Lucretius and The Cycle of Life and The Fear of Death

De Gruyter
Lucretius on the Cycle of Life and the Fear of Death Author(s): Tim O'Keefe Source: Apeiron: A Journal for Ancient Philosophy and Science, Vol. 36, No. 1 (March 2003), pp. 43-65 Published by: De Gruyter Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40913932 . Accessed: 23/02/2014 13:55
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Tim O'Keefe
Lucretius on theCycle ofLife andthe FearofDeath
Introduction
inBookIII ofDe Rerum Lucretius strives Natura toconvince the mightily readerthatdeathis annihilation, and hencethatdeathshouldnotbe feared. Two ofhis arguments againstthefearof deathhave received extensive In thesymmetry Lucretius philosophical analysis. argument, that the infinite stretch of non-existence is says post-mortem justlikethe infinite stretch ofpre-natal andsince we do notregard the non-existence, stretch of non-existence as been horrible, pre-natal having anything by of reasoning we shouldnot dreadour post-mortem non-existparity In thenosubject ence.1 harm he arguesthat deathcannot be of argument, harmful for the who has died because after death he something person is no longer there.2 between thesetwoarguments, Lucretius However, a third the fear of I will which call thecycle death, gives argument against in which he that death should not be feared oflife argument, argues becauseitis a necessary of the natural of life and death. This part cycle
1 DRN III 972-7. Itis preserved inDRN. only 2 DRNIII 862-930, oftheissuesraised EpMen125andKD 2. Foran overview echoing an excellent collection ofarticles is Fischer by these arguments, (1993).Braddock offers a defense oftheEpicurean that alsocontains discussion of (2000) arguments andreferences tomuch oftherecent literature.
APEIRONa journal for ancient andscience philosophy 43-66 Academic & Publishing 0003-6390/2003/3601 $18.00 Printing
44 TimO'Keefe little has received attention, philosophical except argument by Martha I think thatit is quitestrong.3 that who asserts Nussbaum, However, and I offer Nussbaum's view is unsustainable, ofthe myown reading argument. I agreewithNussbaumthat, as she construes it,the cycleof life from the is distinct better-known Epicurean arguments: argument quite but it is a completely from different not onlydoes it start premises, itis deeplyprobofargument. thusconstrued, different However, type that aremuchmoreat homein Stoicthan It relies on premises lematic. in thisargument in Epicurean and Lucretius' ethics, appeal to nature in De Rerum I consider whathe sayselsewhere Natura. contradicts why what appears to be such a flawedargument, and I Lucretius offers on whichthe cycleof lifeargument could be proposetwo readings an that it is a The first is offered consistently by Epicurean. reading at adhominem ordialectical aimed who still transitional argument people attitudes towards nature. to the second holdnon-Epicurean According unlike thebetter-known thecycle oflife argument, arguments, reading, toshowthat deathis nota bad thing. does notattempt Instead, directly inone attitudes towards that ittargets destructive one'slife result certain relieve the interlocutor of these the death. attitudes, Byhelping fearing at his fear of death. aims reducing argument
The CycleofLifeArgument: Exposition, and Nussbaum'sReading
Lucretius has the the'no subject ofharm'argument, after Immediately still death. Themainpoint ofnature's voiceofnature scoldus for fearing and addingextra canattain thegoodlife, thewiseperson speechis that add to one's would life to one's Then,after nothing happiness.4 years his old man who is fearfully natureupbraidsa wretched lamenting Lucretius adds, death, impending
version of Thischapter is a revised 222-5. 3 Nussbaum 6,especially (1994), Chapter Nussbaum (1989). whatEpicurus 4 DRN m 931-62. Thisechoes saysinKD 19and20.
and theFearofDeath 45 TheCycleofLife Nature wouldbe right, from Sucha rebuke before thenew, Fortheold order yields from others. Allthings refashioning require No mangoesdowntoHell'sblackpit;we need Matter for yettocome. generations willfollow turn, Who,intheir you,as men havediedbefore youand willdiehereafter. ceasestoarise never So onething a gift tono man life's Outofanother; Onlya loantohim.5
is presenting an argument The first pointto makeis thatLucretius rather than or satire, a piece ofrhetoric, here;it is notmerely poetry, of the is Lucretius' argument highly presentation although philosophy,6 thatone the conclusion: The speechof natureintroduces rhetorical. that Nature is this assertion shouldnotfeardeath.Lucretius by says enim he and the corroborative correct, then, ('for'),7 conjunction using in support ofit:one's deathis a necessary hisreason introduces partof from thedeathof natural an ongoing cyclein whichnew lifeemerges that one's He further hisassertion whohavecomebefore. those supports which of this the matter owndeathis a necessary composes part cycle: tomakefuture ones.8 is neededin order creatures present
. andelsewhere .Translations ofDRNhere arefrom 5 DRNIII963-71 (1968) Humphries characterizes the 6 ThisishowFurley (1986) passage.Furley saysthat byimplication than thearguments he explicitly considers are ofBookIII other all ofthelatter part butjustrhetoric, orsatire notphilosophy (82). poetry, whatfollows as argufacie reason for 7 Theuse ofenim viewing givesgood prima thatwhatNaturesaysis right, butit is not fortheassertion mentative support couldbe usingthewordsimply formetrical sinceLucretius decisive, purposes. intheir andKenney commenBrown 1150, 202, 219-20, (1997), (1971), (1947), Bailey andindependent alllabelthis the taries, argument against passageas an additional butnonegiveitmuch fear ofdeath, analysis. - that, with in some theempirical 8 I willnotquibble partofLucretius' argument for thecontinuance oflife. Evenifwe takequiteliterally deathis necessary sense, talkaboutour matter (as we oughtnotto) Lucretius' beingneededforfuture with an infinite if couldbe cashedoutas follows: amount oftime, this generations, all ofthematter that couldbe everdied,andwith continued reproduction, nobody taken wouldeventually be taken wouldhalt the beings up,which cycle up byliving
46 TimO'Keefe Nussbaumstatesthat'[t]hisargument is strong/9 As Nussbaum itdiffers understands thisargument, from thebetter-known Epicurean thefear ofdeathin at leastthree against arguments respects: thosearguments, ortheprevious Nature (1) Unlike speechin which timewould notmakea personanyhappier, this says thatadditional does notconsider thestatusand interests oftheindividual argument bad forthat agentand thenassertthatdeathis not something agent. it invites theagentto departfrom a narrow consideration of Instead, deathfrom his own pointofview and insteadto look upon it from a different As Nussbaum this asks that us it, perspective. puts argument situation from a wider we look atourpersonal the viewpoint, viewpoint ofthelivesand interest ofall living both and future/10 things, present ofthis is notthat isnotbadfor So,theconclusion me, argument mydeath and thusshouldnotbe feared. itis that death is nota bad thing, Instead, from thiswiderperspective, and thusshouldnotbe whenconsidered feared. is the'perspective ofna(2) Nussbaumsaysthiswiderperspective Whenviewedfrom thispointofview,theinterlocutor ture/11 is supofdeathfor thenatural oflife as suchcycle posedtosee thenecessity
ifthisis whatLucretius is relying oflife. on,theempirical (However, partofthe wouldbe flawed, becausean indefinitely extended ofgeneration argument process in theuniverse.) Butwe neednotunderstand matter neednottakeup theinfinite turn ofphrase is bestunderstood, I think, theargument this as a way.Lucretius' need that creatures die in order to free for theecological up resources metaphor Ifthere their ownbodiesas food)for future wereno death, (including generations. andresource wouldsoonrear their heads.That elements depletion overpopulation an ecosystem forthelifeofthat to continue is a need to cyclewithin ecosystem within For an introduction to theseissues,see Ricklefs ecology. commonplace onp. 145for an illustration ofthecycling see thediagram ofmaterials. 2-11; (2001), in thespirit ofLucretius, ofa singleatomcycling Foran imaginative depiction, ina prairie seethesection various life-forms ofAldo ecosystem, 'Odyssey' through outthat Hankinson Jim 104-8). essay'Wisconsin' (Leopold[1987], points Leopold's that itmight be a biological animals must dieinorder tomake while commonplace as things that andthus continue the onthe room for others stand, species supposition andhad reliable this wouldnotbe a problem. we wereimmortal, contraception, 223 9 Nussbaum (1994), 222 10 Nussbaum (1994), 224 11 Nussbaum (1994),
TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 47
as Nussbaum for thecontinued lifeand putsit,ourdeathis 'necessary - and also for health ofthewhole'12 theinterests of'unborn others.'13 does nottry to establish thatdeathis not (3) Becausethisargument bad the it does not on the that, something for agent, depend supposition in order for to be either or bad an for that something good agent, agent mustexist. who disagrees Thus,itcouldbe putforward by somebody withtheEpicurean thesis thatdeathdoes notdeprive thepersonwho has died of anything valuable.In fact, says Nussbaum,it could be who his deathas a accepted bysomebody regards impending untimely and a but whose fear of death would nonetheless be loss, tragedy ameliorated his realization that this loss is else's by somebody good as notedabove,thegood ofunborn others and ofthewhole.14 3 The CycleofLifeArgument: of Analysis Nussbaum'sReading
I disagree withNussbaumthat thisargument, as sheunderstands it,is At least from within an it is weak. strong. Epicurean perspective, quite Eachofthethree aboutthisargument enumerated above fits in points with orthodox and indeed with Lucretius' own badly Epicureanism, elsewhere.15 writings
12 Nussbaum 222 (1994), 13 Nussbaum 223 (1994), 14 Nussbaum 223 (1994), 15 Infairness toNussbaum, I should note that sheisusing Lucretius' for her argument own purposes, and she also admits that there are internal in Lucretius' tensions herendorsement ofthe'cycle oflife' should notbe taken Thus, position. argument as evidence that shethinks that itcanbe squared with all ofthetenets oforthodox Sheadmits that itcan't. Shesaysthat this seems toconflict Epicureanism. argument with the'godlike detachment' that Lucretius elsewhere onelimit i.e.,that preaches, one'sdesires to thenatural and necessary oneswhosefulfillment cannot be frustrated Shethinks that totry toattain sucha 'godlike detachment' would bydeath. be stunting. thetensions with orthodox that sheidentifies Although Epicureanism arequitedifferent from theonesthat I discuss, I strongly that theelements suspect oforthodox I hereidentify that as inconsistent with thecycle oflife Epicureanism wouldbe onesthat Nussbaum also disapproves of. argument
48 TimO'Keefe and desires thedrives takesas itsstarting-point ethics (1) Epicurean of individualanimalsto discoverwhat is intrinsically good forthat for itsownsake desires that fact animal. Themere pleasure person every for oneself.16 is toprovethat is enough Thus, good pleasure intrinsically toadopt oflife'argument, makesin the'cycle Lucretius theappealthat the and see thatdeathis not a bad thingfrom a widerperspective alien to a is as nature of ethics, whole, profoundly Epicurean viewpoint is alwaysdi inEpicurean ethics sincetheperspective perspecfirst-person me. whatis valuable tive: for some canbe goodper ForEpicureans, se,itis alwaysgoodfor nothing moral but not is think otherwise To individuai false, engenders only agent. that writes scholarch oftheGarden, thethird Polystratus, skepticism. as nonetheless of as relational mustbe thought value predicates (but are These ou mallon avoid to in order argureal), arguments. skeptical be good that thesamething from considerations that start ments might one orgoodfor andbad under under onesetofcircumstances, another, that thething is no more and then conclude andbad for animal another, and should the that bad. He than like, 'foul', 'fair', (oumallon) says good can be or 'healthy'. of like 'bigger', be thought perse bigger Nothing se or than be can else), per (things healthy something (things only bigger butsuchrelational ororganisms), can onlybe healthy organism forsome ofvaluepredicates andwe shouldthink arenonetheless real, predicates ofway.17 inthesamesort badbyappealing isnotsomething death that toargue (2)Inparticular, ofdeath inthesenseofitsbeingan inevitable tothe'naturalness' part an within of out be would ofnatural Epicurean place quite processes The Stoicscan easilymake such an appeal, since they world-view. ofa providentially ispart inthe world event that believe organized every
PH 3 194(398U). andSextus 16 See DF 130-1 Empiricus in more Thispassageis discussed 23.26-26.23. On Irrational 17 Polystratus, Contempt, inthecaseofjustice, Itis true 126-9. inO'Keefe detail that, appeals Epicurus (1997), those whenjustifying ofcertain to thewidersocialusefulness practices. practices thisalways ofthesepractices, usefulness theoverall whendiscussing However, ofthe members for eachofthe ofthepractice totheusefulness reduces community, theappeal is ofjustice, and whendiscussing whyone shouldobeythedictates See individual the of interests to the back (1997)and Armstrong agent. always of the reasonsgivenby formoredescription O'Keefe(2001),esp. pp. 136-40, contract'. ofthe'justice toobeythedictates Epicureans
God.As Epictetus setup bya wiseand all-good series ofevents, putsit: inthesamewaynothing bad is notsetup tobe missed, as a target 'Just happensintheworld/18 bynature thesis. Lucretius vigorously opposeanysuchteleological Epicureans that theworldis notcreated atlength bythegods,and oneofhis argues tobe devised mainarguments is that theworldis tooflawed bythegods and diseasesas forour sake.He citesbad weather, beasts, predatory in the flaws the world. He concludes this section of byemphaexamples all of the infants rightly cryout,considering sizingthatnewly-born inan inhospitable that awaitthem world.19 sorrows believes that natural canbe Lucretius Thus, processes, although they occur for no or reason. causal explanations, absolutely purpose given theresults ofthese arebeneficial tous,and someSometimes processes but in and are of themselves are times harmful, they neither good they norbad. Thus,showingthatdeathis an inevitable partof a natural that toestablish deathis notbad. shoulddo nothing process that at things theperNussbaumwrites one result oflooking from that that Lucretius recommends is 'our own anxieties look spective and and that for the we are small/ whole, 'contemplating caring ashamedtobe wrappedup in ourselves/ She approvingly Sanquotes 'Onewholivesthelife oftheuniverse cannot be much concerned tayana:
27.Translations 18 Enchiridion ofEpictetus here andelsewhere arefrom White (1983). 19 See DRNV 156-234 a creation for hisgeneral attack ontheworld ofthegods, being DRN V 195ff. for hisenumeration oftheevilsoftheworld, and DRN V 222-7 for hisdescription ofthe new-born infant. Itmight that be for this reason (1947), Bailey 1150labelstheargument 'rather butunfortunately he does notgivehis strange', reasons for this 220tries todefend theargument from (1971), judgement. Kenney that it is a 'biological that of thedeaths Bailey's charge by noting commonplace' individuals areneededforthesurvival ofthespecies; he goes on to say that the sentiment that life isjusta loantomanisalsocommonplace. does However, Kenney notnotethat whether andsentiments suchbiological facts arecommonplace is not itis whether theprimary an Epicurean can cogently issue;rather, appealto such facts and sentiments inorder toundermine thefear ofdeath. After all,Epicureans notonly think that the world is notunder theprovidential careofa deity ordeities, in nature ofanysort. Lucretius theapparently they opposeteleology arguesthat oforgans to servea function is nottheresult ofanydivine purposive adaptation or intrinsic Aristotelian function follows and the Instead, form, design teleology. is theresult ofill-suited that werethrown the apparent design organisms up from earth outina process ofnatural selection. 823-57 andV 837ff (DRNTV .) dying
50 TimO'Keefe withhisown/20 Howevernoblesuchsentiments sound,though, might should to an Epicurean. One's own interests wouldbe anathema they interms fit intosomeoverarching scheme of not ofhowthey be justified with their lives 'those to value.As Thomas notes, seeking supply Nagel in something than a roleor function larger meaning usuallyenvision sub one's life as he also notes, themselves.'21 However, specie viewing ofabsurdity, whenone is unableto aeternitatis can also lead toa feeling ,22 aeternitatis subspecie find an 'ultimate for one's concerns justification' find ultimate thinks that to some such whereas But, needing Nagel in ourcapacity for self-conis 'inherent for one's concerns justification would sciousnessand self-transcendence,'23 Epicurus regardthe desub to be mandthat must be shown aeternitatis, apart good specie pleasure andmisguided. and approval ofit,as perverse ournatural from pursuit inorder tomake needstobe rejected as thelonging for Just immortality for some'larger' with oflife,24 so toothedesire themortality onecontent and desires needstobe rejected. for one'sactivities justification others' couldnotbe of'unborn In addition, an appealtotheinterests if we leave aside even made consistently Lucretius, questionsof by within an egoistic interests wouldfit whether suchan appeal to others' think that canbe An would ethical nothing certainly system. Epicurean one cannot do not 'unborn others'. Because bad for or exist, yet they good that onewereabletostopthe interests. After all,imagine appealtotheir and thereby prevent cycleoflifebyfiatso thatone could liveforever, into existence. Since the 'unbornothers' from unborn others coming one cannot would thenneverexist, sensibly say thatone has harmed makes himself have no interests. Lucretius sincepotential them, people ... if born? 'How wouldwe be hurt we werenever thispoint: precisely do himany had a taste oflife... howcouldnonbeing ifa manhas never harm?'25
222 20 Nussbaum (1994), 21 Nagel(1979), 16 22 Nagel(1979), 15,21-2 21-2 23 Nagel(1979), 24 EpMen124 of ofconsiderations an interesting . See Adams(1979)for 25 DRN V 174ff application ofEvil. totheProblem this sort
and theFearofDeath 51 TheCycleofLife
natural ofmanyother theinevitable results describes (3) Lucretius their could be which a similar for givenregarding argument processes, these describes that Lucretius the However, way necessity. ecological theargument, them as bad,whereas that heregards makes itclear results 'natuof on the on Nussbaum/s supposition equating depends reading, the horrific include with ral'(inthis sense) descriptions good.Examples ofanother himself ofa person bya wildbeast, beingdevoured watching over sores his hands as he dripping pus presses personslowlydying that closes oftheplagueonAthens andoftheeffects after mauled, being Theparalyzed thepoem.26 caterpillar mayneedtobe eatenalivebythe and preythat wasp larvae as partof the naturalcycleof predator hurts.27 butitstill an ecological balance, preserves misis profoundly thatthecycleoflifeargument It appears,then, be it should can be of this sort really given, argument Although guided. is If Nussbaum a not a or a Stoic Platonist, Epicurean. good givenby that it seems to is the the about run, argument supposed way right inthis blundered Lucretius passage. simply ofcharity the the arises: here, However, principle whyignore question can Two inconsistencies? toLucretius and attribute replies fairly glaring Thereand a a not Lucretius is be given: (i) philosopher. primarilypoet, in De some fairly he presents fore, arguments sophisticated although with cannot be credited Rerum he Natura, insight. philosophical anygreat inconsisthat wereblatantly Ifhe had devisedorpickedup arguments thisinconhe did notnotice whathe said elsewhere, with tent perhaps eclectic wasmuch more inwhich Lucretius wrote (ii)Theperiod sistency, thanthe period in whichthe variousHellenistic and less agonistic Lucretius tosupposethat devised. It'splausible werefirst philosophies ofStoicproveand imagery, was exposedtosomearguments probably them found thecycle oflife, theplaceofdeathwithin nance, regarding realizDe Rerum Natura without and them into appealing, incorporated within did notfit hisownEpicurean viewpoint. they ingthat
in DRN V 988 ff., and theAthenian 26 Lucretius describes thetwo animalattacks plagueinDKNVI 1138ff. for concern 27 Thereproductive habits oftheichneumon waspswerea causeofgreat and werecitedby and scientists natural of thenineteenth century, theologians and Darwinas one cause for his own doubtsabouttheexistence ofa beneficent 'NonGod. Formoreinformation, see Chapter Two ofGould(1983), omnipotent moral a briefer account is inDawkins 95-6. Nature'; (1995),
52 TimO'Keefe be reinforced Thislatter suspicion might by someoftheseemingly in At Stoic used this Lucretius imagery passage. theendoftheargument notesthat lifeis a gift tono man,onlya loan tohim/ Thisis a striking whenthings echoofEpictetus' likeone'schild that, injunction happen, "I have lostit,"butinstead, "I have 'Neversay aboutanything, dying, /28 in which of Phaedo 62a ff., givenit back," and, to a lesserextent, that Socrates suicide eachperson is notowner bynoting arguesagainst inthe'voice butisrather ofhimself, the ofthegods.Andearlier, property ofnature' deathyou should passage,Lucretius says thatwhenfacing a banquet, fedtothefull 'takeyourleaveas mengo from on life's good that behave feast.' Thisis reminiscent ofEpictetus' injunction 'youmust as youdo at a banquet. is passedaroundand comestoyou: Something and takesome.It goes by:do nothold it reachoutyourhandpolitely back.'29 and Plato have themetaphysics to be able to However,Epictetus thatthings as shouldrightly be regarded moreor less literally, assert, that occurs is the loaned to since one, everything ultimately respononly toLucretius. noneofthis is available ofGod orthegods,whereas sibility that of such unsuitable Lucretius' imagery wouldbe usage (seemingly) the and Platonism at homewithin like Stoicism strengthens systems a that the has of the claim origin. argument non-Epicurean plausibility
Rehabilitation? The CycleofLifeArgument:
thattheprinciple ofcharity above,I think Despitetheconsiderations of the find some other that we to way construing argument try requires and that we toLucretius, inconsistencies that does notattribute glaring of is the result that thecycle oflife conclude ineptiunwitting argument I willnowspellout is available. ifno other construal tudeonly plausible I callthe theargument, which twosuchwaysofconstruing and criticize at Nature' and Awe the 'Ad Hominem interpreta'Epicurean Therapy' tions.
11 28 Enchiridion 29 Enchiridion 15
TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 53 4a Ad Hominem Therapy Interpretation: Exposition
ofthecharge is to Thesimplest ofinconsistency waytoacquitLucretius is appealingto premises about and attitudes assume thatLucretius nature that hehimself doesnotshare, these areusedto toward although that reach theEpicurean conclusion death isnotsomething tofear. Thus, ad hominem wouldbe a dialectical the'cycle oflife'argument argument. I do notgrant), 'Evenif nonetheless be a disreputable p (which q' neednot use this form of q. TheAcademic peoplethat skeptics wayofconvincing and Lucretius is willing to use sucharguargumentation constantly,30 inDRN III 843f f a great ments also.Forinstance, after .,right array giving toprovethat thesoul cannot survive orbe sentient ofarguments apart inthebody, even contained Lucretius thesouldid from if being saysthat thedeath ofthe death wouldnonetheless survive bodyandwas sentient, tous,since we area unionofsoulandbody, and deathis the be nothing union. Lucretius is willing togivesuchan argument endofthat because that that he thinks death is to us' is so for showing 'nothing important ataraxia that he wishesto convey thetruth ofitevento those attaining whomight still believethesoul survive thebody'sdeath. Similar motivations would givehimlicense for to showthat eventhosewho trying holdnon-Epicurean attitudes toward nature shoulddrawthesalutary that death is conclusion fearing inappropriate. Suchan ad hominem neednotbe aimedonlyat thosewho argument in believe a of Stoic or Platonist universal consciously type teleology. that makes the often find it to see their point Nagel people comforting intosomelarger concerns as fitting withwhichthey process identify.31 who do not believe that natural occurfor some Manypeople processes sortof overarching still have some sort of reverence forthe purpose ofnature, andthis attitude canleadtothem itcomfortprocesses finding within their concerns theframework ofsuchnatural ingtofit processes. Lucretius couldbe tapping intothis inorder sort ofsentiment toinduce
30 A prime ofthis wouldbe Arcesilaus' ad hominem attack on Zeno'sepisteexample which starts from the Stoic that the err mology, premise sagewillnever byassenting in order to anything to derive thequiteun-Stoic that conclusion the non-evident, on everything. See CiceroLuc77.Also see sagewillhavetowithhold judgement Couissin for more on theAcademy's use ofad hominem (1983) argumentation. 31 As Nagelputsit,they with thelarger tofind their role 'identify enough enterprise initfulfilling' 16). (Nagel[1979],
54 TimO'Keefe
the harmful and to counteract ataraxia passionsthatare stillin our souls.32 in this theargument behindLucretius' The psychology deploying or who evenconManypeople who are nottheists, way is plausible. have inthe as a whole, still world ofteleology anysort sciously repudiate withat leastcertain identification an emotional partsofthe(non-purofEvil oftheProblem After order'. all,inpresentations posive)'natural such as that even itis often 'evils', non-theists, supposed by protested, thepointof areevilsonlywhenviewedfrom diseaseand earthquakes, arebothinevitaof'nature', viewofhumans, yetwhenviewedinterms balance' and keep down the 'natural to preserve ble and necessary population.33
4b Ad Hominem Objections Interpretation: Therapy
adhominem a dialectical Lucretius' for isprecedent there giving Although is the of thisconstrual of thistype, passage open to some argument tothem. and reply HereI raisethese serious objections objections. a instrumental 1: Irrationality. The Epicureans give purely Objection are good insofar forthevalue ofarguments arguments justification about talks Lucretius ataraxia. as they Nonetheless, repeatedly promote most turmoil todispelthe canwork reasoned howonly people argument ofthevalue ofarguinstrumentalist feel. justification Havinga purely - only - as a matter offact that with is quitecompatible ments thinking
whichare not partof one's such sentiments, is aware of the effect 32 Lucretius Lucretius canhaveonone'sfears. saysthat positions, acknowledged philosophical about irrational fears have still death is annihilation that who believe people many bodiesafter whatwillhappento their die,baseduponan unacknowledged they deaths their survive willstill somehow a part ofthem that half-conviction (DRNIII 870-911). of such 8 forthebiological to in footnote 33 See thesourcesreferred justification a from mention often textbooks and moving explicitly ecology appeals.Biology whenviewing ecocentric toa broader limited unpleasviewpoint anthropocentric ... [and]arethe effective arehighly antnatural decomposers e.g.,'Fungi processes, - unpleasant butvery andsensibilities, tooursenses ofrot perhaps, agents primary selecthe See also function' to [2001], 8-9). (Ricklefs Leopold important ecosystem it oflife'in sucha waythat a depiction ofthe'cycle for tionon an atom's journey ofview. this from ofviewing theattractiveness wouldreinforce point things
willbe effective in removing people's compelling arguments rationally Inthis tobe Lucretius' ownbelief.34 the fear. Thisseems way, Epicureans' in argumentation would be similar to their attitude towardcogency - although bothmight be onlyinstrumentally attitude toward virtue andso oneis not ingiving bad both arestill valuable, necessary, justified in actions. Lucretius would not or performing vicious Thus, arguments who says thatthe be willing to taketheadvice of SextusEmpiricus, will sometimes weak arguments deliberately put forward Pyrrhonist will be effective for the whenhe believesthat they causally promoting But ad hominem is the on the Lucretius of construal, patient.35 tranquility an unsound because he believes forward argument deliberately putting effective. that itmaybe therapeutically from considerations that a becausetheargument Just Reply. proceeds it that wouldnotfind committed convincing,doesnotfollow Epicurean There is either dubiousora pieceofunderhanded theargument therapy. a shoddy andpresentdifference between is a large argument presenting thatone does not oneself from accept.So premises ing an argument in with an ad hominem this context is consistent argument deploying A second sortof reply adherence to reasonedargument. Lucretius' are less committed to deploying would be thatthe Epicureans only than of persuasion take Lurational methods theyappear. I myself abouttheplace ofreasonat facevalue,so I would cretius' declarations that thefirst rather notgivethis (and do notneedto,sinceI think reply butthere aregrounds for of the is sufficient), beingsuspicious Epicurematter.36 ans on this 2: Fostering Lucretius is adamant about Superstition. Objection enough theterrible effects of superstitious attitudes thatit seemsunlikely he
34 See DRN1146-8, DRNII 47-61, DRNIII 14-17, DRN III 87-93, DRNIII 1068-75, DRN VI 35-41. PH III 280-1. 35 Sextus Formuch more on this see Nussbaum (1986). Empiricus topic a discussion 36 See Nussbaum ofpractices within theEpicurean communi(1986)for and rotememorization of ties,such as the use of grouppressure, informers, that canonical seemtoundercut theproclaimed ofEpicureans doctrine, allegiance to onlyrational of persuasion. And in de Fin II, Cicerocharges methods that use a rhetorical ofhandbyequivocating on theterm Epicureans slight 'pleasure', between katastematic when tomake their viewseemrespectboring pleasure trying active whentrying toselltheir viewtothecrowds. able,andexciting, pleasure
56 TimO'Keefe and reinforce would deliberately introduce as an aid to superstition is whathe does in thecycleoflifeargument, salvation. This,however, ad hominem tothedialectical according interpretation. and misguided Lucretius need not suchfalse beliefs encourage Reply: than adhominem more heencourages onthe attitudes, interpretation, any . that thedeathofthebodyin DRN III 843ff thebelief thesoul survives AllLucretius needstomaintain is that theEpicurean conclusion follows even from suchfalse beliefs. ifone starts fearof deathcan be relieved is correct, thenthedebilitating evenby is with to inconsistent This, however, teleological premises. appealing The to a and whatLucretius elsewhere. onlyway acquire lasting says to is of stable means Lucretius, according by adopting Epicutranquility, viewsaboutthenature ofthephysical world.37 rus'distinctive does notshow thatcorrect beliefs The ad hominem construal Reply. oftheworldareunnecessary toachieve abouttheworkings tranquility. Even if the cycleof lifeargument succeeds,at best it would have a becauseitdoes notshowthat deathis nota bad function, supplemental the Itmayhelponeviewone'sdeathin a waythat agent. helps thing/or it it is and transitional: those ataraxia. As such, helps protreptic promote and to more become better receptive other Epicureans, perhaps people harmful fearof death because the of the parts Epicureanmessage, disturbances.38 other underlies many particular in thecontext 4: Context. showsthat theargument Objection Nothing The way thepassage is wordedseemsto is aimed onlydialectically. doesshow thinks that theappealtonatural that Lucretius indicate cycles and that himself shares areridiculous, Lucretius theold man'sfears that theoldman'sfear oflife as undercutting theappealtothecycle endorses itis so that toconstrue theargument ofdeath. So itwouldbe preferable
Ifthead hominem 3: Superfluity beliefs. Objection ofcorrect interpretation
34. referred toinfootnote 37 See thesources adhominem is inTusculan ofthis sort oftransitional 38 Anexample Disputaargument on removing thebelief tohavefocused III 76,where is reported tions Chrysippus thathe has notlost thesufferer to grieve before thatit is appropriate teaching See DRNHI more onthis for (1995) argument. good.See White anything genuinely underlies thatthefearof deathsubconsciously forLucretius' 1053-75 argument other many pains.
but would be convincing bothto not aimed onlyat non-Epicureans, and Epicureans.39 non-Epicureans andI takeitas easily I haveno reply tothis themost serious objection, to thead hominem So let me now turnto my interpretation. objection on whichLucretius of the argument, second construal arguesfrom he would accept. premises
Awe at NatureInterpretation 4c Epicurean
oflife ofthecycle assumesthat Thedialectical interpretation argument inorder inhissubjects, tofoster hasbeenappealing Lucretius, tranquility and beliefs thatwould notbe sharedby an aboutnature to emotions Stoicand Platonic beliefs abouttheprovidential orthodox Epicurean. oftheuniverse would certainly be repugnant to ordering teleological ofrevtheassociated attitudes However, Epicurean. anyright-thinking of natureare not as erenceand awe when beholdingthe working obviously objectionable. and he skillare ones that Lucretius himself Theseattitudes shares, Natura. evokesthemat manyplaces in De Rerum Evidenceof fully attitude includehis invocation of natureas Venus at the Lucretius' Natura and hisextended as ofDe Rerum ofearth beginning description who is rightfully a mother-goddess honored.40 Lucretius also givesa
to thedialectical ad hominem 39 Someofthese wouldapply objections interpretation tothe inReinhardt ofNature's also,mutatis mutandis, (2002) interpretation speeches f . Reinhardts inDRNIII931f viewisthat Nature isaddressing whofear death people A proper becausethey see deathas a curtailment ofpleasure. Epicurean response tothis Reinhardt wouldhavetoproceed from the viewabout fear, thinks, Epicurean ButLucretius thelimits ofpleasure. has notestablished this and thepeople thesis, Nature is addressing do notaccept theEpicurean ofpleasure, so instead conception ofgiving ofargument their Lucretius fear, anysort against 'shopsaround'in the diatribal tradition for alternative methods toinduce ataraxia andfinds a non-argumentative method which relies 'on thepersuasive like crucially powerofimages that ofthe soulas a filled vessel orofa manas a contented conuiua' [2002], (Reinhardt I think that Nature's is a vividillustration ofEpicurean 303).However, imagery the nature andlimits viewsabout ofpleasure. Muchofwhat Nature saysmight rely on Epicurean theses aboutpleasure that Lucretius has notestablished. Ifso, this would vitiate thecogency of Nature'sargumentation, but it doesn'tshow that an argument, Nature isn't butis instead around soothadvancing merely parading ingimages. 40 DRN 11-43, II 594-660
58 TimO'Keefe paean to the wondersof the heavens,minusthe anthropomorphic inDRNII 1030-9, andinDRNIII 28-30 earlier ofthose passages, language himwith the of nature to he saysthat having working exposed himfills and or 'trema sortof 'divinepleasure'(divina voluptus) 'shuddering' awe' (horror). bling awewhenregarding natuLucretius doesgenuinely feel Supposethat thatthese At the same time,he openlyacknowledges ral processes. andthus arenot'for the havenopurpose orplanbehind them, processes at least)projected sincehe does have (tothisextent best'.Nonetheless, andawewhen certain ofnature, ofidentification viewing aspects feelings he finds at times then and these areonesthat useful, appealing feelings I amsketching which tothe tothem isnotillegitimate. position According nature that would it is nottheintrinsic or of here, goodness purposes our emotional make our place in thecyclesof naturegood. Instead, with occasioned offeelings ofawe identification those cycles, bythesorts inmany oftheDe Rerum can that evokes sections Lucretius Natura, make to ourdeaths as a partofthese cycles comforting. Byappealing viewing totake is inviting the reader these Lucretius emotions, up a viewtowards willhelphimregard itwith hisowndeaththat equanimity. of to workforan Epicurean, such feelings But forthisargument damnatural must not be either and awe before identification processes andpsychology. Lucretius within ethics Epicurean agingorillegitimate a as seems in of the earth his himself, quite mother-goddess, description of he givesa longdescription On theonehand, ambivalent aboutthem. traditionoftheattributes theearth does havemany thewaysinwhich On theother to a mother-goddess.41 hand,immediately ally ascribed 'mother ofthegods', to dub theearth itis acceptable after he saysthat nottoletsuperstition be careful headdsthat youwhen corrupt youmust of sincein and this similar nature, metaphorical personifications using and without insensate 'acts' is the earth any purpose entirely reality life. whenitbrings forth (DRN II 652-60)
sheis adorned andfruitful trees corn 41 Forexample, sheprovides (DRNII 594-5), by cities on herhead becauseshe sustains (DRN II 606-7), great poetswitha crown those whohaveoffended with eunuchs because intheir rituals surround her nations ofhaving toward their areunworthy herbybeingdisrespectful offspring parents inDRN II 991 etc. See alsoa briefer lines, discussion, (DRNII 614-17), alongsimilar theearth thesky, whofertilized we allhavethesamefather, ff he saysthat .,where ff . DRN V and 821 with ourmother i.e., rain, seed', 'heavenly
and theFearofDeath 59 TheCycleofLife
that nature thesentiments toward becomes whether So thequestion and so can be suitably describes Lucretius sanitized, demythologized inorder to them and appealtothem couldretain a goodEpicurean that are the whether such sentiments or ataraxia, always expression promote that thenatural conviction ofat leasta residual processes superstitious that should be extirpated. so havea divine them, they purposeguiding ofsuchemotions couldbe given ofaccount toseewhatsort Itis difficult so as toavoidtheimputawithin orthodox from psychology, Epicurean think that the beliefs. rest tionthat Epicureans uponsuperstitious they from desires is quitesmall, and necessary setofnatural starting mainly desiresare outgrowths ofbodilyneeds,and thatother thefulfillment and corrupting beliefs about orarebaseduponfalse these from desires, if an it is this to oneself. whatwillbring However, objection, pleasure than and its more tells poverty against psychology Epicurean against Lucretius' Lucretius, all,many including people, perse. After argument nonetheless that nature isteleologically whodo notthink find organized, and sucha sentiment is notthe ofnature theworkings awe-inspiring, that disturbs one'sataraxia}1 sort ofthing
had that theHippocratic doctors an extended 42 See Hankinson (1998)for argument toLucretius, nature is 'divine'and similar totheonesI attribute attitudes i.e.,that and organization it becauseofthe'marvelous structure precisely awe-inspiring, beliefs also in theabsence ofanyteleological on investigation', evinces underpinofAldoLeopold'sessay suchattitudes. [1998], 34)Thebeginning (Hankinson ning natural ofnon-theistic reverence toward alsodisplays suchan attitude 'Wisconsin' on thelivesofcranes evinced 95-7). (Leopold[1987], bymeditating cycles, but I think that My maintopicin thispaperis the'cycleof life'argument, Inthe toward nature isworthy offurther treatment. Lucretius' ofattitudes handling Thefirst Lucretius seems tohavetwogoalsinmind. I'vebeendiscussing, passages harmful a potentially attitude. reverence toward nature is to redirect Unchecked, harmful itself toandreinforce idealsliketheStoics' attach positively all-permight forces ofnature liketheOlympian deities. Lucretius ortopersonified vading logos andpurposeless attitude tobe aimedatthepurely mechanical danceof wants this and life The in thevoid,which tosses for no reason whatsoever. atoms up cosmoi the worldview more Lucretius second istomake aesthetically Epicurean appealing. that seemharsh and impious to those admits theEpicurean world-picture might DRN run across which causesthem toshrink backfrom it(DRN1943-5, whofirst it, IV 18ff.; in DRN I 80 ff. he fears that Memmius willthink Epicureanism impious, . many andhesaysinDRNV 110ff that the bodiesaredivine heavenly peoplethink an Epicurean and eternal). Lucretius wants toshowthat canretain awe before the natural andcomplexity ofthe minus world, anyteleological underpinnings. beauty Dawkins is a recent ofsomebody with an anti-teleological worldRichard example
60 TimO'Keefe that within Evenifitis granted suchfeelings arelegitimate Epicureas it standsstillseemsdeficient. the'argument7 I've anism, however, thatLucretius can appeal to such feelings. Buthow, been suggesting arethosefeelings ofdeath? There is supposedto allaythefear exactly, inmoving an extra from certain sentiments ofawe stepinvolved having that before to thinking one's place within nature renders one's nature, I This extra deathnot such a bad thing would be think, really. step, After unless one thinks least condemned orthodox all, (at by Epicureans. that natural areintrinsically what good,then subconsciously) processes that the fact that one's death wouldonehavefor fits into reason thinking one's death not a bad somenatural makes thing? process
That Aimedat Acquisitive Attitudes 4d Argument Fuel theFearofDeath
in light theargument, oftheabove difficulty, The keyto rehabilitating The cycleof life of the conclusion. is to changeour understanding In order aimed at the fear of death. to is obviously combating argument that'yourdeathis itneed nothave as itsconclusion do this, however, That orvariants onit(e.g.,'Your notsucha bad thing conclusion, really'. thepointofview oftheuniverse as a whole')has deathis good from I think oftheargument thusfar. beenassumedin all oftheconstruais no to within there is move from from that, premises Epicureanism, way natural to conclusions theplace ofone's deathwithin cycles involving about thevalue of deathwithout teleological invoking unacceptable nature areappropriate. ofawe toward evenifattitudes assumptions, that toestablish certain as trying I think we shouldtaketheargument and destructive. Theseattitudes one'slife areunjustified attitudes toward so by undercutting theseattitudes, ofdeath, fuelthefear are onesthat willhelpalleviate thefear ofdeath.43 oflife theappealtothecycle
that one ofhis ofgoals.He states to accomplish these sorts viewexplicitly trying due recognition tothe OutofEden is 'toaccord inwriting hisbookRiver purposes Darwinian There is more of life. modern of our understanding quality inspirational inhermythological namesake' Eve than inMitochondrial [1995], (Dawkins poetry xi-xii). ofthepaper, toHal Thorsrud, elseinthis section and much 43 I owe this suggestion, version of thispaperhelpedchangemyunderon an earlier whosecomments ofthepassage. standing
The old manwhomNaturechastises to thecycle immediately prior is of oflife dissatisfied with what life has to offer passage guilty being him. Nature's of he fears death is because he analysis why alwaysdesires whatisn'tthere III and because he thinks that had he hasn't (DRN 957), life. out of since he thinks that his life is Thus, (DRN enough incomplete III 958),he is fearful whenhe thinks ofitbeingtaken him. away from Near theend of thethird book of De Rerum Lucretius makes Natura, muchthesame point:acquisitive attitudes and thefearof deathare He says thatmanypeople are neversatisfied with closelyentwined. whatthey that whatthey do nothaveis what have,and think presently is bestin theworld.Thiscauses them to have a 'wanton lustforlife'. Because of this dissatisfaction, their'gaping thirst forlifeis never and theyalwayshave to know'whatlucknextyearwill quenched', what whatend' (DRN III 1076-86). accident, bring, Viewedin thislight, Lucretius' that'life'sa gift admonition to no a him' loan to makes sense. The attitude man/Only perfect acquisitive ofa person likethefearful old manextends to hislife, which he clings it as a possession to. He regards to whichhe is entitled, and he views deathas hisbeingdeprived ofthispossession. Theimagery oftheloan a lender need notimply to whomone is obligated in theStoic (unlike and Platonicuses of such imagery). Instead,it is simplya way of thefact that life is ephemeral, theresult ofa chance concateunderlining nation ofatomswhichwill soon disperse; thisdispersal is the'repayment' oftheloan. one'slife and deathinthecontext ofendless ofnewlife Seeing cycles out of the death of the old does not itself render one's deathnot arising a bad thing, butithelpsto exposehow unjustified and ridiculous is an attitude toward one's life such as the old man.44 acquisitive displayed by
44 SinceI think thatviewingthe 'Cycleof Life'argument in the context of the in understanding that immediately preceding speechby Nature helpsus greatly I should as an anonymous referee for this that note, out, argument, journal pointed theendofthat a crux: contains has (DRNIII 961-2) speech Bailey nuncalienatuatarnen aetete omnia mitte concede: necessest. aequo animoque agedumtmagnist butL's agedum is almost (O and Q haveagendum, universally accepted.) No reconstruction has beenwidelyaccepted. The three mostpopularare:(1)
Marullus' aequo animoque which is followed by necessest, agedumiam aliis concede:
Brown 205.On this Lucretius is saying that theoldmanmust make (1997), reading, a natural substitution ofgnatis for (2) Bernay's way forothers, enoughthought.
62 TimO'Keefe oflife isnotsupposed toleadtoanyselfless Theawe inspired bythecycle butto reaffirm attitudes toward future thesensein which generations, The rhetorical force oftheargument lifeis a loan forEpicureans. is in oftrying tokeepwhat we mayonly thefutility confronting momentarily enjoy. ofharm'and 'symmetry' The 'no subject aredesigned to arguments show thatdeathis notan evil,but theydo notrender thisargument that Evenifoneaccepts theconclusion deathis 'nothing to superfluous. that wouldnotimmediately remove attitudes cause us', this acquisitive tocontinue tofear deathand cling tolife. one (inconsistently) I takeundermining suchattitudes tobe theprimary taskofthecycle this need not obviate ad oflife the transitional However, totally passage. In a work like De Rerum hominem the same Natura, reading. literary levels.Ifa personwithStoicor passagecan workon severaldifferent draw another thebadness Platonist could argument against sympathies in additionto its main theappeal to thecycleof life, of deathfrom towardsone's life,Lucretius message againstacquisitiveattitudes wouldnotmindhimdoingso.45
1155:theold manmust makewayfor which is followed (1947), byBailey magnis, butfits inquite well a slightly of'sons', hissons. Thisrequires metaphorical reading forsubsequent withthestress on theneed to free (3) up resources generations. for So he translates this section as "upand Munro's substitution ofmagnus magnis. 1 with translates Munro, 'depart dignity7. following greatly go',and Rouse(1937), that butitfits with Nature's earlier admonition the find this somewhat awkward, that or other reconstructions areeither acthisage.I think oldmanshould strained, concede togreat the context as well, do notfit necessities', neccessis, magnis e.g., 'yield Brown orgnavis, 205, 1154-5, (1997), (1947), people'.See Bailey 'givewaytoactive ofthis issue. 218-9 for more discussion andKenney (1971), still stand: is adopted, thefollowing ofthevarious Whichever points proposals and she an old manwhois bewailing hisimpending is scolding death, (1) Nature state is inappropriate; hisbehavior (2) Shesaystheoldmanis inthis sorry saysthat hislife whatisn'tthere, and this has rendered becausehe alwaysdesires longing hisyears, heshould actina waybefitting for him; (3)Nature saysthat unsatisfactory in his that makeway;(4) Lucretius and that he must (necessest) saysemphatically and the of life the and he then introduces are Nature's cycle charges just, opinion insupport ofwhat newmaybe born, as reason the that theolddieso that necessity theproblem ofthispaper,and to Nature says.(l)-(4) are all I need to motivate theold manmustmakewayfor Nature whether saysthat mysolution, support
others, dignity. forhissons,or with
oftheargument, toanother construal considerations 45 Similar suggested byan apply
TheCycleofLife and theTearofDeath 63
Conclusion
is nota Stoicargument The CycleofLifeargument, then, unwittingly offered itsapparent reliance and inconsistently up byLucretius, despite it is a supplement tenets. to thebetter-known on teleological Instead, thefear ofdeath.Whilethosearguments against Epicurean arguments that death is not to show evil,and thusshouldnotbe something try that theacquisitive attitudes theCycleofLifeargument feared, targets that fuel thefear ofdeath. Lucretius Lucretius believes rightly recognizes and as as the fear of death treating something deeply-rooted complex a multi-pronged approach.46 requires Philosophy Discipline Humanities 104 ofMinnesota, Morris University MN 56267 Morris, U.S.A. okeefets@mrs.umn.edu
If one emphasizes v. 966,thatnone of us will descendto referee. anonymous Lucretius is usingtherecycling ofourmatter Tartarus, perhaps byfuture generainan afterlife, tions toshowthat we cannot survive tobe punished andhence need it.Lucretius a side-swipe notfear is certainly at thefear ofan unpleasant taking in this and he wouldwelcome afterlife readers this conclusion. passage, drawing I do notthink that this is themainpurpose ofthepassage.As Reinhardt However, inherprevious addresses do out,thepeoplewhomNature (2002) points speeches notseem tofear death because ofworries anunpleasant about afterlife; instead, they fear death'quacurtailment ofpleasures', so that outthat there is simply pointing wouldseembesidethepoint no afterlife (298). 46 A paperbySaraBurmeister onthefear ofdeath inIntroduction toPhilosophy first aboutthistopic. MarkChekola, Jessica gotme thinking Berry, SylviaBerryman, AnneFarrell, Dan Russell, KirkSanders, Hal Thorsrud, and the Hankinson, Jim referee for this Kuchenreuther journal gavevaluablefeedback. Margaret pointed outtheparallels oftheCycleofLife I thank passagetorecent ecological writings. them all for their help.
64 TimO'Keefe Works Cited

1979.'Existence, and theProblem ofEvil'.Nous13,53-65. Adams,Robert. Self-interest, Oxford 65-76. University Press, 1997. Phronesis 42:324-34. John. Justice'. Armstrong, 'Epicurean Titi 1947. Lvcreti Cari. De Rervm Natvra: Libri Sex.Vol.II. Oxford: Clarendon Bailey, Cyril. Press. 2000.'Epicureanism, andtheGoodLife'. Glenn. 22: Braddock, Death, Philosophical Inquiry 47-66. tion andCommentary. Warminster: Aris& Phillips Ltd. Pierre. 1983.'TheStoicism oftheNew Academy'. In MylesBurnyeat, Couissin, ed.,The Tradition. ofCalifornia 31-64. Press, Skeptical Berkeley: University A Darwinian Richard. River Outof Eden: 1995. View NewYork: BasicBooks. Dawkins, of Life. ed. 1993. The Death. CA: Stanford Press. Fischer, Stanford, John, Metaphysics of University David. In 1986. to us?'. Malcolm and Schofield Gisela Striker, eds.,The Furley, 'Nothing Norms Nature. 75-91. Press, of Cambridge: Cambridge University andHorse's 1983.Hen'sTeeth Toes.New York:W.W.Norton and Gould,Stephan Jay. Company. 1998. andScience: Divine andHumanintheHippocratic Hankinson, R.J. 'Magic, Religion 31:1-34. Apeiron Corpus'.
TheWayThings Are.TheDe Rerum NaturaofTitus Humphries,Rolfe,trans.1968.Lucretius: De Rerum NaturaIII. With an Introduction, TranslaBrown,P. Michael. 1997.Lucretius. Text, in Thevirtue andother inphilosophical 1987.New York: Reprinted of faith essays theology.
Lucretius Carus. Indiana Press. Bloomington: University 1971. Lucretius. De Rerum Natura. Book III. Cambridge: E.J. Kenney, Cambridge University Press. Press. Oxford University Thomas. 1979 (1971).'The Absurd'.In Mortal questions. Nagel, Cambridge: Cambridge inJournal LXVIII. 11-23. Press, Originally of Philosophy University Martha. and Aristotle', in Malcolm 1986.'Therapeutic Nussbaum, Arguments: Epicurus and Gisela Striker, Schofield eds., TheNorms ofNature. Cambridge: Cambridge 31-74. Press, University . 1989. 'Mortal Immortals: Lucretius on Deathand theVoiceofNature'. Philosophy
and Phenomenological Research 50: 303-51. Almanac and Sketches Hereand There. New York: Leopold, Aldo. 1987/1947.A Sand County
Princeton Press. University 1997. 'TheOntological Status ofSensible for Democritus and O'Keefe, Qualities Timothy. Ancient 17:119-34. Epicurus'. Philosophy Ancient 21: . 2001.'Woulda Community ofWiseEpicureans Be Just?' Philosophy 133-46. in Lucretius' De Rerum Natura Tobias.2002.'TheSpeechofNature 3.931-71'. Reinhardt,
ClassicalQuarterly 52: 291-304.
. 1994. The Therapy and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics. Princeton, NJ: ofDesire:Theory
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and New York: W.H.Freeman 5thedition. Robert. 2001.TheEconomy Ricklefs, ofNature. Company. Lucretius. De Rerum Natura. 3rdedition. LoebClassical trans. 1937. William, Rouse, Library. Press. MA:Harvard University Cambridge, The Handbook Hackett Nicholas 1983. P.,trans. White, Publishing. ofEpictetus. Indianapolis: in the 1995. 'Cicero the Powell, ed.,Cicero White, Among Therapists', Jonathan Stephen. 219-46. Twelve Oxford: Clarendon Press, Papers. Philosopher:

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Lucretius on theCycle ofLife andthe FearofDeath

The CycleofLifeArgument: Exposition, and Nussbaum'sReading

TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 47

TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 49

and theFearofDeath 51 TheCycleofLife

Rehabilitation? The CycleofLifeArgument:

TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 53 4a Ad Hominem Therapy Interpretation: Exposition

TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 55

TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 57

and theFearofDeath 59 TheCycleofLife

TheCycleofLife and theFearofDeath 61

oftheargument, toanother construal considerations 45 Similar suggested byan apply

TheCycleofLife and theTearofDeath 63

64 TimO'Keefe Works Cited

and Fear The the Death65 Cycle of Life of

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