Data and formulae for aircraft preliminary weight estimation and sizing

Typical fuel fractions for non-fuel intensive mission segments

landing, taxi Climb and and take- acceleration shutoff to cruise descent down 0.998 0.998 0.996 0.996 0.995 0.995 0.995 0.990 0.990 0.995 0.995 0.992 0.990 0.998 0.980 0.985 0.980 0.980 0.96 - 0.9 0.980 0.995 0.993 0.992 0.999 0.990 0.985 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.995 0.993 0.992 0.998 0.992 0.995 0.992 0.995 0.995 0.992

aircraft type homebuilts single engine piston props twin engine props agricultural business jets regional turboprops transport jets military trainers fighters military patrol, bombers and transport flying boats, amphibians and float planes supersonic aircraft

engine start and warm-up 0.998 0.995 0.992 0.996 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990

taxi 0.998 0.997 0.996 0.995 0.995 0.995 0.990 0.990 0.990 0.990

0.992 0.990

0.990 0.995

0.996 0.995

0.985 0.92 - 0.87

0.990 0.985

0.990 0.992

Breguet formulas for range (R) and endurance (E): W L R prop = p . ln start g.c p cruise D cruise Wend V W L R jet = . ln start g.c j cruise D cruise Wend

1 W L E jet = . ln start g.c j loiter D loiter Wfinish W L Eprop = p . ln start Vg.c j loiter D loiter Wfinish

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Reference data for Breguet formulas: Cruise data

aircraft type homebuilt single engine piston props twin engine props Agricultural business jets regional turboprops transport jets military trainers fighters military patrol, bombers and transport flying boats, amphibians and floatplanes supersonic aircraft L/D 8-10 8-10 8-10 5-7 10-12 11-13 13-15 8-10 4-7 13-15 10-12 4-6 Cj Cp [lbs/hr/lbs] [lbs/hr/hp] 0.5 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.9 0.6 - 1.4 0.5 - 0.9 0.5 - 0.9 0.7 - 1.5 0.6 - 0.8 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.4 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.6 0.5 - 0.7 0.4 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 p 0.7 0.8 0.82 0.82 0.85 0.82 0.82 0.82 0.82 -

Loiter data
aircraft type homebuilt single engine piston props twin engine props Agricultural business jets regional turboprops transport jets military trainers fighters military patrol, bombers and transport flying boats, amphibians and floatplanes supersonic aircraft L/D 10-12 10-12 9-11 8-10 12-14 14-16 14-18 10-14 6-9 14-18 13-15 7-9 Cj Cp [lbs/hr/lbs] [lbs/hr/hp] 0.4 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.6 0.6 - 0.8 0.4 - 0.6 0.4 - 0.6 0.6 - 0.8 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 0.5 - 0.7 p 0.6 0.7 0.72 0.72 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 0.77 -

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Maximum lift coefficient values for different a/c categories (clean configuration, take off and landing with deployed high-lift devices)
CLmax clean aircraft type homebuilts single engine piston props twin engine props agricultural business jets regional turboprops transport jets military trainers fighters military patrol, bombers and transport flying boats, amphibians and float planes supersonic aircraft min 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 max 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 CLmax take-off min 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.3 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.4 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.6 max 1.8 1.9 2.0 1.9 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.0 2.0 2.2 2.2 2.0 CLmax land min 1.2 1.6 1.6 1.3 1.6 1.9 1.8 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.8 1.8 max 2.0 2.3 2.5 1.9 2.6 3.3 2.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 2.2

Takeoff parameter definition for jet and propeller a/c

1 1 W W TOPjet = . . . S TO T TO CLmax 1 1 W W TOPprop = . . . S TO P TO CLmax

Statistical relationship between landing distance and stall speed

sL = 0.5915 * Vs2land CS23 sL = 0.5847 * Vs2land CS25

Data and formula for preliminary polar drag estimation Parasite drag definition as function of the equivalent skin friction coefficient and the wetted area/reference lifting surface area ratio:

CD 0 = C fe

S wet S

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Equivalent skin friction coefficient values for different aircraft categories

CD0=Cfe Swet/S Civil transport Bomber Airforce fighter Navy fighter Clean supersonic cruise aircraft Light aircraft single engine Light aircraft twin engine Propeller seaplane Jet seaplane Cfe - subsonic 0.0030 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0025 0.0055 0.0045 0.0065 0.0040

Correction factors for CD0 and Oswald factor at take off and landing
CD0 Clean configuration Take-off flaps Landing flaps Undercarriage* 0 0.010 - 0.020 0.055 - 0.075 0.015 - 0.025 e 0 0.05 0.10 0

Climb rate formulas

Climb rate : c = V(T-D)/W = Pa-Pr/W For jet aircraft:

For propeller aircraft:

c=

p .Pbr
W

W . 2 S
3/2 CL . CD

T C W2 1 c = D . W CL S C L

3/2 CL CD

maximum for

CL =

3CD0 Ae

and

CD = 4CD0

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Climb gradient formulas

Climb gradient : G = (T-D)/W For propeller aircraft:

G=

P C c 1 = p . br . D V W W 2 1 CL S CL

Optimizing this expression (for best climb gradient) leads to a value for CL which is very close to the maximum lift coefficient. This would result in a dangerous flight condition; thereby a safety margin of 0.2 on the maximum lift coefficient should be used to construct the curves for W/P versus W/S.
For jet aircraft:

G=

c T CD = V W CL

For maximum aerodynamic efficiency:

CD = 2.CD0

CL = CD0 . . A .e

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Formulae for Space Vehicle Design and Sizing

General
Mean Sample Standard Deviation (SSD)
xi n

SSD of sum (Indep. Var.)

SSD =

=
i =1

i= n

SSD = 2 =

1 i=n 2 ( xi ) n 1 i =1

SSD

Standard Error of Estimate (SEE)

SEE =
i=n yi 1 1 n m i =1 f ( x i ) 2

Space Vehicle/Launcher Sizing

Rocket Equation
M V = Ve ln o ; Ve = w Me

Initial Mass Mo = Me + M F

Empty Mass M e = M P + MS Spacecraft Launch Mass M L = M SC + M KM + M LVA

Vehicle Mass Ratio

R== Mo M 1+ = 1+ F = Me Me +

Body Volume V= Risk

Risk = F Severity

Reliability Spacecraft
R SC = R Payload R Bus

Reliability

R = e( t )
Design Margin
DM = TC CBE * 1

Failure probability
F = 1- R

Launcher Mass ratios/fractions

Payload Ratio Propellant Mass Fraction Structural Mass Fraction
s= MS Mo

MP Mo
M S 1- ' = MF '

MF Mo

(Stage) Structural Coefficient / Efficiency

Stage Propellant Mass Fraction

' =

MF 1 = M F + MS 1 +

DM = Design Margin, TC = Total Capability, CBE = Current Best Estimate

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Disturbance Forces & torques

Aerodynamic Drag
Fa = 1 CD V 2 S 2

Solar Radiation Pressure Force

Solar Pressure
Ps = Js c

Fs = (1 + ) Ps S
Mean Motion

Gravity Gradient Torque

Aerodynamic Torque Vector

( I zz I yy ) T 3 n 2 ( I zz I xx ) 0
Solar Radiation Torque T = r Fs

n=

a3

T = r Fa

Magnetic Torque
T = MB

Internal Torque
T = r F

Structures Beam Approximation (one end fixed)

Natural Frequency Stiffness (Long. and Lat. Direction)
kx = EA L ky = 3 E I L3

Stress at Clamp

fn =

k M

tot =

gy M L c I

gx M A
I A

Critical Buckling Load2 Pcr = C

Critical Buckling Stress

Radius of Gyration

2 EI
L
2

cr =

C 2 E

(L )

P A

2 =

Critical Axial Stress Cylinder

1.3 t 1.6 t c = E 9 + 0.16 R L

Critical Stress with internal pressure

Et c = (Ko + Kp ) R
t Ko = 9 R
0.6

R t + 0.16 L R

1.3

0.3

p R K p = 0.191 E t

Sizing Tank structures (Pressurized Thin Walled Cylindrical Tank)

Tank Mass M tank = K S t Cylinder Hoop Stress Cylinder Axial Stress Spherical End Cap Stress
pR t pR 2 t pR 2 t

hoop =

axial =

hoop = axial =

For one end fixed and the other end free to move laterally: C = 0.25

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Spacecraft Thermal Control

Heat Balance Qin = Q out Radiation Heat Q = A T4 Heat Balance Heat Flow
q= Q A

Spectral Abs., Transm. and Refl.

+ + = 1
Heat Convection

Heat Conduction
Q= kA ( T2 T1 ) l

Q = h c ( T2 T1 ) A

s A s J s + s a A a J s + IR A IR J IR + Qint = A ext T 4
Solar Flux
Js = P 4 d2

Planet Flux
4 q IR = TIR

Kirchhoffs Law

Power
Energy Power Solar Cell Pcell = Js Acell Mass Solar Array Power Solar Array

E = Pt
Area Solar Array Aa = P P

P = Js Id Ld cos ( )
Mass Fuel Cell

Ma =

P Psp
E E

M fc =

P Psp

Mass Battery

Volume Battery
Vbat =

M bat =

E Esp

Propulsion
Thrust w = m Ve FT = m Burn time Specific Impulse

tb =

MF m

Isp =

FT t b w Ve = = M F go go go

Power Required
P = T Pj

Power Req. Ext. Power Source

Mass External Power Source M W = W PW

PW =

Pj

Fuel volume
Vfuel = 1 M F 1+ O F fuel

Note that propellant mass is indicated as Mp in the text on spacecraft design, whereas MF is used in the text on launcher design.

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Attitude Determination and Control

Angular Moment Rigid Body External Torque Rotation Angle Spacecraft
= t = 1 t 2 + o t 2

H = I
Torque Magneto-torquer Tm = a N I A B = D B

T = I
Torque Thruster Pair T thrust = 2 FT L

C&DH
Digitizing Analogue Signal
DR analogue = f SR n bits

Digitizing an image
DR image = N images Spixel n bits

TT&C
Wave Speed
v= f

Travel Time (Space)

t= d c
B=

Required Bandwidth
DR Spectrum Utilization

Eff. Isotropic Rad. Power EIRP = P Ll G t Received Power C = Wf A ant ant

Power Flux Density Antenna

Wf = P Gt EIRP = 2 4 r 4 r2

Received Energy per Bit

Eb = C R

Received Noise Power N = k Ts B = No B

Navigation
Measured Frequency
fw = fb c+v cv

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