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CONTENTS
Introduction: What are Fuel Cells? ................................................................................................................................3 Overview ...................................................................................................................................................................3 How do Fuel Cells work? ...........................................................................................................................................3 Why arent Fuel Cells readily available commercially? .............................................................................................4 Common Types of Fuel Cells ..........................................................................................................................................6 Polymer exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) ................................................................................7 Solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) .....................................................................................................................7 Alkaline fuel cell (AFC) .............................................................................................................................7 Molten-carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) .........................................................................................................7 Phosphoric-acid fuel cell (PAFC) ............................................................................................................8 Direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) ............................................................................................................8
Well, all that is good, any disadvantages though? ......................................................................................................10 Cost ...........................................................................................................................................................10 Durability ...................................................................................................................................................10 Hydration ..................................................................................................................................................10 Delivery .....................................................................................................................................................10 Infrastructure ............................................................................................................................................10
Storage and Other Considerations ................................................................................................................11 Common Uses of Fuel Cells .........................................................................................................................................11
Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types; it there combines with electrons returning from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode. In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte to the anode, where it combines with hydrogen ions. The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the anode and cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the chemical reaction. Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water, which drains from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate electricity. Even better, since fuel cells create electricity chemically, rather than by combustion, they are not subject to the thermodynamic laws that limit a conventional power plant (see "Carnot Limit). Therefore, fuel cells are more efficient in extracting energy from a fuel. Waste heat from some cells can also be harnessed, boosting system efficiency still further.
Scientists and inventors have designed many different types and sizes of fuel cells in the search for greater efficiency, and the technical details of each kind vary. Many of the choices facing fuel cell developers are constrained by the choice of electrolyte. The design of electrodes, for example, and the materials used to make them depend on the electrolyte. Today, the main electrolyte types are alkali, molten carbonate, phosphoric acid, proton exchange membrane (PEM) and solid oxide. The first three are liquid electrolytes; the last two are solids. The type of fuel also depends on the electrolyte. Some cells need pure hydrogen, and therefore demand extra equipment such as a "reformer" to purify the fuel. Other cells can tolerate some impurities, but might need higher temperatures to run efficiently. Liquid electrolytes circulate in some cells, which require pumps. The type of electrolyte also dictates a cell's operating temperature"molten" carbonate cells run hot, just as the name implies. Each type of fuel cell has advantages and drawbacks compared to the others, and none is yet cheap and efficient enough to widely replace traditional ways of generating power, such coal-fired, hydroelectric, or even nuclear power plants.
The most important design features in a fuel cell are: The electrolyte substance. The electrolyte substance usually defines the type of fuel cell. The fuel that is used. The most common fuel is hydrogen. The anode catalyst breaks down the fuel into electrons and ions. The anode catalyst is usually made up of very fine platinum powder. The cathode catalyst turns the ions into the waste chemicals like water or carbon dioxide. The cathode catalyst is often made up of nickel but it can also be a nanomaterial-based catalyst.
A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as current increases, due to several factors:
Activation loss Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnections) Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss of voltage).
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits to yield higher voltage and parallel-channel of configurations allow a higher current to be supplied. Such a design is called a fuel cell stack. The cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell. In the stack, reactant gases must be distributed uniformly over all of the cells to maximize the power output. There are several different types of fuel cells, each using a different chemistry. Fuel cells are usually classified by their operating temperature and the type of electrolyte they use. Some types of fuel cells work well for use in stationary power generation plants. Others may be useful for small portable applications or for powering cars. The main types of fuel cells include: POLYMER EXCHANGE MEMBRANE FUEL CELL (PEMFC) The Department of Energy (DOE) is focusing on the PEMFC as the most likely candidate for transportation applications. The PEMFC has a high power density and a relatively low operating temperature (ranging from 60 to 80 degrees Celsius, or 140 to 176 degrees Fahrenheit). The low operating temperature means that it doesn't take very long for the fuel cell to warm up and begin generating electricity. We?ll take a closer look at the PEMFC in the next section. SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC) These fuel cells are best suited for large-scale stationary power generators that could provide electricity for factories or towns. This type of fuel cell operates at very high temperatures (between 700 and 1,000 degrees Celsius). This high temperature makes reliability a problem, because parts of the fuel cell can break down after cycling on and off repeatedly. However, solid oxide fuel cells are very stable when in continuous use. In fact, the SOFC has demonstrated the longest operating life of any fuel cell under certain operating conditions. The high temperature also has an advantage: the steam produced by the fuel cell can be channeled into turbines to generate more electricity. This process is called co-generation of heat and power (CHP) and it improves the overall efficiency of the system. ALKALINE FUEL CELL (AFC) This is one of the oldest designs for fuel cells; the United States space program has used them since the 1960s. The AFC is very susceptible to contamination, so it requires pure hydrogen and oxygen. It is also very expensive, so this type of fuel cell is unlikely to be commercialized. MOLTEN-CARBONATE FUEL CELL (MCFC) Like the SOFC, these fuel cells are also best suited for large stationary power generators. They operate at 600 degrees Celsius, so they can generate steam that can be used to generate more power. They have a lower operating temperature than solid oxide fuel cells, which means they don't need such exotic materials. This makes the design a little less expensive.
PHOSPHORIC-ACID FUEL CELL (PAFC) The phosphoric-acid fuel cell has potential for use in small stationary power-generation systems. It operates at a higher temperature than polymer exchange membrane fuel cells, so it has a longer warm-up time. This makes it unsuitable for use in cars.
DIRECT-METHANOL FUEL CELL (DMFC) Methanol fuel cells are comparable to a PEMFC in regards to operating temperature, but are not as efficient. Also, the DMFC requires a relatively large amount of platinum to act as a catalyst, which makes these fuel cells expensive.
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development of a marketable vehicle model will drive the development of an infrastructure to support it. STORAGE AND OTHER CONSIDERATIONS Three hundred miles is a conventional driving range (the distance you can drive in a car with a full tank of gas). In order to create a comparable result with a fuel cell vehicle, researchers must overcome hydrogen storage considerations, vehicle weight and volume, cost, and safety. While PEMFC systems have become lighter and smaller as improvements are made, they still are too large and heavy for use in standard vehicles. There are also safety concerns related to fuel cell use. Legislators will have to create new processes for first responders to follow when they must handle an incident involving a fuel cell vehicle or generator. Engineers will have to design safe, reliable hydrogen delivery systems. Researchers face considerable challenges. In the next section, we will explore why the United States and other nations are investing in research to overcome these obstacles.
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