter every employee,s personal values and actions over a period of time. Organizational culture has a profound influence on individual employees because it is generally an accepted set of values rather than a written set of rules with which employees might not argue.

IM+ORTAN"E O1 "U,TURE 8ulture plays a very significant role in any organization by communicating information about the overall acceptable and unacceptable behavior. 8ulture communicates whether the organization

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e#pects its managers to be aggressive or conservative in decisions+making, generous or moderate in supporting social causes and ruthless or kind in competitive dealings. %ome organizations have clear, strong and well+defined culture whereas: others have ambiguous, weak and poorly defined cultures. Bost managers agree that a strong and clear culture is preferable to weak and vague culture because it helps to provide a common frame of reference for managerial decision+making and a wide variety of other organizational activities. "n organizational culture generally lakes shape over time and is often deeply influenced by the values of the organizational founders. "s organizational culture evolves, various symbols, stories, heroes, slogans and ceremonies also come into being. !hese, then, serve to maintain and perpetuate the culture through subse$uent generations of employees. T-+E) O1 "U,TURE:

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"hanging Organi ational "ulture 8hange is most often needed when the organization has lost its effectiveness and is struggling to either& carry out or change its strategic goals. !he manager trying to change an organizational culture faces lots of difficulties. Because organizational culture embody the organizational values, which are embedded in organization,s soul that stays stable irrespective of the changes in leadership and environment.

It is, however, possible to change organizational culture, to improve the organization performance. 9or this managers must change employee,s ideas about what is and what is not appropriate behavior. !hey must create new role model and new stories to help employees understand the meaning of what is happening around them. One way to brine about such changes is to manage the symbols that are important to the organization. "n organization,s suggestion bo# is a symbol of an organization,s openness to the ideas of the employees. %ome organizations try to emphasize the importance of employees@ ideas by rewarding them for their suggestions. 4owever, if the suggestion bo# remains just a symbol and organization never translates the suggestions into actions, the bo# will have little effect on organization morale. Once successfully made, changes in the organizational culture will be as stable as the old culture was. 4owever, any organization willing to change its culture must realize that such a change is never easy and cannot be brought about simply by ordering employees.

Organi ational "li%ate

<ven though organizational culture and organizational climate are sometimes used interchangeably, there are certain differences between the two. "ccording to Bowditch and Buono . &Organizational culture is concerned with the nature of beliefs and e#pectations about organizational life, while climate is an indicator of whether those beliefs and e#pectations are being fulfilled.& Organizational climate is a relatively enduring $uality of the internal environment that is e#perienced by its members, influences their behavior, and can be described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics.&

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It is a set of characteristics and factors of the organization that are perceived by the employees and, which serve as a major force in influencing their behavior. !hese factors may include job descriptions, performance arid evaluation standards, leadership style, challenges and innovations.

1A"TOR) A11E"TING ORGANIZATIONA, ",IMATE In every organization, there e#ist certain factors that e#ert deep influence on the climate. %chneider and Barlett describe si# factors that have an influence over organizational climate such as managerial support, inter+agency conflict, agent dependence and general satisfaction. :awrence Eames and "llan Eones have identified five factors influencing climate, which include management philosophy, organizational structure and process, which include communication, motivation and leadership, physical environment and values. %imilarly, Cahn has identified factors such as rules orientation, the nurture of subordinates, strict supervision and promotional achievement orientation. !hus, it is very difficult to generalize e#actly the factors affecting the climate. Organizational climate has a major influence on human performance through its impact on the motivation, job satisfaction and attitudes of people.

ORGANIZATIONA, "HANGE Introdu#tion:

8hange simply refers to alteration in the e#isting conditions of an organization. <ven in most stable organizations change is necessary to maintain stability. !he economic and social environment is so dynamic that without adapting to such change even the most successful organizations cannot survive in the changed environment. !herefore, management must

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continuously monitor the outside environment and be sufficiently innovative and creative to implement these changes effectively. Organizations encounter different forces for change. !hese forces come from e#ternal and internal sources of the organization. 4/ EITERNA, 1OR"E) <#ternal forces for change originate outside an organization. !here are four key e#ternal forces for change: .e%ogra$hi# "hara#teristi#s: !hese include age, education, skill level and gender of employees. Organizations need to effectively manage these characteristics in order to receive ma#imum contribution and commitment from their employees. Te#hnologi#al Advan#e%ents: Both manufacturing and service organizations are increasingly using technology as a means to improve productivity and market competitiveness. Mar<et "hanges: !he emergence of a global economy is forcing Indian organizations to change the way they do business. Organizations are entering into new partnerships with their suppliers in order to deliver higher $uality products at lower prices. )o#ial and +oliti#al +ressures: !hese forces are created by social and political events. 'ersonal values affect employees@ needs, priorities and motivation. !herefore, managers need to adjust their managerial style according to the changing employee values. 'olitical events also create substantial change in an organization. "lthough it is difficult for organizations to predict changes in political forces, many organizations hire lobbyists and consultants to help them detect and respond to social and political changes.

5/ INTERNA, 1OR"E) Internal forces for change come from inside the organization. !his may come from both human resource problems and managerial behavior.
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Hu%an Resour#e +ro!le%s

!hese problems stem from employee perceptions about their work environment and conflict between an employee and organization needs. Organizations might respond to these problems by using the various approaches to job design by implementing realistic job previews and by reducing employees, role conflict, stress, work overload and ambiguity.

Managerial Behavior

<#cessive interpersonal conflict between managers and their subordinates is a sign of implementing an immediate change. Inappropriate leader behavior such as inade$uate direction and support are the cause of conflict between managers and their subordinates. Nature o& "hange Organizations introduce changes through people. 7nless the people arc willing to accept the need and responsibility for organizational change, intended changes can never be translated into reality. In addition, individuals have to learn patterns to constantly changing environments. Banagement of change involves both individual and organizational change. Individual change is behavioral change, which is determined by individual characteristics of members such as their knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, needs, e#pectations and skills. It is possible to bring about a total change mT an organization by changing behaviors of individual members through participative and. educative strategies. "lthough, the degree of difficulty involved in the change and the time taken to bring about the change will depend on the target of change. !he attitudes towards change are largely dependent on the nature of the situation and the manner in .which changes are initiated and e#ecuted. to adapt their attitudes and behavioral

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8hanging individual behavior is more time consuming and a difficult task. !he linkage between attitude and behavior is not direct and therefore changing behavior is more difficult than changing attitudes. One,s attitude does not necessarily get reflected in one,s behavior. 9or e#ample, we know that honesty is the best policy and we have favorable altitudes towards people+ who are honest but in certain situations, we may still act in a less honest way.

8hanging group behavior is usually a more prolonged and harder task. <very group has its own dynamics of push and pull that attempt to neutralize the change that may have taken place in an individual. ue to this group dynamics, individual member,s 3changed behavior@ may revert to earlier normative behavior in order to maintain the change in the e#isting conditions. 4owever, due to the same reasons of a group,s over+riding influence on individual members, sometimes it may be easier to tackle the group as a whole rather than trying to change the behavior of members one by one.

Bringing total behavioral change in all the groups and members of an organization involves difficult long+range effort. Bore often than not, it is a slow painful process to usher a total cultural change in an organization.

It is possible to change total organization without focusing at the level of individual,s change of knowledge, attitude and behavior. Bodification in the organization,s structures, policies, procedures and techni$ues leads to total organizational change. !hese types of changes alter prescribed relationships and roles assigned to members and eventually modify the individual members@ behavior and attitudes. "s these two kinds of changes are interdependent, the comple#ity of managing change increases manifold.

A++ROA"HE) TO ORGANIZATIONA, "HANGE

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"s organizational change is a comple# process, therefore managers must approach it systematically and logically. %ome organizational changes are planned whereas other changes are reactive. 'lanned change is designed and implemented by an organization in an orderly and timely fashion in the anticipation of future change.

Aeactive change results from a reaction of an organization to une#pected events. In contrast to planned change, it is a piece+meal response to circumstances as they develop. <#ternal forces that the organization has failed to anticipate or interpret always bring about reactive change. %ince reactive change may have to be carried out hastily, it increases the likelihood of a poorly conceived and poorly e#ecuted 'rogram.

'lanned change is always preferable to reactive change. Banagers who sit back and respond to change only when they can no longer avoid it are likely to waste a lot of time and money trying to patch together a last+minute solution. !he more effective approach is to anticipate the significant forces for change working in an organization and plan ways to address them. !o accomplish this, managers must understand the steps needed for effective change.

A "OM+REHEN)IVE MO.E, O1 "HANGE !he comprehensive model of change shown in the figure shows seven steps that can lead to effective change. !his model is useful for both planned and reactive change.

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!he seven steps of comprehensive model of change are as follows: 43 Re#ogni e need &or #hange !he first step in this model is recognizing need for change. 9or marketing managers who anticipate needed. 8hange, recognition is likely to come much earlier, as a result of marketing forecasts indicating new market potential, e#pert indications about impending socio+economic change or a perceived opportunity to capitalize on a key technological breakthrough. !hese managers tend to 3initiate change because they e#pect it to be necessary in the near future in any case@. 53 Esta!lish goals &or #hange !he manager must then set goals for the proposed change. It is important for the manager to specify goals that the change is supposed to accomplish. !he goals can be set to maintain or increase the market standing, to enter new markets, to restore employee morale, to reduce turnover, to settle a strike and to identify good investment opportunities. 63 .iagnose relevant varia!les "n important ne#t step is diagnosing organizational variables that have brought about the need for change. !urnover, for e#ample, may be caused by a variety of factors such as low pay, poor working conditions, poor supervision, better alternatives in the job market or employee job dissatisfaction etc. !hus, if turnover is the recognized stimulus for change, the manager must understand what has caused it in a particular situation in order to make the right changes. !o carry out this diagnosis, the manager may discuss the situation with employees and other managers.

73 )ele#t #hange intervention "fter the manager has developed an understanding of the problem and its causes then he must select a change intervention that will accomplish the intended goal. "n intervention is a specific change induced in an organization with the intention of solving a particular problem or accomplishing a specific objective. 9or e#ample, if turnover is caused by low pay, then a new
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reward system is re$uired and if the cause is poor supervision then interpersonal skills and training for supervisors is re$uired. 83 +lan i%$le%entation o& #hange !he manager must then carefully plan the implementation of change. 'lanning the implementation of change involves consideration of the cost of the change, how the change will affect other areas of the organization and the degree to which employees should participate in bringing about the change. 4astily implemented change can result in more harm than benefit. 9or e#ample, if the change involves the use of new e$uipment, the manager should not make any changes that rely on the use of new e$uipment until it has arrived and been installed and workers know how to use it. Boreover, if change is thrust upon them too $uickly, their resistance may stiffen. 93 I%$le%ent #hange " systematically implemented change is more likely to proceed smoothly and to encounter fewer obstacles than is a change that is implemented too $uickly and without ade$uate preparation.

;3 Evaluate i%$le%entation 9inally, after the change has been implemented, the manager should verify that it has accomplished its intended goals. " change may fail to bring about the intended results. !his may be due to inappropriate goals or inaccurate diagnosis of the situation or wrong selection of intervention. MO.E,) AN. .-NAMI") O1 +,ANNE. "HANGE Banagers are criticized for emphasizing short+term, $uick fi# solutions to organizational problems. Ruick+fi# solutions do not really solve underlying problems and they have little staying power. Aesearchers and managers have thus tried to identify effective ways to manage the change process. !he following models have been developed to effectively manage change:

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,e?inDs "hange Model Bost theories of organizational change originated from the landmark work of social psychologist Curt :ewin. :ewin developed a three+stage model of planned change, which e#plained how to initiate, manage and stabilize the change process. !he three stages are unfreezing, changing and refreezing. Before reviewing each stage, it is important to highlight the assumptions on which, this model is based: -. !he change process involves learning something new, as well discontinuing current attitudes, behaviors and organizational practices. .. 8hange will not occur unless there is motivation to change. !his is often the most difficult part of the change process. /. 'eople are the hub of all organizational changes. "ny change, whether in terms of structure, group process, reward systems or job design re$uires individuals to change. 0. Aesistance to change is found even when the goals of change are highly desirable. 2. <ffective change re$uires reinforcing new behaviors, attitudes and organizational practices.

!he following are the three stages of change: -nfree.ing !he focus of this stage is to make organization open to change. In doing so individuals are encouraged to replace old behaviors and attitudes with those desired by management. Banagers also need to devise ways to reduce the barriers to change during this stage. Changing !he focus of this stage is in providing employees with new information, new behavioral models, or new ways of looking at things. !he purpose is to help employees learn new concepts to

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implement change. Aole models, mentors, e#perts, benchmarking organization against world+ class organizations and training are useful mechanisms to facilitate change.

"e free.ing !he focus of this stage is stabilizing the change during refreezing by helping employees integrate the changed behavior or attitude into their normal way of doing things. !his is accomplished by first giving employees the chance to e#hibit the new behaviors or attitudes. Once e#hibited, positive reinforcement is used to reinforce the desired change. "dditional coaching and modeling are also used at this point to reinforce the stability of the change.

E0$anded +ro#ess Model :ewin,s model is very simple and straightforward and virtually all models of organizational change use his approach. 4owever, it does not deal with several important issues. <#panded process model is illustrated in the figure .K... !his model looks at planned change from the perspective of top management. !he model incorporates :ewin,s concept as part of the implementation phase.

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!op management according to this model perceives certain forces or trends that call for change and issues that are subjected to the organization,s usual problem solving and decision+making processes. 7sually, the top management defines its goals in terms of what the organization or certain processes, or outputs will be like after the change. "lternatives for change are generated and evaluated and then an acceptable one is selected.

RE)I)TAN"E TO "HANGE "lthough organizations initiate changes in order to adjust to the changes in their environments but people sometimes resist them. !herefore, managers need to recognize the manifestations of resistance both in themselves and in others, if they want to be more effective in supporting change. 9or e#ample, managers can use the list given in following table.

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"cceptance

<nthusiasm 8ooperation 8ooperation under pressure from management

"cceptance 'assive resignation Indifference

Indifference

"pathy: loss of interest in the job oing only what is ordered Aegressive behavior

'assive Aesistance

1on+learning 'rotests ?orking to rule oing as little as possible

"ctive

%lowing down
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Aesistance

'ersonaS withdrawal *increased time off the job>

8ommitting &errors& %poilage eliberate sabotage

!he sources of resistance to change within organizations are classified into organizational sources of resistance and individual sources of resistance. ORGANIZATIONA, )OUR"E) O1 RE)I)TAN"E "ccording to aniel Cantz and Aobert : Chan, organizational sources of resistance can be

divided into following si# general groups. Over determination or structural inertia refers to the tendency of an organization,s rules, policies and structure to maintain the e#isting conditions and therefore resist change even when change would benefit the organization more than stability. ?hen an organization tries to change one of its division or part of the division without recognizing the interdependence of the division with other divisions of the organization, then it is said to have a narrow focus of change. Often a part of division cannot be changed without changing the whole division. )roup inertia may weaken an individual@s attempt to bring about change.

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Aesistance may also take the form of threatened e#pertise if the change lends to weaken special e#pertise built after years of e#perience. Organizational restructuring that involves reducing the number of job categories often meets this kind of resistance.

"ny change that may alter the power relationships within an organization may meet the form of resistance known as 3threatened power@.

Aesistance may occur when a change threatens $uantum of resource allocation from one part of the organization to another.

Individual )our#es o& Resistan#e "ccording to researchers, individuals have the following reasons for resisting change: %imple habits create a lot of resistance. Bost people prefer to do their work the way they did it last week rather than learn a new approach. 'erhaps the biggest cause of employee resistance to change is uncertainty. In the face of impending change, employees are likely to become an#ious and nervous. !hey worry about their ability to meet new job demands therefore, leading to feeling of job insecurity. %ome people resist change to avoid feeling of loss. 9or e#ample, many organizations change interventions and alter work arrangements, thus disrupting e#isting social networks. %ocial relationships are important to most people, so they resist any change that might adversely affect those relationships. 8hange may also threaten people,s feelings of familiarity and self+confidence. 'eople may resist change because their perceptions of underlying circumstances differ from the perceptions of those who are promoting the change. Halerie %tewart *-IN/>, a British 'sychologist and business consultant, has listed the following characteristics of people who are good at managing changes. -. !hey know clearly what they want to achieve.
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.. !hey can translate desires into practical action. /. !hey can propose changes not only from their own view point but also from that of others. 0. !hey show reverence for tradition and respect for e#perience. 2. !hey are not discouraged by setbacks. 5. !hey harness circumstances to implement change. 6. !hey clearly e#plain change to people affected by change. N. !hey involve their staff in the management of change and protect their security. I. !hey do not pile one change on another but wait for assimilation. -K. !hey present changes as a relational decision. --. !hey make change by personally rewarding people, wherever possible. -.. !hey share ma#imum information about possible outcomes. -/. !hey show that change is 3related to business or job@. -0. !hey have a history of successful change.

OVER"OMING RE)I)TAN"E TO "HANGE

Banagers need not abandon planned change in the face of resistance. Before recommending specific approaches to overcome resistance, there are three key conclusions that should be kept in mind. 9irst, an organization must be ready for change. %econd, the top management should inform the employees about the process of change. !hird, the employees perceptions or interpretations of a change should be considered. !he following methods of overcoming+resistance to change are as follows: Participation: 'articipation is generally considered the most effective techni$ue for overcoming resistance to change. <mployees who take part in planning and implementing
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change are better able to understand the reasons for the change than those who are not involved. !hey become committed to the change and make it work. <mployees who have the opportunity to e#press their own ideas and to understand the perspectives of others are likely to accept change gracefully. It is a time consuming process. Education and Communication: <ducating employees about the need for and the e#pected results of an impending change help reduce their resistance. Banagers should maintain an open channel of communication while planning and implementing change. 4owever, it is also a time consuming process. !acilitation of Change: Cnowing ahead of lime that employees are likely to resist change then the manager should do as much as possible to help them cope with uncertainly and feeling of loss. Introducing change gradually, making only necessary changes, announcing changes in advance and allowing time for people to adjust to new ways of doing things can help reduce resistance. !orce%!ield #nalysis: In almost any situation where a change is being planned, there are forces acting for and against the change. In force+field analysis, the manager list each set of forces and then try to remove or minimize some of the forces acting against the change. 0egotiation: ?here someone or some group will clearly lose out in a change and where that group has considerable power to resist, there negotiation is re$uired. %ometimes it is a relatively easy way to avoid major resistance. Manipulation and Cooperation: !his is followed when other tactics will not work or are too e#pensive. It can be $uick and ine#pensive( however, it can lead to further problems if people feel manipulated. Explicit and Implicit Coercion: !his is adopted where speed is essential and where the change initiators possess considerable power. It is speedy and can overcome resistance.

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<ach of the above methods has its advantages and disadvantages. !here is no universal strategy for overcoming resistance to change. 4ence, an organization that plans to introduce certain changes must be prepared to face resistance from its employees. "n organization should also have a planned approach to overcome such resistances.

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