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The Challenge of Preparing Teachers with Global Perspectives for 21st Century Classrooms
Gobality for want of a better term spells significant changes in the cultural landscapes of belonging, not because it supplants the nation-statebut because it changes the contexts (politically, culturally, and geographically) for them, situates national identity and belonging differently, and superimposes itself on nationality as a novel frame of reference, values, and consciousness, primarily for the globalized elites, but increasingly for ordinary citizens as well. (p. 14) (Hedetoft & Hjort in Steger, 2008)

Introduction
In an era of globalization, teachers are at risk. They are seen as major contributors to the problem of failing schools while at the same time heralded as the solution to those same problems. This is a difficult place to be professionally, politically and personally. Consider the challenges of working with very complex groups of students with multiple levels of ability and need. Then consider the implications of globalization for future citizens and the pressures on teachers to devise a curriculum that will adequately prepare their students for that future. What essential knowledge, skills and dispositions are required to successfully meet the needs of students in our highly diverse, 21st century classrooms? What can research tell us about the critical components of a teacher preparation program designed to equip teachers with both competence and confidence in such complex educational settings? What are the global perspectives needed to best prepare teachers for these 21st century classrooms? Can our teachers successfully educate their students for their roles as citizens of the 21st century? In part one of the chapter, working definitions will be delineated. I have purposefully gone back into some earlier sources on the topic as a way of illustrating how long we have been discussing globalization in the field of teacher education. Many references from 35 years ago still resonate with current discussions. It is reassuring on the one hand that we havent strayed too far from some of the original calls for action. But it is also discouraging to recognize how little progress has been made over the past three decades. Also in part one, global perspectives will be differentiated from multicultural perspectives. They are regularly confused, one for the other. Are they connected in any way? Does one have more influence than the other? In part two, I will provide an overview of readings and research that have helped me develop my approach to teaching for global, transcultural perspectives. The concept of cultural competence will be introduced as a necessary component in the development of global, trans-cultural perspectives. A theoretical model will be introduced that captures my current thinking about how best to prepare teachers to teach using globalization as a central theme. The models developmental stages suggest a scope and sequence of curriculum, drawing from earlier work by Piaget, Kohlberg, Dewey, Noddings and others. When coupled with related pedagogical techniques, the model provides a framework for teachers and curriculum writers interested in exploring the themes of globalization in the curriculum. In part three, the characteristics of a global perspective will be discussed. My research with undergraduate students related to global perspectives in teacher preparation is presented. As well, some areas in need of further research will be discussed. Part three concludes with a summation of the chapter.

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PART ONE: Historical Overview Historical Context of Global Perspectives in Education

From my review of the literature, there appears to be a critical mass of theoretical writings and related research that emerges in the early 1970s, through the 1980s, during which time the field of global studies was firmly established as a central focus in social studies education (e.g., Hanvey, 1975; Cogan, 1978; Becker, 1979; Torney, 1979, Anderson, 1979; Jongewaard, 1981; Pike and Selby, 1988, among many others). Historical and anthropological references to what we might call globalization go back as far as the first traders and explorers who wandered out of the Great Rift Valley, at first leading the way and later encountering others who had gone before. Space travel and the Internet are just two examples of more recent human activity that have introduced the elements of increasing speeds and shrinking distances. Through the inexorable, exponential flow of such encounters, we arrive at todays discussion.

The First Paradox of Globalization

In the ensuing 45 years since Hanveys article was published, the concepts of globalization and global studies have been periodically re-defined and fine-tuned. Two major effects of globalization are at the core of any such attempts at definition. The blurring of borders, both psychological and political, is a phenomenon of globalization often included in these discussions. With this blurring comes the first major effect of globalization, global shrinking, or time/space compression (Steger, 2008). While we all acknowledge the shrinking world made possible via electronic communications and sub-orbital flight, there comes with it a corollary effect of global expansion, the rapidly expanding potential for increased human interaction. This shrinking/expanding tension is the first of several paradoxes inherent in globalization to be explored in this chapter. It is a paradox with consequences for teachers and schools. The involuntary coming together of all of Earths peoples in instantaneous ways, those ancient exploring and trading impulses having been accelerated often beyond our capacity to adapt and assimilate, creates a sense of urgency on the part of educators about what is the best approach for preparing future citizens who can effectively exercise their rights and responsibilities in such an intensified, shrinking/expanding environment. Having noted two key features of globalization, a relatively recent definition follows:
globalization is the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values and ideas .... across borders. Globalization affects each country [and its peoples] in different ways due to each nations individual history, traditions, cultures, resources and priorities. (p. 8) (Knight and DeWit, 1997)

A next step in our overview is to explore the definition and intent of global education. Thirty years ago, when the field was first being developed in pre-university education, it was defined in very basic terms: Global education consists of efforts to bring about changes in the content, in the methods, and in the social context of education in order to better prepare students for citizenship in a global age. (Anderson, 1979 p. 15) While this early, basic definition still holds, most of the details necessary to operationalize the concept are missing. What about curricular content, effective teaching methods and social context? For example, two aspects of the social context question worth exploring are (1) how the concept of cultural pluralism fits into the globalization conversation, and (2) how the field of multicultural education interfaces with that of global education. How we define and connect these two has philosophical, curricular and pedagogical implications.

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The Relationship Between Global Education and Multicultural Education

Concurrent with the development of global education was the development of multicultural education, arising in the 1970s and 1980s primarily as a result of the Civil Rights movement in the United States. Unlike global education, which has had only a modest impact on schools, multicultural education has become a dominant narrative in teacher training, curriculum development and most forms of social intercourse beyond the schools. However, I want to suggest here that an overemphasis on multiculturalism can actually inhibit the attainment of a global perspective. And it is because of that concern that the interdependent relationship of these two fields of study needs to be better understood. One early attempt at such understanding came from the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE). They created a Commission on Multicultural Education in 1972 and published a position paper titled No One Model American: A Statement on Multicultural Education which stipulates:
Multicultural education is education which values cultural pluralismTo endorse cultural pluralism is to endorse the principle that there is no one model American. To endorse cultural pluralism is to understand and appreciate the differences that exist among the nations citizens. It is to see these differences as a positive force in the continuing development of a society that professes a wholesome respect for the intrinsic worth of every individual. Cultural pluralism is more than a temporary accommodation to placate racial and ethnic minorities. It is a concept that aims towards a heightened sense of being and wholeness of the entire society based on the unique strengths of each of its parts [emphasis added]. (AACTE Board of Directors, 1972, p. 264)

This AACTE statement suggests individual and group components and describes a kind of systems interdependence, but its focus is largely domestic and stops short of embracing a fully global perspective. However, it does provide an important marker as an early precursor to global perspectives. From the 1980s forward, the field of multicultural education has been a major conceptual and curricular force in U.S. schools. James Banks, professor of social studies, civic education and multicultural studies at the University of Washington in Seattle, emerged as an early leader in the establishment of multicultural education as a field of study. He also is interested in defining the two concepts. According to Banks (2004), a global perspective deals with ethnic diversity in countries outside the United States and a multicultural perspective deals with ethnic diversity within the United States. And it is here that I begin to see the potential for problems with a focus either on people and cultures at home, or people and cultures abroad, because this leads to an approach that at best presents a false dichotomy. If by definition globalization is about cross-border migrations of people, ideas and commerce, then there can be no either/or in a borderless world. I also perceive a danger for our society and the larger community of nations if the civic education of the next generation focuses so exclusively on multiculturalism, whether at home or abroad. We risk getting stuck in an earlier, incomplete stage of civic identity, that of individual cultural identity. However, I do believe there is a developmental connection between multicultural and global perspectives. In fact, one stage leads to the next, each successive stage dependent on the former. This leads me to a second paradox of globalization.

The Second Paradox of Globalization

The operating assumption among some advocates of the multicultural approach seems to be that once self-identity (diversity) and mutual respect (multiculturalism) get established, the necessary global perspectives will follow. I disagree. The stages of individual and group identity, while necessary, are stages that without further development can lead to multiculturalism of the worst sort, a Balkanization of peoples and perspectives that can give rise to highly prescriptive forms of identity, and at the nation-state level, a real potential for a reactive, hyper-identification all too familiar even in the opening decade of the 21st century. Black versus White, Conservative versus Liberal, Serb versus Croat, Muslim versus Jew, Hutu versus Tutsi, Shiite versus Sunni, and the list goes on. The second paradox of globalization is thus identified, the tension between global blurring on the one hand, the free-flow of ideas, values and structures, and its corollary, the reactionary reassertion of global boundaries, the establishment of prescriptive identities and geographic limits.

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Other teacher educators anticipated these problems from the beginning. In a strikingly relevant article in an early, thematic edition of the Journal of Teacher Education (JTE) addressing multiculturalism (Winter 1973), authors Bernier and Davis walk us through a history of the development of multicultural education based on a move toward individualism and diversityin the decade of the sixties[in which] individuals who belonged to particular minority groups or subcultures were asserting their identity and their right to flourish in ways determined by their own perceived needs and desires. (p. 266). According to these authors, this individual identity movement in the schools emerged out of the Civil Rights movement in the United States in response to four earlier stages of schooling emphasis which they label, in historical order: (1) Anglo-Conformity, (2) The Melting Pot, (3) Cultural Homogeneity, and (4) Compensatory Education (based on the cultural deficits concept). The fifth stage suggested above, that of individualism and diversity, seems to be a logical extension of the Civil Rights movement. But is this focus on individual identity sufficient for living life the 21st century? How can we ensure that we are preparing citizens to function in the border-blurred environment of globalization? In the second part of the chapter I will move these questions and paradoxes into a developmental framework designed to incorporate them, and that leads to what we might think of as a sixth stage necessary for living in the 21st century, that of trans-cultural competence.

PART TWO: Toward an Attainable Global Perspective Genesis of the Trans-Cultural Model
The theoretical models from which I have derived my own developmental model range from political to philosophical to psychological. All of them include a developmental aspect similar to the work of both Piaget (Piaget & Weil, 1951, Woolfolk, 2004) and Kohlberg (Lickona, 1991). According to them, we move through stages, based on biological imperative, through experience in the world, or both. Piaget and Kohlberg are good examples in this regard because the former sees chronological age as a major determinant of ones developmental stage, whereas the latter sees experience as the more important determinant of growth. With a Piagetian approach, a teacher could expect a student to be able to do certain levels of work based on predetermined chronological age ranges. Kohlbergs model of moral development suggests a person is more likely to be in a certain stage of motive and decision-making based on experience and instruction. The model being described in this section of the chapter draws from both. Other writers who have influenced my thinking include Dewey (Gutek, 2005; Stanford, 2005), Spinoza (Elwes, 1951; The Radical Academy, 2008) and Noddings (Reed & Johnson, 2000), primarily because they each create levels or stages that I see as related to the development of a trans-cultural, global perspective. Dewey, for example, discusses democracy as (a) an expression of individuality, (b) as a process of social inquiry, and (c) as a function of the protection of popular interests. I arrange them in this order because I see a developmental movement from individual interests to popular interests, or the common good, mediated by the social inquiry process he describes. A further point in Deweys thought is that of the interdependence of the stages, the systems feedback loops that require one for the other. Deweys process of social inquiry fits here as well. The ethical caring described by Noddings is also a practical manifestation of this stage. On a more philosophical plane, this is where Spinozas intuition stage is located, his stage of moral perfection. Elements of Spinozas stage of science can be superimposed as we learn about other cultures and expand our definitions of self to include comparisons with cultures different from our own. I believe each level is necessary, more or less in order, and in this sense my model is developmental. It is also a developmental sequence because the learner brings with him/her an identity shaped by the previous stage that can be applied to the next. Also implied in the model is the difficulty of transitioning from an earlier to a later stage if there are components missing, or if there is an incomplete development of the prior stage. Thus, the stages are interdependent, building on one another. Educators would label this constructivism, suggesting a scaffolding of learners knowledge, skills and dispositions in each stage, constructing meaning that leads to the next level. In combination, these earlier models suggest a third paradox of globalization.

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The Third Paradox of Globalization

This paradox draws on the tension between the expression of individual rights and the needs of the group. Which comes first? I would assert that individual freedoms are dependent on some arrangement for the common good, and it is because of and through those arrangements for the betterment and protection of the whole that individuals gain their freedoms. It is my opinion that many educators have this formula reversed. They maintain that if we first work on the self-esteem of the individual and get that right, creating confident, just individuals, the impetus for the common good will emerge. Indeed, it is a chicken-and-egg paradox. Do just societies develop from a just group of individuals, or does a just society produce them? Broken down into the essentials for classroom practice, teachers are regularly reminding their students that with each right they claim for themselves, they invoke a parallel responsibility to the group. It is within this context of classroom rules for the common classroom good that individual students gain their rights and freedoms. This interdependence of group and individual is the third paradox inherent in the development of global perspectives being advocated in this paper. A working definition of globalization is in order as we consider this final phase of development. For our purposes, we revisit the definition offered earlier, that globalization is the flow of technology, economy, knowledge, people, values and ideasacross borders. Globalization affects each country and its peoples in different ways due to each nations individual history, traditions, cultures, resources and priorities (adapted from Knight and DeWit, 1997). Essential to the attainment of a global perspective is an understanding of the stages involved in its development. What follows is a discussion of cultural competence, the concept that undergirds and ultimately defines global perspectives.

Three Stages in the Development of Cultural Competence

In his book on perception and identity theory, Marshall Singer posits that individual behavior patterns are based on individual perceptions of the world, which are largely learned. The greater the experiential and biological differences between individuals, the greater the potential disparity in their perceptions of the world (Singer, 1998). This range of difference guarantees a diversity of perceptions in any classroom. Singer goes on to say that people of similar world-views who communicate these similarities to one another can be termed an identity or affinity group. Subsequent patterns of perceptions, values, attitudes and behaviors that are accepted and expected within these identity groups are called cultures (1998). Since cultures are learned and transmitted from generation to generation (Kohls, 1996), teachers play an important role, for better or for worse, in this process of cultural transmission. The essential first stage in the development of ones cultural competence is that of the true-self culture. It is forged primarily within the immediate family and community context, but it can be facilitated and reinforced at school. In this stage the concepts of diversity and identity are introduced. This is the pluribus stage from the American motto e pluribus unum. Students often come to school not fully formed, perhaps even conflicted about their cultural identity. In addition, because public education is an important social institution, and because social institutions are constructed and controlled by the dominant culture in any given society, the culture reflected in the schools will be that of the dominant culture. This complex of cultures coming together in school cannot be ignored. Recognizing this, and knowing that this true-self stage is critical to the subsequent development of global or trans-cultural competence, effective teachers understand the potential for ones true-self culture to be at odds with the school culture. They see an important part of their work to be helping each of their students feel welcome and respected for their true selves, to help their students see themselves reflected in the curriculum and the pedagogy of the classroom. Our students need to be culturally rooted. This is the critical first step. The second stage in the development of cultural competence is the multicultural stage. Most of this development occurs away from home and can be positively facilitated at school and reinforced in the family. At this stage an individuals true-self identity is tested against others. An awareness of self and other develops, the beginnings of globalization at the individual level. This stage introduces the concepts of pluralism and community. At its best, this stage helps students develop an understanding of how the pluribus and the unum can (and must) co-exist. Researchers in social studies education have noted that the typical age-range for this developmental stage is between the ages of eight and fourteen (Anderson, 1979; Torney, 1979). Schools have tended to focus on multiculturalism, and rightly so, but often to the point of

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excluding other stages, and sometimes with a singularity that is actually at odds with intended outcomes. One has to ask, after all these years have we taken a wrong turn along the way? For example, we can look to some of the original discussions of the emerging field of multicultural education and note the caution that multiculturalism should not refer to cultural maintenance, mere transfusions to keep cultures statically surviving in their present formreactionary attempts to support a past-oriented ethnic pluralism...[that] seek[s] to trap individuals in cultural enclaves (Bernier and Davis, 1973, pp. 266-271). Lopez (1973) cautions that an overemphasis on ethnic and cultural difference could create the perception that no common educational means or ends exist, resulting in a default curriculum geared to the majority. Further, Lopez expresses the concern that culturally relevant education could artificially create an ethnic-cultural model or merely substitute one model of corporate identity and conformity for another. Finally, he cautions that an over-emphasis on pluralism could restrict American cultural varieties from evolving freely by imposing cultural norms either for minority or majority cultures, substituting one set of external definitions of relevance for another (see Lopez, pp. 277-281). These authors are zeroing in on features of cultural development and globalization that acknowledge the shrinking of our social world in both time and space and thus the inevitability of our coming into contact with one another, influencing each others cultures. As a result of this bumping up against activity, ones identity groups or cultures are in a constant state of flux. To attempt to fix cultures too securely in time and space is to deny the imperative of cultural evolution. Where teachers tend to err in their current approaches to multicultural education is in their focus on identifying difference, delineating power relationships and rehearsing these contested histories. This is a necessary step, but we can get stuck there and in the process, we end up establishing cultural limits and ideological boundaries instead of building bridges within and across cultures. What characterizes effective multicultural education, appropriate in a global era? Multicultural education should be future oriented. According to Bernier and Davis (1973) and other writers (Lopez, 1973; Sue & Sue, 2003) multicultural education at its best recognizes cultures as dynamic, changing patterns in constant contact with each other, and always evolving. We need to be preparing our students for a world where rootedness in ones own true-self culture is an important anchor point, but also for a world where we can grow beyond cultural and ideological boundaries and work together as fellow citizens in search of a better world for all. We need to take another step. This leads to a third and final stage in cultural competence, that of trans-cultural competence. Sometimes referred to as a set of skills for intercultural understanding or cross-cultural communication, this essential third stage introduces concepts such as interdependence, cultural relativism and germane to the discussion here, global perspectives. This stage can be positively facilitated at school and reinforced at home. I have labeled the three stages of cultural competence described above as the intra-cultural or I stage, the inter-cultural or we stage and the trans-cultural of everybody stage, as depicted in Figure 1. ---------------------------------------------insert Figure 1 about here ---------------------------------------------Within this context of globalization we can push the definitions of cultural competence to the level of practical applications and concrete manifestations by exploring the essential knowledge, skills and dispositions required by teachers if they are going to be able to function as culturally competent educators. What does a culturally competent teacher look like? In this next section I will explore the profile of a culturally competent teacher, looking at the essential precursors to trans-cultural competence and global perspectives.

Culturally Competent Teachers: From the Local to the Global

First, culturally competent teachers have well-developed cultural identities. It is difficult to work with other peoples children and assist them through these developmental stages if ones own true-self culture is underdeveloped or perhaps resides only at the subconscious level. This is particularly important for teachers, and perhaps especially important for teachers from the dominant culture. Because social

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institutions, like schools, reflect the cultural values, beliefs and behaviors of the dominant culture, the transition from home to school for those teachers is more seamless, more familiar and a better reflection of their own values, beliefs and behaviors. To understand, and to be able to reflect on ones own culture and its interface with the school is an important first step. This exploration of ones true-self culture has been described as engaging in cultural archeology. (Ladson-Billings, 2010) Thus grounded in their own sense of true-self, teachers are better equipped to help their students on their respective cultural journeys. Culturally competent teachers work to help each student explore her/his own true-self culture. Through activities and assignments, through classroom resources, and importantly, as expressed through the teachers expectations for learning, students come to understand the building blocks necessary for healthy cultural identity. They become culturally rooted. This activity constitutes most of what takes place in school relative to the first stage of cultural development. Second, culturally competent teachers learn about their students cultures and engage students in an exploration of how their own and others cultures intersect. These teachers modify the curriculum to better reflect the lived experience of their students. In addition, they work to stretch their students in new directions, providing them with the knowledge and skills necessary for effective multicultural interaction, encouraging them to be culturally curious. Third, culturally competent teachers help their students to become confident, competent participants in the creation of fresh perspectives and deeper cultural understandings. They assist their students in further refinement of their own true-self cultures and to use the first developmental stage as the foundation upon which to build the ability to seek and celebrate difference, to communicate effectively across cultural differences, to embrace change. At this final stage, students become culturally mobile, cultural cosmopolitans who can be at home in the world. Culturally competent teachers work with their students to guide them through the three stages of cultural development, using a developmental model similar to those by now familiar mainstays of the curriculum, Piaget , Kohlberg, Gilligan (Reed & Johnson, 2000; Woolfolk, 2004), Dewey, Banks and others. In part three the concept of global perspectives will be further developed. Characteristics of teachers and students with global perspectives will be delineated. While it is beyond the scope of this chapter to explore completely, the implications for curriculum content and pedagogical techniques will also be discussed.

PART THREE: Global Perspectives and Future Directions Characteristics of a Global Perspective in Teachers and Students
What are the characteristics of a global perspective in general, and for teachers in particular? What research and theoretical literature is available to provide us with a set of characteristics that can be taught, practiced and measured in our teachers and in their students? These questions provide the focus for the next section of the chapter. What follows is a look at several sets of characteristics that have emerged in the literature over the past 30 years. Robert Hanvey's seminal article, "An Attainable Global Perspective" (1975), delineated the following goals for global education: (a) perspective consciousness, (b) state-of-the-planet awareness, (c) cross-cultural awareness, (d) knowledge of global dynamics, and (e) awareness of human choices. In their book Global teacher, global learner (1988), Pike and Selby provide a list of characteristics of a global teacher. Their early work presages the model presented in this paper, especially in their use of the terms ethnocentric, nationcentric and globalcentric. They said the global teacher:
is globalcentric rather than ethnocentric or nationcentric is concerned about culture and perspective is future oriented is a facilitator of student learning has a profound belief in human potential and is concerned with the development of the whole person is rights-respectful and seeks to shift the focus and locus of power and decision-making in the classroom to the students (Adapted from Pike and Selby, pp. 272-274)

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So the groundwork was laid more than 20 years ago, and yet we are just beginning to see the necessity of moving beyond individual and group identity to a level of global consciousness and trans-cultural identity. More recently, significant cross-national research has been conducted to determine from educational and political leaders in six countries what should be the essential skills for the citizens of the 21st century. In the book that followed, Citizenship for the 21st century: An international perspective on education (2000), authors Cogan and Derricot introduce the concept of multidimensional citizenship, consisting of four core dimensions and related skills. Teachers and students, 21st century citizens with global perspectives, will exhibit some key citizenship traits across the following four dimensions:
(1) Personal dimension the capacity to think critically and systemically an understanding of and sensitivity to cultural differences and issues of human rights a repertoire of responsible, cooperative and non-violent problem-solving and conflict resolution skills a commitment to protect the environment, to defend human rights, and to engage in political processes a commitment to shape their personal lives in ways that enable them to attain these qualities

(2) Social dimension the ability to participate effectively and thoughtfully in civic life the ability to act in a reflective and deliberative manner in a variety of civic settings

(3) Spatial dimension the ability to create students with the ability to think and act as members of several overlapping communities, ie, local, regional, national and multinational the capacity to require or promote multilingual linkages

(4) Temporal dimension the ability to take account of both the past and the future, as well as the present the ability to think and act within a broad timeframe that encompasses both past heritage(s) and the potential impact of their present actions upon the future (Cogan and Derricott, pp. 143-144)

In his book published in 2008, The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools dont teach the new survival skills our children need, author Tony Wagner suggests seven essential skills for the 21st century. Professor Wagner interviewed business and civic leaders involved in the global economy and visited schools where global education was a stated emphasis. In his book he discusses each of the seven essential skills and develops his thesis that even our best schools are failing to teach them, in part because of the distraction of high-stakes testing. He asks the simple but provocative question: We may be improving our students test scores, but are we teaching and testing the right thing? What, then, does it mean in todays world to be an active, informed citizen, and how does a democratic society best educate for citizenship? (Wagner, 2008, p. xvi). Based on his research, students will need these in the workplace and in their daily lives as citizens:
Critical thinking and problem solving Collaboration across networks and leading by influence Agility and adaptability Initiative and entrepreneurialism Effective oral and written communication Accessing and analyzing information Curiosity and imagination (Wagner, pp. 14-42)

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Their test scores may be improving, but are our students learning what they need to know to be successful in the 21st century? Wagner suggests the seven skills needed, as outlined above, and notes that most schools are not teaching these skills systematically, and not to all students. Again, a detailed analysis and discussion of each of these authors contributions is beyond the scope of this paper. Nevertheless, they present us with a comprehensive set of knowledge, skills and dispositions, (with a heavy emphasis on skills and dispositions), that we need to take into account if we are to successfully prepare teachers to meet the challenges of their 21st century classrooms. Great teachers have always demonstrated a good portion of these global characteristics and skills. Our challenge as teacher educators is to insure that our programs of teacher training are aligned with these skills and dispositions, so that our students and their students are well prepared for the work of citizenship in an era of accelerating globalization.

Preparing Teachers, Teaching Children

Walter Parker, writing a chapter titled Diversity, Globalization and Democratic Education: Curriculum Possibilities in James Banks Diversity and citizenship education: Global perspectives (2004), defines globalization as worldwide political and economic restructuring and a new geographic fluidity such that human organizations at new scales, both subnational and supernatural, are now proliferating (p. 441). Parkers use of the terms fluidity and proliferation recall my earlier discussion of time/space compression, and the acceleration of exponential change. What are the key characteristics of citizenship in this environment of political and economic restructuring and geographic fluidity? They assert that all citizenship requires an agreed upon set of knowledge, skills (habits of mind), values and dispositions (habits of heart). For effective citizenship in a global era, Cogan and Derricott (2000) suggest a set of five fundamental citizenship criteria:
A sense of identity The enjoyment of certain rights The fulfillment of corresponding obligations A degree of interest and involvement in public affairs An acceptance of basic societal values (Cogan and Derricott, p. 2)

In each case, these lists of guidelines and characteristics provide dimensions of a framework for the development of curriculum and pedagogical techniques intended to equip teachers and students alike with the knowledge, skills and dispositions needed to meet the challenges of the 21st century. We have been thinking about this for decades, tinkering towards utopia. Yet some of the latest research available, such as that by Wagner, suggests we are not yet doing the job. Where do we go from here?

Where are we now?

In this final section of the chapter, I will discuss the current research project I have begun on the development of trans-cultural competence and global perspectives in pre-service teachers. I will also explore some future directions based on my research and work with pre-service teachers. Schools bear a responsibility to bring all students through all three stages of the trans-cultural model. This is no easy task given the constraints on teacher time, the demands of required curricula, testing schedules, needy students, a critical public and so forth. To be more specific, there isnt room in an already crowded school schedule to add any new emphases. These concepts of diversity, multiculturalism and global perspectives need to be fully integrated into the curriculum, infused throughout traditional subject matter, not only added here-and-there in recognition of holidays and special events. In a recent book edited by Suarez-Orozco, Learning in the global era: International perspectives on globalization and education (2007), chapter author Rita Sussmuth, former President of the German Federal Parliament, discusses the need for integrating intercultural skills into the curriculum:

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By and large, educational systems have taken only small and disconnected steps toward overcoming the challenges young people face in rapidly globalizing societiesToo often, school curricula highlight only linguistic and cultural learning gaps among immigrant youth, without evaluating their abilities or recognizing the capacity and knowledge these young people possess and can contribute to their learning environment. Therefore, it is essential that school curricula within the European Union and at the global level develop a common approach to making intercultural education a central part of pre-university education. (Sussmuth, p. 209-210)

It is not so much a matter of placing these concepts into education, as interesting and occasional additions, but rather it is one of immersing our students very education in these concepts. While this statement may initially strike the reader as a mere play on semantics, the latter emphasis has significant implications for classroom practice. Global perspectives, multiculturalism and diversity should not be addons, but rather should be seen as the focus and purpose of all schooling. But the questions persist. How best to train the teachers? How best to teach the children?

The Current Project

The action research I have been conducting most recently is taking place in a foundations of education course titled Schools and Society. As part of the course, students are assigned to a teacher in the public schools. The research project consists of gathering a series of three written reflections via a course website consisting of student impressions from their field placement. Three different online prompts lead students from reflecting on effective teachers from their own pre-university schooling to reflecting on relationships built with students in their current field placement. It should be noted that the two school districts of Minneapolis and St. Paul where my students are placed are minority majority districts. For example, of the 39,000 students in the St. Paul schools, large percentages come from poor homes (75% on free and reduced lunch), speak first languages other than English (36%), and are from non-European racial, ethnic and cultural heritages (73%). ---------------------------------insert Figure 2 about here ---------------------------------In contrast, many of my students are experiencing such school demographics as these for the very first time. Nevertheless, after just 30 hours as classroom assistants, my students growth in confidence in quite striking. Statements like I wasnt sure at first, but now I know I can do this exemplify that growing confidence. I have collected several semesters of such online postings, which gave rise to the study outlined below. The work in which I am presently engaged is an attempt to capture this early growth in confidence and competence. To do so, I have developed a set of 10 key indicators of the skill of cultural competence in pre-service teachers, as noted below:
Having high standards and expectations for learning Incorporating home cultures and contextualizing the curriculum in those cultures Capitalizing on students cultures, languages and lived experience Infusing global perspectives Actively engaging parents and guardians Identifying and dispelling stereotypes Using culturally relevant curriculum materials Using cooperative learning techniques Using thematic, interdisciplinary teaching Teaching and practicing empathetic activism Jongewaard, 2010

My students online postings are read with these indicators in mind and a qualitative analysis of the postings is conducted to determine patterns of early confidence and competence across the ten

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dimensions. In addition to the qualitative analysis, I am also using two questionnaires as pre-/postmeasures of intercultural awareness. The first is an instrument developed by Chen and Startosa (2000). The second is an adaptation of the California Brief Multicultural Competence Scale (2004) I have titled the Cultural Competence Scale Teacher Form (Jongewaard, 2010). I am expecting to see growth over the eight weeks of the 30-hour clinical experience using both measures. I will adjust my course content as I determine which readings and assignments tend to elicit the greatest growth. While I am only able to report the outlines of this research project as of this writing, I anticipate some interesting data over the next several semesters to help me refine my ideas about trans-cultural competence and global perspectives. As more teachers are trained to be culturally competent at the transcultural level, and as more of their students study these concepts in school, citizenship education for global understanding will become the norm. Perhaps the concept of cosmopolitanism, as discussed below, can provide the framework for the archetype global citizen.

Cosmopolitanism as the Archetype Cultural Identity

In a recent article in the Journal of Research in International Education (December 2004) author Konrad Gunesch suggests a conceptualization of the development of global perspectives that both highlights these problems and points to a solution. In his article titled Education for cosmopolitanism? Cosmopolitanism as a personal cultural identity model for and within international education, Gunesch argues persuasively for a personal cultural identity of cosmopolitanism that transcends any single ethnic or cultural identity. While he is writing specifically about students who are attending international schools in countries around the world, in my view he is also presenting us with an archetype cultural identity for the 21st century. He describes the cosmopolitan as feeling at home in the world (p. 256), expressing an interest or engagement with cultural diversity by straddling the global and the local spheres in terms of personal identitya foot in bothstriking a proper balanceglobal is decisive without necessarily dominating all the time (p. 256). This global component is the missing emphasis in todays schools. And as we will see below, Gunesch suggests that cosmopolitanism can straddle the local and global, moving the global perspective to the fore as the final developmental destination. Drawing from the works of many others, with a particular focus on Ulf Hannerz, Professor Emeritus at Stockholm University, Gunesch discusses the need for a meta-cultural position necessary to achieve a genuine cosmopolitan status: (1) A willingness to engage with the Other, (2) An intellectual and ethic stance of openness toward divergent cultural experience, and (3) A search for contrasts rather than for uniformity. (Gunesch, p. 258) And in keeping with the constructivist nature of the transcultural model, Gunesch suggests a kind of rooted cosmopolitanism (p. 264) wherein individuals maintain a local identity but are in the end, truly at home in the world. Further, Gunesch sees cosmopolitanism as the antithesis of globalism if by globalism we mean cultural uniformity and homogenization (p. 265). If on the other hand we mean to define globalism as a manifestation of contrast rather than uniformity, then we arrive at a way of talking about globalization as the advent of world culture not as a replication of uniformity, but as an organization of diversity (p. 266) [emphasis added]. The trans-cultural model meets this test. World citizenship [stage three, the everybody stage] is viewed in terms of individual engagement [stage one, the I stage] with cultural diversity [stage two, the we stage] (p. 268). With these basic global citizenship guidelines established, I have pulled together a set of skills and dispositions indicative of a global perspective and have developed a set of core characteristics for transcultural competence that echoes aspects of each of the preceding lists. References to related sources are noted in parentheses:
Cross-cultural adaptability (Kelly and Meyers, 1995) Empathetic activism (Cogan and Derricot, 2000) Geographical global awareness (Corbitt, 1996) Shared values (Kidder, 1994) Political global awareness (Corbitt, 1996) Trans-cultural awareness (Landis and Bennett, 2004) A spirit of seeking and celebrating difference (Gunesch, 2004) Adapted from Jongewaard, 2008

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Future Directions
In his recent remarks at the Global Studies Association conference at Oxford-Brookes University, Professor Scott Lash spoke about the emerging Beijing Consensus wherein the emphasis is on relational negotiations and investment in a new commodity, that of potentials (Lash, 2008). It occurs to me that teachers have been at the forefront of this emerging consensus in global relations, especially those who promote the development of global perspectives in their curriculum and approaches to teaching. In my interpretation of Lash, the lives of individual students represent pure potential. Collectively, the next generation of citizens currently in our classrooms represents the critical investment in potential. Investing in individual students can be seen as a way of creating a community of differences (Lash, 2008), and this production of difference creates competition, or resistance, which in turn provides stability in this emergent globalization of relationality. His is essentially an evolutionary argument, one that suggests that more difference, not less, is more stable, more resilient, more adaptable. The goal of the new globalization is not homogenization, but is rather the organization of difference. Teachers working daily with the pure potential represented in their students are helping to generate communities of difference. The implications of Lashs thesis of emergent globalization suggest an important area for new research related to the trans-cultural model. This lies in an exploration of the interdependence of the three stages of the model as they relate to the development and organization of difference, and the role our schools can play in that process, through a global curriculum focus coupled with compatible pedagogies.

Summary Comments
The fields of global education and multicultural education developed more or less simultaneously beginning more than 30 years ago. However, global education has yet to take hold in the school curriculum in the same way that multicultural education has. The trans-cultural developmental model introduced in this chapter provides a way to think about these curricular emphases as both interdependent and developmentally sequenced. At Hamline University the knowledge base in teacher education is designed to build both the competence and equally important, the confidence, to work in highly diverse, complex school settings, and to teach all subjects with a global perspectives overlay. The trans-cultural developmental model provides a theoretical construct for that programmatic approach. Through attention to the theoretical models provided by Piaget, Kohlberg, Dewey, Noddings, Banks, Parker and others, we have built the foundations of a program designed to lead new teachers to global perspectives, regardless of where they end up practicing their craft. Whether in the diverse classrooms of the urban core or the more homogeneous classrooms of rural villages, teachers with trans-cultural competence can serve as bridge builders for their students to that wider world of human being. In drawing from the lists of characteristics provided by Cogan and Derricot, Pike and Selby, Wagner and others, we have structured a sequence of courses and school-based clinicals designed to prepare teachers to think globally while acting locally. As the International Studies Schools Association at the University of Denver puts it: All classes through global glasses! This is at once our best hope and our greatest challenge.

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Works Cited
AACTE Commission on Multicultural Education. (Winter 1973). No One Model American: A Statement on Multicultural Education. The Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. XXIV (4), 264-265. Anderson, L. (1979). Schooling and citizenship in a global age: An exploration of the meaning and significance of global education. Mid-America Program for Global Perspectives in Education. Bloomington: Indiana University. Banks, J. A., (Ed.). (2004). Diversity and citizenship: Global perspectives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Becker, J. (Ed.). (1979). Schooling for a global age. New York: McGraw-Hill. Bernier, N. R. and Davis, R. H. (Winter 1973). Synergy: A Model for Implementing Multicultural Education. The Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. XXIV (4), 266-271. California Brief Multicultural Competence Scale (CBMCS). Gamst, G. et al. (2004). Cultural competency revised: The California Brief Multicultural Competency Scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 37 (3). Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (2000). The development and validation of the intercultural sensitivity scale. Human Communication, 3, 1-15. Cogan, J. (October 1978). Implementing Global Education in the Elementary School: A Case Study. Social Education, 42 (7), p. 505. Cogan, J. & Derricot, R. (2000). Citizenship for the 21st century: An international perspective on education. London: Kogan-Page Limited. Corbitt, J. N. (1998). Global Awareness Profile. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc. Deweys Political Philosophy (2005). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dewey-political/ [First published Wed Feb 9, 2005]. Accessed August 4, 2008. Elwes, R. H. M. (1951). Works of Spinoza: Unabridged Elwes translation (Vol. II), (pp. 187-242). New York: Dover. Gunesch, K. (December 2004). Education for cosmopolitanism? Cosmopolitanism as a personal cultural identity model for and within international education. Journal of Research in International Education, Vol. 3 (3), 251-275. Sage Publications. Gutek, G. L. (2005). Historical and philosophical foundations of education: A biographical introduction (4th ed.), (pp. 344-349). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education Hanvey, R. (1975). An attainable global perspective. New York: Center for War/Peace Studies. Jongewaard, S. (1981). Learning the concept of interdependence using selected curricular materials and/or cooperative goal structures. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. Cited in Kobus, D. K. (Ed.) The developing field of global education: A review of the literature. Educational Research Quarterly, Vol. 8 (1), (1983), p. 25.

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Jongewaard, S. (2001). The six characteristics of universal citizenship: Their development and measurement in pre-service teachers [Juried paper]. College and University Faculty Assembly. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS), San Antonio, TX. (See also: ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED454109). Jongewaard, S. (24 January 2003). Beyond multiculturalism; toward a theory of transcultural competency [Juried paper]. Association of Independent Liberal Arts Colleges for Teacher Education (AILACTE). New Orleans, LA. Jongewaard, S. (22 March 2004). Teachers at risk: Preparing effective teachers for 21st century schools. [Juried paper]. The Oxford Roundtable, Oriel College, Oxford University, UK. Jongewaard, S. (9 February 2008). Beyond multiculturalism: The challenge of preparing teachers for 21st century schools [Juried paper]. International Studies Schools Association (ISSA). Chicago, Illinois. (See PowerPoint slides at: http://www.du.edu/issa/PresentationMaterials.html) Jongewaard, S. (19 February 2010). Confidence and competence: Discerning the emerging skills of cultural competency in pre-service teachers through clinicals and online reflections [Juried paper]. Association of Independent Liberal Arts Colleges for Teacher Education (AILACTE). Atlanta, GA. Kelly, C. & Meyers, J. (1993). The Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press, Inc. Kidder, R. M. (1994). Shared values for a troubled world: Conversations with men and women of conscience. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. Knight, J. and H. DeWit (Eds.). (1997). Internationalization of Higher Education in Asia Pacic. Amsterdam. European Association for International Education p. 8. In: Higher Education in a Globalized Society. UNESCO Education Position Paper, 2004. Internet: http://www.unesco.org/education/higher _education/quality_innovation. Accessed June 28, 2008 Kohls, L.R. (1996). Survival kit for overseas living. (3rd ed). Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Landis, D., Bennett, J. M. & Bennett, M. J. (Eds.). (2004). Handbook of intercultural training (3rd. Ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. Lash, S. (3 September 2008). Emergent globalization and the new consensus. Keynote address, B. Axford (Chair). 8th annual conference of the Global Studies Association of the UK and Europe: Oxford-Brookes University, Oxford, UK. Lickona, T. (1991). Educating for character: How our schools can teach respect and responsibility. (pp. 242-248). New York: Bantam. Lindsey, R., Robins, K. N. & Terrell, R. (1999/2003). Cultural proficiency. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Lopez, T. R. (Winter 1973). Cultural Pluralism: Political Hoax? Educational Need? The Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. XXIV (4), 277-281. Osler, A. and Vincent, K. (2002). Citizenship and the challenge of global education. Stoke on Trent: Trentham Books.

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Parker, W. (2004). Diversity, Globalization and Democratic Education: Curriculum Possibilities. In: James Banks (Ed.) Diversity and citizenship education: Global perspectives (2004). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Piaget, J. and Weil, A. (1951). The development in children of the idea of the homeland and of relations with other countries. UNESCO International Social Science Bulletin, III, (pp. 561-578). Pike, G. and Selby, D. (1988). Global teacher, global learner. London: Hodder and Stoughton. In association with the Centre for Global Education, York University. Pollack, D. C. & Van Reken, R. E. (2001). Third culture kids: The experience of growing up among worlds. Boston: Nicholas Brealey North America. Reed, R. F. & Johnson, T. W. (2000). Philosophical documents in education (2nd ed.), (pp. 243-257). New York: Longman. Robins, K. N., Lindsey, R., Lindsey, D. B. & Terrell, R. (2001). Culturally proficient instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Singer, M. (1998). Perception and identity in intercultural communication. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press. Steger, M. B. (2008). The rise of the global imaginary: Political ideologies from the French Revolution to the global war on terror. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Suarez-Orozco, M. M. (Ed.). (2007). Learning in the global era: International perspectives on globalization and education. Berkeley: University of California Press. Sussmuth, R. (2007). On the need for teaching intercultural skills: Challenges for educating in a globalizing world. In: Suarez-Orozco, M. (Ed.). (2007). Learning in the global era: International perspectives on globalization and education, (pp. 195212). Berkeley: University of California Press. The Philosophy of Benedict Spinoza. The Radical Academy. Center for Applied Philosophy. Port Orford, Oregon. Dr. Jonathan Dolhenty, President. http://radicalacademy.com/philspinoza.htm Accessed August 4, 2008. Torney, J. V. (1979). Psychological and institutional obstacles to the global perspective in education. In J. Becker (Ed.), Schooling for a global age (pp. 59-93). New York: McGraw-Hill. Ukpokodu, N. (September 1999). Multiculturalism vs. Globalism, Social Education 63(5), 298-300. National Council for the Social Studies. Wagner, T. (2008). The global achievement gap: Why even our best schools dont teach the new survival skills our children need. New York: Basic Books. Woolfolk, A. (2004). Educational psychology (9th ed.), (pp. 28-42). Boston: Pearson.

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Figure 1.

Figure 2.

St. Paul Public Schools Demographics 2009-2010 School Year Free/Reduced Lunch 75% Hmong 24% Racial/Ethnic Non-European 73% Spanish 11% Special Education 18% Karen 2% English Language Learners 36% Somali 2%

Total Students K-12 39,239 English 55%

Other 6%

Source: www.spps.org