Slavery, Emancipation and the Southern Church: A Study of the Narratives of Frederick Douglass, Harriet aco!

, and So"ourner #ruth Much has been said about slavery and it may seem pretentious to try to produce research that is entirely new. My aim, therefore, is not so much to innovate as to partake of the ongoing debate about what some have called the Peculiar Institution. My discussion will focus on the role played by the Church and some so called Christians of southern states in the enslavement and emancipation of the !egro in "merica, an issue #rederic $ouglass, %arriet &acob, and 'o(ourner )ruth address in their respective narratives. In fact, there is no dearth of information on the role of the Church in keeping the slaves in total submission to their masters. *+amples abound in all three narratives to support this claim. %owever, it is important to reali,e that even though specific denominations within the Church helped keep the slaves in bondage, which they should apologi,e for if they have not done so, they also worked to mend, to an e+tent, the damage caused to the !egro. )he medium whereby the slaves became aware of their Christian masterswrongdoings was education. *ducation was an eye opener. It allowed the blind slaves to see and learn, and thereby, to detect the discrepancies between what they had learned at church and the events of their daily lives. 'uch was the case of %arriet &acobs. "s Myrlie *vers .illiam states in her introduction to Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, /0y having the knowledge of the letters, she was able to read the disciplines set out in the 0ible, the same book that shaped the moral fiber of the Christian slave owners. %ow could slavery be (ustified, when 1od-s .ord admonished, 23ove thy neighbor as

thyself-/this parado+ wreaked havoc with %arriet-s soul/ 5&acobs, viii64. Indeed, a sensible person could but be shocked and grow restless and in7uisitive over such a momentous discovery. )he master should love his slave as he loves himself since the 0ible teaches love of one-s neighbor. 8nfortunately, he does not and his failure to demonstrate genuine love for the slave lends itself to two possible interpretations9 either the master is not truly Christian, in which case he should not use the 0ible to (ustify his deeds or the slaves are not his neighbors in the sense that they are less than human and, therefore, unfit to be considered true neighbors. 3et assume, at least for the time being, that the master were fully Christian. )hat would leave us with the assumption that the slave was less than human. 1iven the dehumani,ing nature of the slave-s ordeal, reaching this conclusion would not be an e+aggeration. )he slave was stripped of his dignity, deprived of his rights and his manhood. )hus, he was nothing but less than human. 3ittle wonder, then, the the slave father was e+pected to teach his children submissiveness instead of dignity. %arriet &acobs remembers an instance when both her father and master wanted one of her brothers to complete a task. )he brother chose to comply with the master-s command, which aroused his father-s wrath. *ven as a slave, &acobs- father still believed in teaching his children dignity in defiance to the master-s rules. %e was convinced that his child-s obedience to him, the father, should take precedence over obedience to the master. :bviously, the slave master saw this attitude of one of his properties as mere arrogance. "ccording to &acobs, /they though he ;her father< had spoiled his children by teaching them to feel that they were human beings. )his was blasphemous doctrine for a slave to teach= presumptuous in him and dangerous to the master 5&acobs, >6. Indeed, any display of
4

&acobs, %arriet. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. !ew ?ork9 'ignet, @AAA.

intelligence= any attempt to show the slightest sign of dignity on the part of a slave was viewed by the master as dangerous because of the risk of insurrection. )hus, the master missed no occasion to remind the slave of his so called divine role as the master. In fact, the master was satisfied with the belief that 1od created the "fricans to be slaves 5&acobs, B>6. )hus, through individuals like $octor #lint, who were presumably models of the good Christian, slaves were kept in total submission to their owners. %owever, what gave the slaves the conviction that their position of inferiority to the master was the latter-s divine right was the institutionali,ation of the whole alienation process by the 'outhern Church. %ere, I will turn to a sermon delivered by Ceverend Pike to his slave congregation. )hought it would have been interesting to 7uote the entire sermon, I will refrain from doing so for reasons of space. I shall therefore 7uote the most significant e+cerpts thereof. )he sermon starts with the words %earken, ye servants 5&acobs, >D6E )hese words give solemnity to the occasion. )hey are reminiscent of preachers of 0iblical times, and thus they establish the authority of the speaker. )he reverend then goes on to say what follows, no doubt punctuating his words for more effect on the audience9 1ive strict heed unto my words 5&acobs, >D6. %ere, the reverend obviously assumes the position of a prophet. )he audience must heed his words, not partially by selecting what they wish to accept, but the speech in its entirety. "nd that must be done without fail. It is as if something ominous were dangling over the heads of the unheeding, threatening to strike if they did not heed the reverend-s words. %aving thus put the listeners in the right frame of mind for the occasion, the reverend charges at his congregation in the following words9 ?ou are rebellious sinners. ?our hearts are filled with all manner of

evil. 2)is the devil who tempts you. 1od is angry with you, and will surely punish you, if you don-t forsake your wicked ways 5&acobs, >D6. %e lashes out at his listeners, charging them with being at the mercy of 'atan. 0y calling the slaves rebellious sinners, he seems to be referring to those among them who are defiant and disrespectful in the eyes of the master. 1od, he pretends, will punish those. In order to avoid 1od-s wrath, the rebellious slave must do one thing9 :bey ;his< old master and ;his< young masterG ;his< old mistress and ;his< young mistress. If ;he< disobey ;his< earthly master, ;he< offend;s< ;his< heavenly Master. ;)he slave< must obey 1od-s commandments 5&acobs, >H6. %ere, the origin of the slave master-s authority is made even more conspicuous= his authority comes directly from 1od and as such, it must not be met with defiance but total and unflinching submission. In other words, the slaves who disrespect their masters are not Christians because they are not following 1od-s commandments. )he repetitive use of 1od sees you and 1od will punish you gives even more force to the sermon and the slave, that is, the simple minded one, the illiterate 5who, alas, represents the ma(ority6 feels doomed to eternal damnation and can do nothing else than comply. .e can clearly see one of the techni7ues the Church used to sow fear in the souls of the slaves for the sole purpose of keeping them sub(ected to the master. Indeed, hiding the truth form the slave was paramount, and that is why he was denied access to proper education. %arriet &acobs- account shows that the Church played a pivotal role in furthering illiteracy among the slaves. In fact, &acobs gives the e+ample of 8ncle #red who could absorb everything he was taught like a sponge. ?et, the law forbids it, and the Church withholds it 5&acobs, I46. )he Church sends missionaries to the dark corners of the world but forgets the

dark corners at home. &acobs- response is clear on that issue9 "merica needs to clean its own backyard before turning to those of the so called dark corners. 'he says, I am glad that missionaries go out to the dark corners of the earth= but I ask them not to overlook the dark corners at home. )alk to "merican slaveholders as you talk to the savages of "frica/ )ell them that all men are brethren, and that man has no right to shut out the light of knowledge from his brother. )ell them they are answerable to 1od for sealing up the #ountain of 3ife from the souls that are thirsty for it 5&acobs, I46. .ith these words, &acobs is clearly giving the slaveholders and the Church a taste of their own medicine. )hey threaten the disobedient slave with eternal damnation= she tells them they are in greater danger of $evine punishment for barring people from the light of knowledge, which is their 1od given right. " form of reverse psychology is at work here. 0ut how did %arriet &acobs put together the argument for this rebuttalJ )he answer lies in Myrlie *vers-s introduction to Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl9 education. It is also education that will broaden the mind of young #rederick $ouglass and open the eyes to his master-s wrongdoings. *ven though the young $ouglass is unusually in7uisitive, he will become even more so as he learns the letters. "s his mind becomes more and more restless, he starts to become more rebellious and his overall attitude toward his mastersGdefiance and challenge of their authorityGbecomes more conspicuous. :ne instance of defiance happens when he stands up to Mr. Covey. :bviously, $ouglass is fed up with the fre7uent beatings this professional slave breaker inflicts upon him. %ow can Mr. Covey not understand that the young man is suffering from sunstroke and keeps beating him for faking to be sickJ .hy can Covey not tolerate his being sickJ ?et the 0ible says, 3ove thy neighbor like thyself. Mr. Covey is a Christian who, apparently, has been

recommended to $ouglass- former master, Mr. "uld, with whom Covey attended the same Methodist church. #aced with his masters- treacherous conduct, $ouglass lashes out at these individuals, as well as the institution in which they hold membership9 I assert most unhesitatingly, that the religion of the south is a mere covering for the most horrid crimes, a (ustifier of the most appalling barbarity, a sanctifier of the most hateful frauds, and a dark shelter under which the darkest, foulest, grossest, and most infernal deeds of slaveholders find the strongest protection. .ere I to be again reduced to the chains of slavery, ne+t to the enslavement, I should regard being the slave of a religious master the greatest calamity that could befall me 5$ouglass, BH6@ "s stated in these lines, $ouglass une7uivocally condemns the slave system in general, but more specifically, the Church, which, at this point, seems to be the instigator of all the atrocities he talks about. 'lave masters are usually bad, but the worse among them are none other than the ones who boast an affinity with some kind of church. *+amples supporting this claim are numerous. In fact, $ouglass portrays two ministers, a Mr. .eeden and a Mr. %opkins, as men with the inclination to beat their slaves for no apparent reason other than to please themselves. )he first of these gentlemen deems it necessary to constantly remind the slaves of their condition and their position vis K vis their master. 0ehaving according to the master-s instructions is useless and cannot spare a slave a beating. 8nder this Christian master, you are beaten when the master deems it appropriate. In fact, %is ma+im was, 20ehave well or behave ill, it is the duty of a master occasionally to whip a slave to remind him of his master-s authority.- 'uch was his theory, and such his practice 5$ouglass, BH6.

$ouglass, #rederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. !ew ?ork9 $over, 4LLD.

Mr. %opkins practices something akin to what Mr. .eeden does. Moved by the desire to discourage the slightest thought of or attempt to escape, and to 7uell any potential rebelliousness, this master always manages to find faults with his slaves or, in the absence of faults, to beat them in advance of deserving it, and he actually beats one person as a way to begin the week 5$ouglass, BH6. )hus, individually, the instances are numerous in which so called Christian masters inflict upon their slaves the most inhumane and undeserved treatment imaginable. %owever, the worst part is when individuals get together into groups to act in the name of the Church, and that is e+actly what will happen when $ouglass starts a 'abbath school to teach his fellow slaves to read the .ord of 1od. )he school has barely been in session when a number of clergymen get wind that $ouglass is teaching some slaves to read the 0ible. 'ubse7uently, a group of people, whom $ouglass recogni,ed later as .right #airbanks and 1arrison .est, together with many others, attacks the small group of students and disbands the class. )his act of vandalism is condoned not only by the Church, as is (ustified by the presence of these prominent members of the Methodist Church but also by the law. In Young Frederick Douglass3, Preston $ickson provides more information on the perpetrators of the attack against the 'abbath school9 :ne was 1arretson .est, a huge, hulking oysterman considered a saint by some and a simpleton by others. Completely illiterate, .est was the perfect choice to head a school smashing posse. "nother was .righton #airbanks, like .est, an e+horter 5sort of religious cheerleader6 at 'ardis Chapel. 1iving the raid a cloak of legality was Constable )homas 1raham, the "ulds- ne+t door neighbor 5Preston, 44H6.
F

$ickson, Preston. The Young Frederick Douglass. 0altimore9 &ohn %opkins 8niversity Press, 4LIA.

>

0ecause of this event, $ouglass makes up his mind concerning the Church, or to be precise, the 'outhern Church. %is frustration and disgust are commensurate with the rank of the clergymen mention above. "ccording to Preston, )hat ;the event< ended the school, and with it the last shred of #rederick-s respect for Methodism as practiced by 'outhern slaveholders. )hese men were the pillars of the Church, and yet they had used whips and sticks to prevent children from learning to read the .ord of 1od. %e will never again have anything but contempt for such hypocrisy 5Preston, 44H6. %ypocrite though these menGand beyond their individual selves, their churchG are, they have a number of good reasons for acting the way they do. &acobs says, If a man goes to the communion table, and pays money into the treasury of the church, no matter if it be the price of blood, he is called religious 5&acobs, I@6. )hus, among other reasons, the need for money impels the Church to support the Peculiar Institution. %owever, even though financial reasons may have been an important consideration for the church-s support of the system, they are not the only determining factor. "nother reason the proponents of slavery give is that it is their duty to civili,e the !egro. )hey view the black race as a race of primitive people incapable of any kind of progress and totally devoid of the ability to learn and improve. )he only successful !egroes are those who are under the pang of slavery. 'ome people like &ohn 0ell Cobinson, a staunch advocate of slavery, contend that no real Christian in their right mind would think about giving them freedom in this country. In fact, 0ell continues, )he !egro race is not fit for self government. )hey are incapable, in this country and all others, to manage a government as a republic, or even partly so/but when we come to look at the whole black race, here and elsewhere, we shall see that slavery has not degraded the "frican but greatly elevated him in the scale of civili,ation and

domestic and social relations of this life= while on the other hand, freedom has, as a general thing, degraded and heatheni,ed the "frican race in parts of the world 5Cobinson, 4BA6.B :bviously, Mr. Cobinson does not know anything about the cultures of the ancient *gyptians who happened to be black nor does he know that black *gypt was once the world center for learning, and that a number of 1reek philosophers who left an indelible imprint on the western mode of thinking studied in *gypt at some point in their academic careers. )he e+ample of "ncient *gypt, together with the rich history of )imbuktu and the *mpire of Mali are but a few e+amples of the ability of the !egro to govern himself. "lso, Cobinson talks about the elevation of the "frican through slavery. %ow could slavery elevate the !egro when he is not even supposed to learn to read and is barred from getting a proper educationJ Cobinson-s claims with regard to the !egro is attributable, according to him, not only to his sense of ethics= his role in the civili,ation of the !egro is divine. %e contends that the creator did not create the black race to be rulers and leaders. 0lack people were created inferior and they can do nothing e+cept under the ruthless slave laws. )he "merican Constitution and $eclaration of Independence do not apply to them. :ne needs, he continues, to look to the 'outh to see that the slaves there are happier than people in any part of the world. %e states that /the southern slaves are the happiest class of people I have ever seen in all my travels in !orth or 'outh "merica or the .est Indies, and I believe they are the happiest people on the face of the globe, e+cept where abolitionists have disturbed their peace, and twenty times more civil, respectful, happy, and well behaved than any colony or state of free !egroes I have ever seen 5Cobinson, 4DA6.

Cobinson, &ohn 0ell. Pictures of Slavery and ntislavery. Miami9 Mnemosyn, 4LHL.

%ere it appears parado+ical that, according to Cobinson, slaves are happier where they are the most oppressedE %e seems to be taking the revelry the slaves were forced into around Christmas and probably other Christian celebrations as conveying (oy among the southern slaves. :r is he alluding to the slave songs, which, apparently happy, convey an immeasurable amount of pain and sorrowJ In any event, it seems that Mr. Cobinson misread the !egro-s attitude in the 'outh. %is divine (ustification of slavery speaks to the sometimes tacit and sometimes overt attitude of the Church in dealing with this issue. ?et, in a way, the same Church that helps keep the !egro in bondage, in an unprecedented about face, will play an important role in breaking the shackles of slavery. 0efore going any further, it is important to notice that $ouglass cautions us about what he means when he refers to the Church, and for the purpose of this paper, especially for what follows, the word should be understood as he intends it. $ouglass defines the word as follows in the appendi+ to his narrative9 .hat I have said respecting and against religion, I mean strictly to apply to the slaveholding religion of this land, and with no possible reference to Christianity proper= for, between the Christianity of this land, and the Christianity of Christ, I recogni,e the widest possible difference 5$ouglass, >@6. )he slaveholding religion of the 'outh helped enslave and keep the !egro in bondage. I will now turn to the Christianity of Christ for my discussion of the role of the Church in breaking the chains of bondage. "s 3ewis )appan and the 1arrisonians have said, /there is no power out of the Church that could maintain 'lavery, if the Church attacked it earnestly 5.yatt 0rown, F4H6.D In fact, once the Church decides to come out of its passivity to take action and

.yatt, 0rown 0ertran. Le!is Ta""an and the #vangelist $ar gainst Slavery. !ew ?ork9 "ntheneum, 4LHL.

4A

completely eradicate slavery, the "merican plague, nothing can actually stand in its way. )he battle is waged both by individual Christians, as well as by organi,ation, but I will focus on the role of Christian organi,ations, as their fight is more conspicuous than that of individual slave masters. :ne of the very first formal conferences to discuss slavery was help in the mid 4IAA-s in 1lasgow, 'cotland. )he purpose of the conference was to lay bare and denounce the practice of slavery and the support of prominent church leaders for the proponents of the system. "fter heated debates and testimonies about the atrocities of the system, 5it is important to point out that #rederick $ouglass took part in the proceedings and received more credit than anybody else for his contribution to the cause6, it was resolved that the time had come to awake the moral and religious sentiment of the people against the holding of human beings in bondage 51regory, F46.H )he phrase awake the moral and religious sentiment of the people is essential because laws may be enacted to correct and make amends for an evil practice, but if the people for whom such laws are enacted do not understand the importance of abandoning the wrong deeds, in other words if they are not convinced as to the benefits of ridding themselves of their unethical habits, the said laws will have been enacted in vain. )hat is why the religious men who assembled in 1lasgow gave precedence to that aspect, thus contributing to trigger an anti slavery sentiment not only among the people, but also, and more importantly, among religious communities and organi,ations. )he Muakers, among other religious organi,ations, issued a petition to President &ohn Muincy "dams, which was reported in the $ecember 4IF4 %alti&ore &erican9

1regory, &ames M. Frederick Douglass the 'rator. (hicago9 "fro "m Press, 4LHL.

44

.e believe slavery and the slave trade, in human species, is a great national and moral evil= we therefore ask your body to take the sub(ect into serious consideration, and pass such law or laws as will entirely abolish slavery and the slave trade in the $istrict of Columbia, over which Congress has e+clusive (urisdiction 5Preston, 4A46. )he Muakers- intent was obvious. )hey appeared ready, as they had usually been for the most part, to wage the battle for righteousness. 'till, however they were of the fairness of their endeavor, they deemed it necessary to have the law, not only the divine, but also the human, on their side. )he calls of both those who held the 1lasgow conference and the Muakers were hearkened and various Christian organi,ations germinated between 4IF4 and 4IH4 to carry the torch of emancipation. )hese organi,ations included most of the deNnominations we know today9 the Methodists, the Muakers, the .esleyans, etc. :ne important organi,ation among them was the !ew Missionary 'ociety of Charles ), )orrey. )orrey- idea was one of civil disobedience. %e understood that slave laws e+isted. %owever, he was ready to work with volunteers who would be ready to break such laws and teach slaves to read and write, distribute tracts and 0ibles so that they would eventually e+perience the urge to break free from their fetters. )hese volunteers would be called abolitionist missionaries. 0y definition, an abolitionist missionary is an individual of either northern or southern birth who, under the auspices of a northern abolitionist organi,ation, worked in the 'outh to build ant slavery churches and spread anti slavery sentiment 5%arrold, IH6.> )hus, the mission was to gradually supersede the southern slaveholding Church, which thus far had been the accomplice of the slave trade

>

%arrold, 'tanley. The )olitionist and the South *+3*,*+-*. 3e+ington9 )he 8niversity Press of Oentucky, 4LLD.

4@

and slavery. "mong the abolistionist missionaries, some advocated a swift change in the condition of the !egro. %owever, they all agreed with 3ewis )appan that "mong the slaves and slaveholders, the 1ospel, as it came from its divine founder, is to be preached without concealment or compromise/whether human enactments authori,e or forbid it/to preach a free, an evangelical, an antislavery 1ospel/that had no complicity with caste, polygamy, or slaveholding= that would fearlessly and perseveringly/proclaim freedom, peace, temperance, holiness, the e7uality of man before the law, and impartial love of 1od 5%arrold, LF6. %ere again, the rue 1ospel has to be taught whether the law authori,es it or not. )he missionaries must act boldly in defiance of the law because their cause is noble and holy, and because black or white or otherwise, 1od has an e7ual share of love for all. )o think otherwise is to break divine law, which is above human laws. )his moral argument was echoed by the "merican 8nitarians who, after a three day meeting in 4IBD, decided to write and circulate a 8nitarian Protest "gainst 'lavery, the essentials of which were that they believed slaveholding to be in direct opposition to the law and will of 1od, and entirely incompatible with the precepts and spirit of Christianity 5)ange, LI6.I )hus, it can be said that action was being taken by individuals, as well as organi,ations, to correct atrocities committed in the name of the 'outhern Church. ?et both %arriet &acobs and #rederick $ouglass give scant consideration to that aspect of the issue. 0oth &acobs and $ouglass vehemently condemn the Church for its role in keeping their race in bondage. )he former sees fit to make a distinction between the 'outhern slaveholding Church and the Church of Christ only in an appendi+ to the Narrative. "s for the latter, she mentions only the good deeds of

'tange, $ouglas Charles. %ritish .nitarians against &erican Slavery *+33,-/. :ntario9 "ssociated 8niversity Press, 4LIB.

4F

individual Christians like Ceverend Pike whose wife frees her slaves once she knows she is going to die. %owever, &acobs doesn-t talk about any form of battle waged by an organi,ation. ?et we know that $ouglass and &acobs received a good Christian education, the former from his mistress 'ophia, and that he had some affinities not only with individual Christians but also with at least one Christian organi,ation as shown by his presence at the 1lasgow conference where he testified, and the latter from her grandmother. In contrast to these two staunch freedom fighters, 'o(ourner )ruth focuses more on her achievements as a messenger of 1od. 'he strongly believes that 1od has given her a mission9 that of helping her enslaved brothers and sisters to recover their freedom. )hus, through her 8nderground Cailroad, she would lead some FAA former slaves to freedom. "long the way, the slaves conducted by )ruth would benefit from the help of other people, white or black, who believed in the total emancipation of the !egro. *ven in difficult times, )ruth-s faith in 1od was unflinching. "s her narrator says, /this perfect trust, based on the rock of $eity was a soul protecting fortress, which, raising her above the battlements of fear, and freeing her from machinations of the enemy, impelled her onward in the struggle, till the foe was van7uished, and the victory gained5)ruth, FL6. It is important to remember that )ruth did not act single handedly. 'he was back up by the Methodist Church, which she attended for some time before ultimately (oining the Pion-s Church, which was composed entirely of colored people 5)ruth, BD6. )ruth-s connections to the Methodist Church give credence to the claim that the Church helped enfranchise the !egro. 'he was acting as an individual but also as a member of a certain church, of a community that believed in freedom.

4B

:n hindsight, it can be said that the role of the Church in the issue of slavery was twofold9 it helped enslave and later, emancipate the !egro. )hat role is all the more important as the Church carries moral authority in many societies, including the "merican. %aving given its support to the slaveholder and the slave trade, those who were involved (ustified their actions with divine law. %owever, such a (ustification was doomed from the beginning because it was based on a distortion of the true 1ospel of the 3ord. :nce the true Church, no doubt reali,ing the gravely erroneous use its 'outhern sister was making of the 0ible, decided to step up to the plate and use its moral authority to con7uer and change the hearts of the slave masters and traders, all barriers to its success crumbled and divine (ustice was reestablished. Indeed, as )heodore Parker said in his comments on the work of abolitionists in The ntislavery (rusade in &erica, :n our side are truth, (ustice, and eternal right. ?es, on our side is religion, the religion of Christ= on our side are the hopes of mankind, and the great power of 1od 5Parker, 4II6. .ith the involvement of the Church on the side of (ustice, the !egro was freed from the fetters that had kept him shackled for centuries to face yet another plague9 racial discrimination.

4D

$orks Cited %rimary Sources $ouglass, #rederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. !ew ?ork9 $over, 4LLD. &acobs, %arriet. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. !ew ?ork9 'ignet, @AAA. )ruth, 'o(ourner. Narrative of So0ourner Truth. !ew ?ork9 $over, 4LL>. Secondary Sources 1regory, &ames M. Frederick Douglass the 'rator. Chicago9 "fro "m Press, 4LHL. %arrold, 'tanley. The )olitionist and the South *+3*,*+-*. 3e+ington9 )he 8niversity Press of Oentucky, 4LLD. Parker, )heodore. The ntislavery (rusade in &erica. !ew ?ork9 "rno Press, 4LHL. Preston, $ickson &. Young Frederick Douglass. 0altimore9 &ohn %opkins 8niversity Press, 4LIA. Cobinson, &ohn 0ell. Pictures of Slavery and ntislavery. Miami9 Mnemosyn, 4LHL. 'tange, $ouglas Charles. %ritish .nitarians and the South *+3*,-/. :ntario9 "ssociated 8niversity Presses, 4LIB. .yatt, 0rown 0ertan. Le!is Ta""an and the #vangelist $ar against Slavery. !ew ?ork9 "ntheneum, 4LHL.

4H