2014

Psychological Motivations in Exercising

Christina Pincus English 1102 3/29/2014

Pincus 1 Huge Biology test tomorrow. Theres a paper due the day after that and not to mention the book you have to read for that class you dont pay attention in. The club meeting is tonight and you have already agreed to have a study group after that. Now you are wondering when you will get time to eat, sleep, and breathe let alone make the ten minute walk to the gym to wait in line for equipment that you want to use! As a child, I grew up playing soccer, running around outside, and watching my parents play tennis once a week or more. All of my siblings and I were taught through example that exercise and healthy eating was a good way to go. Of course when it comes down to it, my parents would compare an unhealthy lifestyle to a healthy one and let us see the differences. I played soccer until high school and then switched to tennis and was usually active during the off seasons. Ive been in shape and way out of shape, working on getting ready for the next sports season. Attending fitness classes has always been a great past time to me and now being at college Ive had plenty of opportunities to participate and be surrounded by like-minded people who are there to work out for fun and also those who are trying to impress someone. That is seen everywhere you go though, so it is no shock. This paper explores the psychological and physical implications for women who regularly engage in exercise; More specifically, we will examine case studies and mental health research to create a narrative that underscores the importance of physical activity. Literature Review Terms: Intrinsic motivation- Intrinsic motivations are normal human reaction to strive for a challenge, to extend abilities, and to compete pertaining to exercise.

Pincus 2 Extrinsic motivation- Extrinsic motivations are driving forces that encourage people to exercise not because of the physical health but another motivation not directly related to the physical activity. Socializing with the other exercisers can be considered an extrinsic motivation, especially if you are just going through the motions to be physically with someone. Autonomous motives- Autonomous motives are simply self-directed motives. You make yourself go to the gym because you think you are fat, out of shape, need the exercise, or maybe because you enjoy it and want to be healthy. Regulations- Regulations are the self-determined reasons/motives that people exercise found in four different categories: Intrinsic regulations- Intrinsic regulations are based on the pleasure and enjoyment that people receive from exercising. It is not seen as a chore but as a recreational activity and a break from work. Extrinsic regulations- extrinsic regulations are based on the peer pressure involved around exercising, whether it being physically looking a certain way, lifting a specific weight, or run for a long time without stopping. Introjected Regulations- introjected regulations are based on the guilt felt by people to participate and exercise. This includes thoughts like, I should go to the gym because my friend just recently went, and I really should because its good or me but I dont know, and everyone else is at the gym running five miles and lifting over two hundred pounds so I probably should go and workout myself.

Pincus 3 Identified Regulations- Identified regulations are based on the health benefits that someone can receive or achieve through exercise. These regulations include those who exercise because it makes them feel physically healthy and they usually will mention that they can notice a change in the way they feel if they do not exercise. The health benefits and hopes of a prolonged life keep individuals returning to satisfy their need of healthy activity. Autonomy- Autonomy is feeling free to do whatever you want influenced by a lot of variables. Competence- Competence is engaging successfully with ones environment by mastering complicated skills. Relatedness- Relatedness is the feeling of being connected to those around you in your environment. Physical Health A major issue in todays society is the fact that many people are physically inactive. Although it is widely promoted that inactivity leads to health risks in the future, people continue to live their inactive lifestyles and not participate in physical activity1. Exercising drastically improves an individuals physical and psychological health and the aspects of health-related qualities of life (HRQOL)2. The imagery used to promote physical health are energy and technique imagery. Energy imagery is imagery that personally gives you energy to keep going. Technique imagery is imagery used to evaluate whether or not you are using correct positions while exercising. Both energy and technique are associated with more self-determined motivations like intrinsic and identified motivations3. With different types of exercising come different areas of strength whether it be muscle endurance or flexibility2. Knowing that many people are not physically active, physicians have been prescribing exercise programs (mostly group fitness) to increase

Pincus 4 their quality of life and overall health. There were two motivations identified in group fitness: personal and interpersonal factors. Personal factors are how the class makes the individual feel physically including less fat and more flexible. Interpersonal factors are how the surrounding participants made the individual feel about the group setting including competitive and supporting. These twelve week exercise referral programs resulted in increased autonomy, competence and relatedness need satisfaction, identified regulation and intrinsic motivation, habitual physical activity, and life satisfaction4. The following are positively related to strenuous and total exercise behavior: satisfaction of the psychological needs, introjected and identified regulations, and intrinsic motivation. This should not be a surprise because those who participate in strenuous activity are aware of the physical benefits and importance and thus participate1. Self Determination Theory Even though people are aware that exercising is beneficial to your health in many ways, they still remain inactive causing a lot of health issues. The theory to explain this inactiveness is called the self-determination theory (SDT). SDT is used to help understand motivational issues and provide an outline for motivational occurrences. It theorizes about how motivation is selfdetermined and regulated by external influences; therefore, the individual is either free to choose what to do or feels compelled to participate in an activity, respectively5. According to SDT, the three psychological needs are competence, relatedness, and autonomy6. The kind of motivations theorized by the self-determination theory are intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation. Intrinsic motivation is a genuine driving force to compete, to accomplish, and stretch personal limits. Extrinsic motivation is a motivation where you gain something independent of the main action. As an example, socializing during a group fitness class or hanging out with friends in the gym can be considered extrinsic motivations for exercising.

Pincus 5 Amotivation is apathy to exercise with no intentions of pursuing it, only going through the motions if needed1. SDT can also help distinguish motivations disguised by behaviors like not exercising because there isnt room in the schedule. Teixeria, Carraca, Markland, Silva, and Ryan did a study resulting in the conclusion that an individuals quality of life can benefit by developing autonomous forms of extrinsic regulation or enriched intrinsic motivation7. Research is guided by the SDT to understand what encourages human nature and what deters if from arriving at full potential. Motivation is valued in todays society because it produces results; therefore people who are authentically motivated are more desirable because they will more than likely perform better and have a genuine interest. This being said, the environment we are in or exposed to can make or break whether the intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation gain control in our lives8. Physical Appearance The natural reaction when we are meeting someone for the first time is to set our best foot forward using self-presentation strategies to control what other individuals see about us. These strategies can be harmful to those who consider themselves to fall short on the physical physique spectrum. Social physique anxiety (SPA) is the anxiety coming from feeling judged based on bodily appearances. There is evidence of a relationship between high levels of SPA and lower levels of physical activity because the individual is embarrassed by their appearance and possibly their lack of ability too. On the flip side, high levels of SPA have been motivational to fix what is wrong with me8. Haggar explores the approach or avoidance achievement goals in physical activity referencing the fact that some may seek exercise to gain satisfaction while others avoid exercising to avoid drawing attention to their inability to perform tasks or their physical physique9. SPA goes along with an individuals physical self-concept which is a personal idea of

Pincus 6 what a universally accepted human is. This idea usually guides decisions and opinions about physical activity and is positively linked to participating in physical activity. Most younger females who are obese tend to have higher SPA levels and lower physical activity levels7. To cope and deal with effects of exercising, everyone uses images whether it is conscious or not. The functions of imagery in the exercise setting are appearance, energy, and technique. Appearance imagery is the thought of what your body will look like after completing a goal and was shown to have a connection with less self-determined motivations like extrinsic motivations. Many women reported having negative images associated with exercising including ugly clothes and sweating which deters them from participating. For these reasons, those who use appearance imagery as the main motivation imagery may not be as successful3. Because it is unclear how some qualities of a persons character, that develop over time and are influenced by external factors, creates self-perceptions, a hierarchy of self-perceptions was created, placing self-esteem at the top10. In Wilson and Rodgers 2002 article, the goal was to examine the relationship between independent exercise motives and physical self-esteem (PSE). The results did show that those who tried to exercise based on social pressures did not develop motives that would eventually promote self-worth. Those who reported identified or intrinsic reasons for exercise were more likely to document higher physical self-worth versus those who reported external and extrinsic motives. The study as a whole provided evidence that supports the connection between self-directed exercise regulations and a more positive view of ones physical appearance in an active female10. Entering the Conversation Its no shock that many people in our society of the United States are overweight. For the most part, there is plenty of food to go around and we as Americans take advantage of this and

Pincus 7 over indulge with our portions. In an effort to create food restaurants that kept up with the societys fast pace, fast food was designed as the perfect solution: prepared fast, tasted satisfactory, and cost was cheap. Because this food is so easy to obtain, the consumer is able to get away with eating whatever they can get their hands on without considering the consequences. Making healthy choices are not made any easier by fast food chains either, where two or three burgers are less than a head of broccoli. Its no wonder health in our society has depleted: more effort is being put into marketing fast food than preparing it. Along with the ease of readily getting food, people are lacking the motivation to go out and engage in physical activity. Physicians have been readily advising inactive patients to exercise programs in an effort to prevent future problems4. While this is can certainly make a difference in getting people to be active, it could have the unintended consequence of harming physical self-esteem. Though doctors simply mean to improve a patients quality of life and living, they take the risk in mentioning physical health and stirring up feelings. Being told by another person that your body is unhealthy can stimulate either approach or avoidance behaviors towards physical activity. The reasons or excuses to pursue and avoid exercise are plentiful though it varies from person to person. No one situation can be applied to everyone who exercises. Some are attracted to the thought of exercising to get more social relationships and to look like the stereotypical beach model, demonstrated by the avoidance theory. Others however may feel encouraged to sign up to and participate because of their desire to change their physical look. A female who is a full-time student at a college or university may desire a designated time to be active but cannot figure out how to balance the load of work that has to get done without losing sleep. It is understandable that there is only so much that they can do, but there

Pincus 8 are little things one could incorporate daily which will eventually become a pattern. These patterns can grow into routines and bring the woman personal enjoyment eventually. Who said you had to go to the gym to be active? Taking a run outside or doing some yoga in your room works just fine! I propose that the participant should do a simple exercises like pushups, crunches, or maybe a little yoga to start off the day. As soon as you roll out be bed stretch a small amount and proceed to the pushups, crunches, etc. The number of individual pushups or crunches should be increased gradually over a span of weeks to get the best results. While in the process of making those simple morning moves a habit, I am hopeful that the subject has come to enjoy the common moves and has a slight craving to do more. I am relying on the intrinsic motivation instilled in every human for the woman to want more than just her simple work out. A few weeks in, theses stretches and moves should become easier which is great encouragement in itself. The individual feels good for accomplishing their goal of fitting in some exercise that is not drastically time consuming. My idea is that as the routine gets easier, the individual will realize that they want something more challenging. Their new found enjoyment of exercising has brought them to this conclusion whereas before they were never motivated enough to start any physical activity. It was always the easier option to just brush off exercising instead of hassle time out of their already busy day. Women have been a target of the physique condemning media for quite some time. There are some pros to these flashy, vibrant advertising because as you can imagine, people want to look like the beautiful models so they may pick up exercising with this goal in mind. I am fairly certain that all women have exercised with the image of a model in mind as an inspiration and motivation when the going gets tough. Hall states that exercising with this sort of mental image is not going to be as beneficial to an individuals health as someone who exercises

Pincus 9 thinking about techniques and energy or stress relief. I have witnessed with my friends how an attitude can impact your workout and it really shows what your motivations are based on your behavior in a gym or fitness class. What many people miss when they begin exercising is that the enjoyment of the activity brings you the greatest satisfaction and work out, not necessarily the difficulty level10. Conclusion Now you are wondering what a woman attending a university or college full time have to do with you. Let me enlighten you. Though I may have focused on a female college student, she has the same mindset as many who feel their schedule could not possibly have room for exercising like those who work a forty hour week or anyone who has to balance schooling and a family. Whether she is amotivated or avoiding exercise for fear of embarrassment, there are others reading this now who know the feeling of brushing off exercising because it is just another chore to add to the list. I have offered an easy solution, one that I used myself to gradually ease into being more active and learn how to schedule in exercising. I can tell you for certain that if you keep doing a simple routine sometime during the day you can grow in the expectations for yourself and push your limits to where you have want to be. Exercising should not be seen as a chore and has the ability to relieve stress and focus energy into a task that is achievable. Staying active is much more than getting ready for swimsuit season or squeezing into last years pair of jeans. It is a lifestyle that not only involves the physical participation but a mental aspect too. Health and fitness is largely a mind game between choosing what to eat and whether or not to go to the gym that day and is an ongoing battle to stay motivated for more beneficial reasons versus the superficial motivations.

Pincus 10 Citations 1. Edmunds, J., Ntoumanis, N. and Duda, J. L. (2006), A Test of Self-Determination Theory in the Exercise Domain. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36: 2240 2256. doi: 10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00102.x 2. McGrath, J. A., OMalley, M. and Hendrix, T. J. (2011), Group exercise mode and health-related quality of life among healthy adults. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 67: 491500. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2010.05456.x 3. Hall, C. R., Rodgers, W. M., Wilson, P. M. and Norman, P. (2010), Imagery Use and Self-Determined Motivations in a Community Sample of Exercisers and NonExercisers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40: 135152. doi: 10.1111/j.15591816.2009.00566.x 4. Rahman, R. J., Thogersen-Ntoumani, C., Thatcher, J., & Doust, J. (January 01, 2011). Changes in need satisfaction and motivation orientation as predictors of psychological and behavioural outcomes in exercise referral. Psychology & Health, 26, 11, 1521-39. doi: 10.1080/08870446.2010.538849.x. 5. Wilson, P. M. and Todd Rogers, W. (2008), Examining Relationships Between Perceived Psychological Need Satisfaction and Behavioral Regulations in Exercise. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 13: 119142. doi: 10.1111/j.17519861.2008.00031.x 6. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist,55,68-78. doi: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68.x

Pincus 11 7. Teixeira, P. J., Carra a, . V., Markland, ., Silva, M. N., & Ryan, R. M. (January 01, 2012). Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: a systematic review.The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 9. doi: 10.1186/1479-5868-9-78.x. 8. Cumming, J. and Thgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011), Self-Presentational Cognitions for Exercise in Female Adolescents. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41: 429444. doi: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00720.x 9. HAGGER, M. S., HEIN, V. and CHATZISARANTIS, N. L. D. (2011), Achievement Goals, Physical Self-Concept, and Social Physique Anxiety in a Physical Activity Context. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41: 12991304. doi: 10.1111/j.15591816.2011.00761.x 10. Wilson, P. M. and Rodgers, W. M. (2002), The Relationship Between Exercise Motives and Physical Self-Esteem in Female Exercise Participants: An Application of Self-Determination Theory. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 7: 3043. doi: 10.1111/j.1751-9861.2002.tb00074.x