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1. Planning:
It involves the process of defining goals, establishing strategies to achieve these
goals, and developing plans to integrate and coordinate activities. Effective
planning enables an organisation adapt the change by identifying opportunities
and avoiding problems. It provides direction to the other functions of
management and for effective team work. All levels of management engage in
planning in their own way for achieving their presser goals.
Planning in order to be useful must be linked with strategic intent of an
organisation.
Strategic Planning:
Top level managers often engage in strategic planning or long term planning. It
is a process of developing and analysing the organisation’s mission, overall
goals, general strategies and allocation of resources.
The tasks in strategic planning include the following steps:
a. Define mission:
Planning begins with clearly defining the mission of the organisation. A
mission statement should be short and should be easily understood by every
employee. It guides employees to work independently yet collectively toward
the realisation of organisation’ potential
b. Conduct SWOT analysis:
A situation or SWOT [Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats]
analysis is vital for the creation of any strategic plan. It begins with the scan
of external environment. Organisations need to need to examine their
business situation in order to map out the opportunities and threats present
in their environments. It provides assumptions and facts on which a plan will
be based.
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In general terms the best strategy is one that fits the organisations strengths
to opportunities. The SWOT analysis is used as a base line for future
improvement, as well as gap analysis.
2. Organising:
It involves designing, structuring and coordinating the work componenets to
achieve organisational goals. It it the process of determining what tasks are to
be done, who to do, how the takss are to be grouped, who reports to whom, and
where decisions are to be made.the purpose of this function is to make the best
use of the organisation’s resources to achieve organisational golas.
The steps in organisation process include:
a. Review plans
b. List all tasks to accomplished
c. Divide the tasks into groups one person can accomplish-ajob
d. Group related jobs together in a logical and efficient manner.
e. Assign wokr to individuals.
f. Delegate authority to establish relationships between jobs ans groups of
jobs.
3. Leading:
An organisation has the greatest chance of being successful when all of the
employees work toward achieving its goals. Since leadership involves the
exercise of influence by one person over others, the quality of leadership
exhibited bys supervisors is critical demand of organisational success.
Leading involves the following functions:
a. Team Building:
Rigid department boundaries and fixed teams are giving way to ad hoc
squads whose membership changes with every project. Competitive arenas
require quick decisions by knowledgeable employees who work close to the
source of problems. Teams enable knowledge-based and innovative decision
making. This collaboration is a revolution in work place.
b. Consensus Building:
Top performance demands the joint effort of many people working together
toward a common goal. Together, employees can do more than the collective
efforts of each individual working alone.
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c. Selecting:
Selecting competent, high-performing employees capable of sustaining their
performance over the long run is a competitive advantage. The section
process consists of forecasting employment needs, recruiting candidates,
interviewing applicants and hiring employees.
d. Training:
After selecting employees, they enter an organisational program to be
formally introduced to their jobs. Orientation sets a tone for new employees
work by describing job-related expectations and reporting relationships.
Employees are informed about the benefits, policies and procedures. Specific
duties and responsibilities and performance evaluation are clarified. During
orientation, the supervisor has the opportunity to resolve any unrealistic
expectations held by employee. All new employees [current employee in new
jobs] must be trained. Cross training prepares employees for a job normally
handled by someone else. Training starts with Organisational analysis.
Task analysis identifies the current and future tasks to be done. Personal
needs analysis involves asking managers and employees to analyse their
training needs.
4. Controlling:
It involves monitoring employee’s behaviour and organisational processes and
takes necessary actions to improve them.
There are 4 steps in control process:
i. Establish performance standards. Standards are created and objectives
are set during planning process.
ii. Measure actual performance. Supervisors collect data to measure actual
performance. Oral reports will allow for fast and extensive feedback.
Computers give supervisors direct access to real time, unaltered data,
and information.
iii. Compare measured performance against established standards. Establish
the acceptable variation. Deviations that exceed this range would alert
the supervisor to a problem.
iv. Take corrective action. If the performance is from a deflect in activity ,
then the supervisor can take immediate corrective action and get
performance back on track.
Controls are effective when they are applied at key places. Supervisors can
implement control measures before the process begins [ Feed forward],
during the process [Concurrent], or after it ceases[ Feedback].
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2. “Skills are the tools for performance” Explain Different
management skills.
Management Skills
1. Technical Skills
2. Human Skills
3. Conceptual Skills
1. Technical Skills:
The ability is to apply specialized knowledge or expertise. All jobs require some
specialized expertise, and many people develop their technical skills on the job.
Vocational and on-the-job training programs can be used to develop this type of
skill.
2. Human Skills:
This is the ability to work with, understand and motivate other people (both
individually and a group). This requires sensitivity towards other issues and
concerns. People, who are proficient in technical skill, but not with interpersonal
skills, may face difficult to manage their sub-ordinates,. To acquire the human
skill, it is pertinent to recognize the feelings and sentiments of others, ability to
motivate others even in adverse situation and communicate own feelings to
others in a positive and inspiring way.
3. Conceptual Skills:
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3. What is negotiation? Explain the process of
negotiation.
Negotiation:
- Integrative bargaining:
This strategy is adopted to create win-win solution. Following conditions are
necessary for this type of negotiation:
a. Parties who are open with information and candid about their concerns.
b. Sensitivity by both parties to the other’s needs.
c. The ability to trust one another.
d. Willingness by both parties to maintain flexibility.
• When initial positions have been exchanged, the original demands of both
the parties need to be explained and justified. Proper documentation is
required at this stage to support each of the parties position.
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Bargaining & Problem Solving:
• The essence of the negotiation process is the actual give and take in trying
to hash out an agreement; concessions will undoubtedly need to be made
by both parties.
• This is the final step, where the agreement is formalised and procedures
to implement the agreement will be developed.
Issues in Negotiation:
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stimulus. In Pavlov’s experiment above, the tuning fork(Bell) cued the dogs
that food might be coming. Following is an example of classical conditioning.
• Extinction
the extinction phase is when the conditioned response no longer occurs after
repeated pairings without the unconditioned stimulus. The dog’s response to
the bell can be extinguished by repeatedly presenting the bell (CS) without
the food (UCS). The dog has not completely forgotten the association
between the bell and the food. If the experimenter waits a day, the dog
may have a spontaneous recovery of the conditioned response and salivate
again to the bell.
• Generalization
Occurs when there is a small difference in the presented stimulus and the
original conditioned stimulus. If Pavlov’s dog heard a bell of a similar tone,
the dog would still salivate.
• Discrimination
Values represent basic convictions that ‘a specific mode of conduct or end state
of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode
of conduct or end-state of existence. When the values are ranked in terms of
their intensity, it is called value system. Types of values include social values
and aesthetic values. Values have both content and intensity attributes.
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- Ranking an individual’s values in terms of their intensity equals
that persons value system.
Values shape relationships, behaviours and choices. The more positive our
values more positive are our actions.
Power distance-
This dimension measures the social equality in families, institutions and
organisations. Inequality of power in organisations is generally manifested in
hierarchical superior-subordinate relationships.
Uncertainty avoidance-
This is representation of a society tolerance for uncertain situations. It measures
to what extent a society manages those situations by providing specific and
conventional rules, regulations and norms; by rejecting aberrant ideas or
behaviour; by accepting the possibility of absolute truths ans the
accomplishments of expertise.
Individualism Vs Collectivism-
Individualism gauges to what extent individuals in a country consider
themselves as distinct entities rather than members of cohesive groups.
Collectivism, on the other hand, emphasizes on social ties or bonds between
individuals. Individualistic society considers self interest as more important that
the group goal.
Masculinity Vs Femininity-
This dimension refers to what extent dominant values in a society emphasizes
masculine social values like a work ethic expressed in terms of money,
achievement and recognition as opposed to feminine social role will show more
concern for people and quality of life.
He also states that each person carries several layers of cultural programming.
It starts when a child learns basic values, what is right and wrong, good and
bad, logical and illogical, beautiful and ugly. Culture is about your fundamental
assumptions of what is to be a person and how you should interact with other
persons. The first level of culture is deepest and difficult to change. Other layers
in the culture are learned or programmed in the course of education through
professional or craft training and in organisation life.
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• Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which a society or an organisation
tries to avoid uncertainty by depending heavily on prevalent norms, rituals
and bureaucratic practices.
• Power Distance: it is the degree to which power unequally shared in a
society and organisation.
• Collectivism –I [Social collectivism]: it is the degree to which society and
an organisation encourage and recognises collective performance.
• Collectivism-II [In-group Collectivism]: it is the degree to which
individuals take pride, loyalty and cohesiveness in their organisations and
families.
• Gender egalitarianism: this is an extent to which a society or an
organisation minimizes gender differences.
• Assertiveness: it is the degree to which individuals, both in organisational
and social context are, assertive and confrontational.
• Future orientation: it is the degree to which individuals are encouraged in
long term future oriented behaviour.
• Performance orientation: this encourages and rewards persons on
performance improvement.
• Human orientation: it is the degree to which organisations or society
encourages or reward for being fair, altruistic, friendly and caring.
In every culture, there are different sets if attitudes and values which affect
behaviour. Mangers portray trust and respect in their employees in different
ways in different cultures. This is a function of their own cultural background.
For example managers from specific cultures tend to focus only on the
behaviour that takes place at work, in contrast to managers from diffused
cultures who focus on wider range of behaviour including employee’s private and
professional lives. Most managers from diffused cultures believed that company
should provide such facility where are managers from specific cultures agreed
on the same.
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Locus of Control:
For example, college students with a strong internal locus of control may believe
that their grades were achieved through their own abilities and efforts. Whereas,
those with strong external locus of control may believe that their grades are the
result of good / bad luck, or to a professor who designs bad tests or grades
capriciously; hence they are less likely to expect that their own efforts will result
in success and are therefore less likely to work hard for higher grades.
Individuals who rate high in externality are less satisfied with their jobs, have
higher absenteeism rates, are more alienated from work wetting and are less
involved on their jobs than are internals. Internals believe that health is
substantially under their own control, and hence, of absenteeism, are lower.
Internals generally perform better on their jobs, but one needs to consider
differences in jobs. Internals search more actively for information before making
a decision, are more motivated to achieve, and make a greater attempt to
control their environment, and hence, internals do well on sophisticated tasks,
internals are more suited to jobs that require initiative and independence of
action and want autonomy and independence in their jobs. Externals are more
compliant and are willing to follow directions and be led, and do well on the jobs
that are well structured and routine and in which success depends heavily on
complying with the direction of others.
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Machiavellianism:
Mach IV, the Machiavelli (Mach) scale measures an individual's willingness to put
self-interest and his or her preferences above the interests of the group, and an
individual's ability to influence and manipulate others for personal gain (Jaffe et
al, 1989). Individuals with a high score on the scale are comfortable using
various means to achieve their personal goals. A high Mach has a cynical view of
human nature, few scruples, and is willing to step outside the bounds of formal
authority (Rayburn and Rayburn, 1996). Grams and Rogers (1990) found that
people who were high in Machiavellianism used indirect, non-rational tactics like
deceit, but also appealed to emotions to try to plant their ideas to influence their
colleagues.
High Mach scorers manipulate more, win more, are persuaded and persuade
others more. High mach outcomes are moderated by situational factors and
flourish when they interact face to face with others rather than indirectly, and
when the situation has minimum number of rules and regulations, thus allowing
room for improvisation. High machs makes good employees in jobs that require
bargaining skills or that offer substantial rewards for winning.
Literature review
Miesing and Preble (1985) compared the different business ideologies, including
Machiavellianism, and tested them with 487 MBA students. This survey revealed
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that postgraduates and those with work experience were less Machiavellian in
approach, compared to undergraduates and those without work experience. In
addition, women compared to men, and those with some religious convictions
were found to be less Machiavellian in their dealings.
Siegel (1973) examined the extent to which managers, MBA students, and
faculty members exhibit the Machiavellian, manipulative interpersonal behavior
and leadership using the Mach scale and theory X/Theory Y leadership scale.
The study found the following ranking of Machiavellian orientation: managers
(lowest), students, faculty (highest). They found Machiavellianism relates
negatively to participative leadership attitudes for both students and managers.
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