EV Contrastive Approach

EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup
Syntax as a Level of Linguistic Analysis
Introduction definition: Syntax is a level of linguistics analysis which deals with combination of phrases, clauses and sentences approaches to syntax: a) Structuralist approach (description) b) Generative approach other levels (mutual dependence) syntax-phonology: influence on stress syntax-morphology: influence on inflections; in English, syntax is now described in more details which was not the case during the history Main part units (phrases, clauses, sentences) phrase-clause: phrase does not have the relation of predication tests: substitution, movement syntactic functions (S, Pred, Cs/Co) semantic roles and syntactic functions (agent, experiencer, theme) syntactic ambiguities e.g. She made [a good model]. O/Cs Conclusion sum up
Contrastive Studies (CS)
definition: Contrastive studies is comparison of languages (A and B) whose goal is to establish similarities and differences between these two languages which can be illustrated through translation and interpretation. translation is sometimes not done consciously and is usually not systematic e.g. 1 Where was he last night? shifting of tenses: Past Perfect in They asked me where he had been last night. English 2 Gde je on bio prole noi? word order in indirect questions: Aux precedes S in English Pitali su me gde je on bio prole noi. Contrastive studies should be systematic, scientific comparison.
3 basic areas in CS: a) Contrastive analysis (CA) b) Translation theory: trying to find translation equivalence from language A to language B c) Error analysis: in teaching; not most common errors
Contrastive Analysis (CA)

CS vs. CA: CA is procedure (technique) in CS while CS is a more general term phases in CA: a) collection of data: corpus of examples made by the surveys, by finding translation of a text in language A to language B and analyzing word order, tenses, etc. b) description of corpus: examples, structures of these examples, frequency of structures c) comparison of two languages d) formation of contrasts
more detailed description of these phases: a) collecting data b) establishing comparability criterion: we define one feature to analyse c) defining the nature of similarity and formulating the initial hypothesis e.g. what is used in Serbian for something that is said in Present Perfect d) testing of the hypothesis e) revised hypothesis CA can also be denoted by parallel description, interlingual comparison or analytical comparison. Contrastive linguistics vs. Comparative linguistics in both cases we have comparison and description but in case of comparative linguistics there is diachronic comparison (we compare historical development) while in the case of contrastive linguistics we have synchronic comparisons (we compare modern languages) CA-Directional we compare from language A to language B (AB) we can have one or opposite direction Contrastive analysis vs. Confrontative analysis confrontative analysis compares everything while contrastive analysis deals with differences only some linguists use CA for both similarities and differences CA as Pedagogical Tool (Teaching) hypothesis: linguistic difference = learning/teaching difficulty? it is not the case anymore Phases in the development if CA 1. Traditional phase (19th c. - WW2) the initial phase linguists simply did comparisons between e.g. German and English, French and English and compare sound systems, etc. Leonard Bloomfield (USA linguist, 1930s): supported CA Prague School: supported CA Benjamin Lee Whorf: coined the term Contrastive Linguistics in his article from 1941 and compared it with Comparative Linguistics 3
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup 2. Classical phase (WW2-c.1965) CA was fully established and recognized as scientific discipline different kinds of comparisons successfully applied in teaching and translation Charles Fries (Teaching and Learning Language as a Foreign Language, 1945): the most effective materialsbased on scientific description and carefully compared with the description of the native language Uriel Weinreich (Languages in Contrast, 1954): introduced the term interference (something that influences learning of foreign language) Robert Lado (Linguistics across Culture, 1957): established the CA while Whorf only coined the term 3. Modern phase (c.1965-today) conferences in 1968, 1971 etc. and projects on CA development of theoretical framework project The Yugoslav Contrastive Project ed. by R.Filipovi (Zagreb, 1969-1976 and later) Compatibility, Tertium Comparationis we start from comparison of languages A and B and we also think about (one) general feature(s) which we want to compare systematically something like the 3rd member in a comparison of language A and language B tense/articles/animacy A B
Equivalence vs. Correspondence in these languages, A and B, we have both formal and semantic similarities equivalence in these languages we have one form in language A and different form in language B for the same meaning correspondence e.g. 1 Do you drive? No. equivalence Da li vozite? Ne. 2 Present Perfect (English) preterit (Serbian) correspondence present (Serbian) language A: source language language B: target language
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup Relations Convergent relation is the situation when we have 2 or more items in language A that corresponds one item in language B in the same segment of reality. e.g. 1
A (English) earth land soil ground country B (Serbian)
zemlja
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A (Serbian) ujak stric tea
B (English) uncle
Divergent relation is the situation when we start from 1 item in language A and relate it to items in language B, in the same segment of reality. e.g. 1 at (P)
A (English) Shes good at driving. Hes at home. They are at seaside. at someones expense at all costs at the steering wheel B (Serbian) Ona je dobar voza. (zero) Ona je kod kue. Oni su na moru. o neijem troku po svaku cenu za volanom
several
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A (English) me
B (Serbian) mene meni mnom
1 to 1 relation 1 word in language A and 1 in language B

A (English) I have brought by bag. B (Serbian) Doneo sam svoju/*moju torbu.
e.g.
Partial correspondence partial because while translating some parts of the original language are lost e.g. 1
A (English) They have arrived. They arrived.
B (Serbian) Stigli su. /
Zero relation no equivalent in language B in the form of one lexeme

A (Serbian) apsolvent B (English) /
e.g.
Strong and weak versions of CA in foreign language teaching Strong (1950s, 1960s) systematic comparison between languages A and B at all levels (pronunciation, meaning etc.) we should be able to predict the difficulties in teaching or learning foreign language linguistically different = difficult unrealistic because of psychological reasons: motivation of the group, linguistic competence/previous knowledge, intellectual abilities linguistic reasons a) interference: influence of native language b) intrusion: influence of foreign language, wrong analogy e.g. *buyed, avoiding similarities Weak much simpler than strong comparison may help to observe possible difficulties in teaching e.g.
A (English) // sat B (Serbian) /
Verb as a Part of Speech

Oldest definitions a) Aristotle: rhema is a verbal element in a clause (anoma is the nominal element) which indicates a time reference and represents the predicate b) Dionysius Thrax: rhema (verb): a part of speech without case inflection, but inflected for tense, person and number, signifying an activity or process performed or undergone c) Verro: a class with tense inflection d) Prescian: verbum (verb): the property of verb is to indicate an action or being acted on; it has tense and mood forms, but is not case inflected Criteria and approaches to these definitions a) Aristotle used criterion of function of the verb in a clause (predicate) and of meaning using tense b) Dionysius Thrax used criterion of form (morphology) and of meaning c) Verro also used criterion of form (morphology) and of meaning d) Prescian used criterion of meaning This means that we can have formal, functional and semantic criterion or definition of a verb. 1. Formal criterion or definition of a verb in English: morphology (inflections and word-formation) -s, -ed, -en, -ing; to infinitive Positive sides: explicit, we specifically indicate which infinitive Negative sides: a) irregularities e.g. *be + -s/-ed b) modal verbs e.g. *can + -s/-ed/-ing 2. Functional criterion or definition of a verb verb is the main part of the predicate, predicator (Adj and N could be parts of predicate) it depends on a verb whether we have one kind of predicate frames: a) The man is pale. copula/Cs b) The man brought the book. Vt c) The man ran quickly. Vi Negative sides: we can use Aux with lexical verbs but they cannot be the main part of a predicate so Aux are excluded from this definition 3. Semantic criterion or definition of a verb the meaning of the verb a verb is a part of speech that denotes activities, processes and states less explicit than the formal definition because not everybody would realize what an activity, process or state is Negative sides: a) Aux dont denote action, process or state but they have grammatical meaning, not lexical b) possible polisemy: the same verb would or might denote activity and state e.g. They think that Tom is cleaver. state They are thinking about having a coffee. activity General definition of a verb Verb is a part of speech which has inflections for tense, person and number and possibly mood and voice. 7
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup Conclusion about the definitions we actually need a combination of all Verb is a part of speech which is inflected for tense, person, number and possibly mood and voice, has the function of a predicate in a clause and denotes an activity, process or state.
Morphology of the English Verb

Inflection 4 suffixes and no inflectional prefixes and irregularities 4 suffixes: -s: Present Simple 3rd p.sg. -ing: Present Participle, Progressive Aspect (with be) ambiguity: e.g. His paintings are very expensive. derivational inflection -ing -ed: Past Simple -en: Past Participle, Passive, Present/Past/Future Perfect Finite and non-finite verb forms tense, person and number finite participles and infinitives non-finite Regular verbs 5 deferent forms e.g. to walk, walk, walks, walking, walked Irregular verbs 4 or 6 different forms e.g. put (4): to put, put, puts, putting take (6): to take, take, takes, took, taking, taken Aux and irregularities 9 different forms e.g. to be idiosyncratic: not formed regularly by adding suffixes e.g. * be + -s bes Aux and non-finite forms Be e.g. He is being examined by the doctor. aux (Present Participle) She has been examined by the doctor. aux (Past Participle) He will be working. aux (Bear Infinitive) They seem to be working. aux (To Infinitive) You are being silly. Vlex/copula be as an Aux has all non-finite forms Have e.g. Having done that, she left. aux (Present Participle) He seems to have done it. aux (To Infinitive) She will have done it. aux (Bear Infinitive) They had had lunch. aux (Past Simple, finite form) They have had much. Vlex Aux doesnt have Ven but lexical verb does
Do doesnt have any as Aux e.g. They are doing their homework. Vlex She has done her homework. DO-operator: we dont really use non-finite forms Weak forms in an unstressed position syllabic: has to have a syllable or i.e. a vowel non-syllabic: doesnt have a syllable or i.e. a vowel Strong Weak m m,s / m,s am z s,z is hv v,v have l l ,l shall Word formation different morphological processes e.g. blending, derivation Simple and Complex Verb Structure simple: 1 clause, 1 predication, 1 Vlex (+Aux) e.g. have done, could have visited complex: 2 or more Vlex with subordination, predication, clause e.g. [Helen wanted][to see the results]. non-finite clause Tests: 1. TNP (Time marking, Negation, Passivization) Tests a) Time marking there should be a possibility for each Vlex to be marked by time e.g. 1 Ben seems to have seen Kate. 2 Vlex: seems: -s for time have (Aux): time-marking (have seen precedes seems) 2 Lin intended to visit them the next day. 2 Vlex: intended: -ed for tense to visit: have (Aux) is not possible 3 Tom wants to see the results. 2 Vlex: wants: -s for tense to see: have (Aux) is not possible There are 2 ways to mark time: tense suffixes and have (Aux) if the other Vlex is preceding. b) Negation Vlex cant be negated in all clauses e.g. 1 Nora doesnt like that book. theoretically possible with some modals 2 Brian prefers not to answer them. 3 Brian doesnt prefer to answer them. 4 Laura doesnt prefer not to go there. theoretically possible; grammatical because we have 2 negations in 2 clauses 5 ? Bill cant not see them. both possible and not possible; 2 negations with one Vlex; with modal+Vlex 2 negations are theoretically possible c) Passivization 10
voice neutrality: when active and passive sentenced have the same factual meaning; we can change the emphasis but not the factual meaning e.g. 1 Bill has seen Mary. Mary has been seen by Bill. 2 Kate is writing a book. A book is being written by Kate. 3 Bill wants to meet Mary. Vlex+Vlex n-f *Mary is wanted to meet by Bill. Mary wants to be met by Bill. passivization of subordinate clause Bill wants to be met by Mary. Bill wont meet Mary. modal Vlex (simple structure) Mary wont be met by Bill. When we passivize, we cannot skip Vlex, we have to pay attention to ? future (voice netruality) will volition (no voice neutrality) 2. Subject and Complex Verb Structure simple: Aux + Vlex complex: Vlex + Vlex n-f e.g. The water runs down the street. The water is running down the street. The water may run down the street. Aux can be inserted without any influence on the S. The water intended to run down the street. Insertion of Vlex influences the S semantically so it is semantically incompatible. The water kept running down the street.
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Classification of Verbs
different criteria for classification monomorphemic (Vlex) a) linking or copulative b) non-linking (direct/indirect) syntactic because has something to do with the structure semantic Aux and Vlex criteria: syntax and meaning meaning: Vlex have lexical or referential meaning; they denote concepts from the physical world and Aux have grammatical meaning Syntactic Behaviour (NICE properties) 1. Negation we can attach not to the Aux but not to Vlex copula be (exception) e.g. He isnt a teacher Infinitival clause e.g. I prefer not to ask him. infinitives are negated by not Negative and semi-negative adverbials e.g. They never stayed long. We seldom went that far. 2. Inversion placement of Aux in front of NP in questions Discontinuous VP in questions we have something in between e.g. Are they leaving? May he go? *Works he? Vlex cant be placed in front of NP Aux cant be placed in questions, Vlex can Non-interrogative inversion (NII) not in questions 2 types: a) with Vlex e.g. [Into the room] walked the president. place adverbial [In the corner] stood an armchair. place adverbial in literature, not in everyday conversation usually used with verbs of position and movement with Present or Past Simple
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup b) with Aux e.g. Seldom have they seen such a sight. Rarely have I been treated like that. caused by negative adverbials which come in initial position such as hardly (ever), not often, at no time, not till, not one (word) etc. e.g. Not a single word did he say for an hour. In no way am I responsible for that. Only on very rare occasions does he give you a word of praise. adverbials e.g. Through the fog loomed an eerie castle. Away went the coach and horse. Up went a mountain of luggage onto the racks. Exercise: 1. In non of his books Dickens (show) grater understanding of human heart than in Bleak House. 2. Not a soul (meet) as I walked there. 3. The pirate ship lay far out. 4. I wouldnt offend you on no account. 5. The car sped round the corner. 6. The children scrambled into the coach. 7. A pheasant rose out of the bushwood. 3. Code avoiding the repetition of Vlex instead, we use Aux in code, not to repeat Vlex, in specific contexts e.g. I can visit the and so can she. so is context You saw them as did we. as is context Yes, I did. in answer Yes, you may. Helen knows where Russell is, but Peter doesnt. we can use Aux but not Vlex 4. Emphatic affirmation emphasis not fully reliable test because sometimes Vlex can also be used for emphasis e.g. You must see that film. I do like it.
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uses: a) emphatic affirmation of doubtful statements b) denial of negative e.g. 1 Im not sure we can get there on time. doubtful statement We can get there on time. 2 I dont want to go there. You must go there. denial of negative we use both Aux and Vlex for emphasis c) question tags only Aux, not Vlex e.g. *They play tennis, playnt they? similar to code because we dont repeat Vlex e.g. They have never tried, have they?
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Primary and Secondary Auxiliaries

primary: be, have, do secondary: modals differences: a) semantic: primary have meaning, while secondary have modality (no Vlex except for need and dare) b) morphosyntactic: modals dont have infinitives, -s and finite forms while primary Aux can be used as Vlex on the basis of this division we can create a paradigm of the English VP primary paradigm: combination of primary Aux and Vlex secondary paradigm: combination of secondary Aux and Vlex Primary Paradigm positive declarative only, 3rd p. sg. only be and have, not do Active 1. takes / / 2. took / / 3. is / talking 4. was / talking 5. has taken / 6. had taken / 7. has been taking 8. had been taking Passive 9. is / / 10. was / / 11. is / being 12. was / being 13. has been / 14. had been / 15. has been being 16. had been being modal meaning is not included e.g. He is to arrive tomorrow.
/ / / / / / / / taken taken taken taken taken taken taken (?) taken (?)
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup Secondary Paradigm Active 1. will take 2. would take 3. will be 4. would be 5. will have 6. would have 7. will have 8. would have Passive 9. will be 10. would be 11. will be 12. would be 13. will have 14. would have 15. will have 16. would have
/ / / / taken taken been been / / / / been been been been
/ / taking taking / / taking taking / / being being / / being being
/ / / / / / / / taken taken taken taken taken taken taken (?) taken (?)
for some Aux e.g. must, we dont have all 16 forms because they dont have past forms with can and could, could is not always used for past
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Lexical Verbs
syntactic criteria (structures in which they occur): a) linking or copulas e.g. appear, look, become, prove, feel b) non-linking: Vt and Vi complementation (Cs and Co) semantic criteria a) dynamic b) stative
Criteria: 1. change or development, segments 2. internal and external velocity, input of energy 3. 3 basic phases: initial stage, process or development, final stage or end to initiate a state, we need some input of energy e.g. buy a house DYN, input of energy to own a house ST, no input of energy velocity can be: a) external (the flow of time) b) internal (inside the situation) DYN: external and internal velocity which dont have to be the same ST: external is the same as internal only DYN have these 3 phases but not all DYN have all 3 stages e.g. jump momentary verb (not all 3 stages) walk durative verb 4. prediction of behavior ST: we know that we cannot do something in syntax Definitions Quirk, fundamental discussion about DYN and ST verbs (because it influences syntactic behavior of verbs) Dynamic: verb situations requiring an input of energy implying change, sometimes motion, development and phases Stative: verb situation without motion, development, just existence in time without segments Dynamic verbs a) activity verbs e.g. drink, eat, learn (S is agent) b) process verbs e.g. change, grow, widen (S is patient) c) verbs of bodily sensations e.g. ache, hurt d) transitional event verbs e.g. arrive, die, fall, leave e) momentary verbs e.g. jump, hit, kick semantic criteria overlapping (activity and movement verbs)
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duration as criteria a) durative: activity verbs, process verbs, verbs of bodily sensations b) momentary: verbs of bodily sensations, transitional event verbs, momentary verbs Stative verbs a) verbs of perception or sensation e.g. see, hear b) verbs of cognition and emotions e.g. believe, dislike, think c) relational verbs e.g. belong, consist, contain, possess, resemble polisemy e.g. think dynamic (process) or stative (opinion) syntactic behavior (general tendencies): a) Progeressive aspect e.g. She is leaving/*knowing a language. He is buying/*owning a house. progressive implies process while stative verbs dont b) Imperative e.g. Learn/*Know that language! Buy/*Own that house! at the beginning we need some dynamic to get in certain state but not to be in that state exception: e.g. Know that we have access to that! know=be aware of c) force someone to do something e.g. They forced her to learn/*know that language. d) some adverbs of manner (speed, willingness) e.g. He learnt/*knew the language quickly.
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Vendlers Classification
4 groups: a) activities b) states c) accomplishments d) achievements criteria: meaning and syntactic behavior syntactic tests a) for x time/in x time (PP, adverbial of time) for x time: duration in x time: duration + goal e.g. He walked for an hour/*in an hour. b) how long did it take to V? e.g. How long did it take to paint a picture? *How long did it take to walk? no goal in take to walk c) if one stops Ving, one did V e.g. If one stops running, one did run. If one stops painting, one did paint a picture. stopped before completion kind of conditional, interested in logical consequences Activities (ACT) Dynamic verbs which have structure and successive segments. These segments are qualitatively equal and any segment can represent the whole situation. There is no cumulation, growth goal, natural limit and there is duration. e.g. run, drink, swim no goal tests: a) *in x minutes e.g. *He walked in 10 minutes. implies a goal for x minutes e.g. He walked for 10 minutes. b) *how long did it take to V? e.g. *How long did it take to walk? how long did someone V? e.g. How long did they walk? duration c) if one stops Ving, one did V segments are equal, we can stop at any time States (ST) States dont have structure or development, there is just lasting in time with no input of energy. They have possible duration. e.g. desire, know, possess
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tests: a) *in x minutes b) *how long did it take to V (no goal)? but e.g. How long did they possess a car? c) if one stops Ving, one did V d) *carefully, deliberately, quickly, etc.
the same as activities
Accomplishments (ACC) Accomplishments are dynamic situations which have structures and segments but not of equal quality. They have cumulative development, growth and their segments can acquire a new quality, e.g. while writing a poem, every segment is different. They also have goal, final and terminal point, natural end and duration. They are VPs since they have goal. e.g. paint a picture, draw a circle, run a mile
tests: a) in x minutes b) how long did it take to V? c) *if one stops Ving, one did V (we have to include NP in VP) activities dont have goal and accomplishments do Achievements (ACH) Achievements are momentary verbs with only brief segments and goal. e.g. find, kick, jump
tests: a) in x minutes b) how long did it take to V? c) *if one stops Ving, one did V (not applicable because its momentary verb) ACC vs. ACH e.g. 1 How long did it take to find the key? ACH (how long was the finding) How long did it take to paint a picture? ACC (duration) 2 She found the key in 5 minutes. ACH She painted the picture in an hour. ACC
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup Distinctive features Vendler didnt use those features Brinton 1988: 29: stative, durative, goal, voluntary we exclude voluntary
+/ACT ST ACC ACH

stative + -
durative + + + -
goal + +
- stative = dynamic verbs - durative = momentary verbs + durative = possible duration (cant last for minutes or hours)
Contexts and Vendlers types one English verb may belong to more than one type depending on the context e.g.read there are ambiguities of some verbs even without a contexts ACT, ACH and ST are lexemes while ACC are VPs telicity = having a goal (adj. (a)telic) contexts: 1. Direct Object (Od) present or absent structure (article, determiner, countable or uncountable) e.g. 1 He drank. ACT He drank beer. ACT (beer is not a goal, no determiner) He drank a/the beer. ACC (beer with determiner is goal and is countable) 2 She read. ACT She read books. ACT She read a/the book. ACC (book with determiner is goal; duration) 3 They owned a car/cars. ST (NP doesnt change anything) - ST are not influenced by Od tendencies (not rules) a) VACT + Det + N(S) = VP ACC e.g. He drank a beer. b) VACT + N(S)/NUNC = VP ACT e.g. He drank beer. c) VST + NP=VST e.g. They owned a car/cars. 2. Verbs with prefixes, phrasal verbs and copulas prefixes e.g. live-outlive by adding a prefix we add a goal build-rebuild cook-overcook e.g. like-dislike ST remains ST even with prefix
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phrasal verbs e.g. eat-eat up ACC, buy adding a particle up/out we add a goal find-find out both momentary verbs, both ACH different influence of the particle copulas e.g. turn red ACC, some kind of change grow old ACC become rich ACC Vendlers Article Vendler, Z. (1957/67) Verbs and Times topics 1. Time schemata presupposed by various verbs (e.g. hit vs. know) 2. PROG in English (I am running/*I am possessing a car) 3. Successive phases (run) or no phases (know) 4. Terminal point (run vs. draw a circle) and telicity 5. Segment of situation as the representative of the whole situation 6. ACT, ST, ACC,ACH 7. Habits as states? 8. Generic and specific states times: a) external time (present/past/future) b) internal time/ time schemata: temporal patterns inside a various situations temporal patterns (inside the verb): a) distribution of possible segments b) if the segments are there or not c) if the segments are equal or not d) if it has a goal or not he thinks that the notion of time is very significant for verb and believes that patterns could serve as criteria for classification ACT (atelic) a) + prog ACC (telic) verbs b) - prog ST ACH with ACT any subtract of e.g. run represents the entire situation ACC have terminal point or goal ACH: we can use them as progressive but with the meaning of repetition (of segments) e.g. He was jumping. He climbed that mountain in 2h. ACC (duration of climbing) He reached the top of that mountain in 2h. ACH (duration of climbing before reaching a point) ACT are habit forming e.g. Are you smoking? not habit Do you smoke? habit and sounds like state You are a smoker. if we repeat an ACT long enough it might become a ST generic ST 22
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup longer period of time, includes several different activities e.g. to rule to drive a cab specific ST (ACT but some state in different meaning; you just drive, no dozens of ACT) specific ST: smokers, painters etc. generic ST: educator, ruler some examples cannot be classified by this classification Suddenly, he was standing on a short turf, on a summer evening when the slanting rays of the sun glided the ground. The landscape he was looking at recurred so often in his dreams that he was ever fully certain whether or not he had seen it in the real world. In his walking hours he called it the Golden Country. 1. stand: ambiguous without a context ST e.g. The building stands ACT e.g. He was standing (+animate S, + duration, - goal) 2. glide: ambiguous without a context (not morphologically marked) ACH e.g. The sun glided (if it happened in a moment) ACC telic, if it happened in a period of time 3. look: ACT (+animate S, + duration, - terminal point) ST e.g. They look fine. (+ animate S, - volitional) 4. recur: ACH (+ repetition) 5. see: ST e.g. Some animals can see in the dark. e.g. He can hardly see without his glasses. ACH e.g. He had seen it (+ animate S) 6. call: ACH e.g. to call someone ST e.g. to use the name ...probudio me vedar susret...naiao je deak, kidao je cvee i bacao iznad glave, gaao ptice, izvikivao nerazumljive rei.. Ugledavi me, umirio se i poao u stranu. Nisam spadao u njegov svet. Vendlers tests (Serbian) a) in/for x time = za x vreme/x vremena b) how long did it take to...? = koliko dugo je trebalo da...? c) if... 1. probudio: ACH e.g. Probudio se za 10 minuta. 2. naiao: ACH 3. kidao: ACT e.g. Koliko dugo je kidao? 4. bacao: ACT e.g. Ako neko prestane da baca, on je bacao. 5. gaao: ACT 6. izvikivao: ACT 7. ugledavi: ACH 8. umirio: ACC e.g. Umirio se za 10 ninuta. 9. poao: ACH 10. spadao: ST 23
almost e.g. Chris almost walked. ACT (wanted to talk but didnt) Chris almost painted a picture. ACT (began painting but didnt finish) almost doesnt affect the change of type Conclusion (English-Serbian) In Serbian there are morphological markers at the lexical level-prefixes. Exercise: 1. fall (ACH: goal, one moment); His work falls into 3 parts. (ST-relational) 2. grow up (ACC: takes time, goal) 3. make (ACT + Od ACC); It makes sense (ST) 4. buy (ACT, ACH) 5. sleep (ST) 6. say (ACH)
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Be as an Auxiliary and as a Lexical Verb

Auxiliary Be progressive aspect, passive, modal-like function modal-like function: obligation, arrangement e.g. They are to arrive tomorrow. constructions with non-finite forms, only Present and Past Simple (*be to, *being to) uses of modal-like function: a) order, command, prohibition Present Simple, impersonal way or 2nd p. sg. and pl. for order, negation-often prohibition e.g. You are not to leave this town. b) plan, arrangement for future e.g. We are to meet tomorrow. They were to be married in June. in the past, not necessarily realized c) past events following other past events e.g. She was to make amends later. d) possible, reasonable, unavoidable e.g. He feels certain that this is not to be. Mistakes were to be expected. set expressions: be + infinitive e.g. Kate is to blame. (to be blamed) The house is to let. (to be let) *Helen is to praise. *The house is to sell. Lexical Be copula or linking V to connect S and Cs similar to become e.g. Barbara is well-educated. progressive aspect: temporary behavior e.g. He is being silly. is: Aux, being: Vlex finite and non-finite forms e.g. She is being polite. present participle They have been very tired. past participle non-linking verb to exist and similar e.g. Therefore, I am. Vi Where sensitivity is, conflict is absent. Vi no object or complement
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Have as an Auxiliary and as a Lexical Verb

Auxiliary Have perfect aspect, modal-like function (have to, necessity, obligation) perfect aspect: NICE properties only modal-like function: NICE properties and sometimes DO e.g. Does he have to go? Has he to go? Lexical Have a) stative verb b) dynamic verb c) causative Have and affected S a) Stative verb possession and similar, of mental and physical features and material objects relations and connection e.g. They have a new house. She has blue eyes. This room has 3 windows. have got: more colloquial in BrE characteristics: a) weak forms e.g. Ive plenty of time. b) can be replaced by have got e.g. Hes got some money. c) NICE properties and also DO more colloquial e.g. I havent any money. Have you any money? I have a pencil and so has he. code standard English e.g. I dont have any money. Do you have any money? I have a pencil and so has he. d) not in passive e.g. *Some money is had by me. e) e.g. The shop hasnt any ice cream. dont have it now The shop doesnt have ice cream. dont sell it at all f) e.g. The shop assistant hasnt any ice cream, but it does have ice cream. dont have now, but do sell ice cream in general
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup b) Dynamic verb variety of meanings, experience, achievements etc. e.g. They had sandwiches. ambiguity: had (DYN) or carry They have a holiday. They have a good time. They have a child. They have difficulties. collocations e.g. *have an eat have a drink/meal characteristics: a) no weak forms e.g. *Shed a baby. b) no NICE properties DO e.g. *We hadnt a holiday. *Had you a good time? Did you have a good time? c) passive only exceptionally e.g. Breakfast can be had at 7. A good time was had by all. *A sleep was had by him. *A child was had by them. c) Causative Have and affected S make someone do something someone suffered something e.g. He had all the prisoners punished. She had her bag stolen. ambiguity: causative (organized or possessed it) e.g. He had a book stolen from library.
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Grammatical Categories Related to Verbs

grammatical category: a system of two or more elements which denote a grammatical meaning basic categories: tense, aspect, modality, voice
Modals
definition: speakers attitude mood ,traditional grammar, inflections indicative, subjunctive, imperative speakers attitude or opinion: certainty, doubt, wish, order, request, etc subjunctive in subordinate clauses: verb and structure in the main clause e.g. Its high time markers of subjunctive in English mood in English: in the specific contexts, not fully productive modality, modals to distinguish statement of fact and speakers assessment of possibility, ability, necessity etc. modal structures: contain a modal non- modal structures: dont contain a modal more regularly used than subjunctive in English Characteristics: a) modal meaning: possibility, ability, obligation b) + bare infinitive, except ought to c) no -s d) no non-finite forms e) pasttense forms f) always first in VP g) they dont co-occur in the same VP (in standard English) h) no imperative e.g. *May! i) Dare and Need are also Vlex Uses a) epistemic b) deontic c) dynamic every modal has its own meaning but these 3 are general modal logic explains modality and proposition proposition: indicates a situation that is denoted b y a verb and participants; simple declarative clause modality: presence or absence of modal and the meaning that it introduces; speakers attitude e.g. Kevin may visit us. proposition: Kevin visits us. modality: may (possibility) one and the same modal may belong to more than one group
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup a) Epistemic use (EP) episteme (gr.) = knowledge possibility, necessity modals: may, must, will, should, can e.g. That will be your sister. It is possible that it is your sister. They should be on their way home now. You cant be serious. It is possible that is used to replace a modal b) Deontic use (DE) deont (gr.) = something obligatory permission, obligation, other promise modals: may, ought to, can, shall, should, need usually performative, influencing someones behavior e.g. I pronounce you husband and wife. someone is permitted or allowed to do something e.g. He can go now. c) Dynamic use (DY) ability, willingness, habit modals: can, could, will, would e.g. Susan can help you to sell that computer. They will sit for hours watching TV. = They have the habit of sitting for hours. Someone is able/willing to do... can replace a modal something about S (ability, willingness, etc.) EP vs. DP e.g. 1 He cant be here. (I dont believe it) EP It is not possible 2 He should be here. (He has an obligation) DP He is permitted 3 He wont be here. (He is ill) EP 4 He must be here. (Its an order) EP/DP 5 He must be here. (Theres his hat) EP 6 He should be here. (He doesnt live far) EP 7 He may be here. (Thats my guess) EP EP, DE and DY uses and Time Marking, Negation and Voice tendency to behave in certain way prediction of syntactic behavior if the modal is EP we can guess how to mark tense (past), negation or voice a) Time Marking EP 29
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup proposition, not modality, normally marked for past Have as a marker e.g. David may have seen him yesterday. It is possible that David saw them yesterday. modality in present, proposition in past problems in: e.g. 1 Tom may have been hurt. Tom might have been hurt. might: a less direct attitude, a lower degree of possibility on unreality, possibility nor realized; not marked for past! 2 She may have had an accident. possibility still exists, we are not sure She might have had an accident. might: unreality; we know that luckily she didnt have an accident; the possibility existed in the past but was nor realized DE usually neither modality nor the proposition marked for past but it refers to now, not the past e.g. 1 Robert may come. performative, past 2 He might come in. =He is allowed to come in (- past) He may come early. have to: semi-modal (obligation, + past) 3 He ought to have done it. EP necessity He should have paid the bill. EP necessity have to as semi-modal e.g. He will have to arrive on time. proves that this is semi-modal because modals cant co -occur EP necessity: conclusion about something on the basis of circumstances, conclusion that something is necessary DE obligation: something that is planned
DY e.g. Kate could run 10 miles with ease when she was younger. =She was able to run Kate could have run 10 miles with ease when she was younger. EP (possibility in the past not realized; could denotes unreality, not past) b) Negation EP either modality or the proposition can be negated (not at the same time) e.g. Helen cant be in her office. =It is not possible that Andy may not be in his office. =It is not possible that
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DE either modality or the proposition can be negated (not at the same time) e.g. Kate may not come now. =Kate is now allowed to come now. (modality negated) Lenny may not go swimming. =Lenny is allowed not to go. (proposition negated) DY modality usually negated e.g. Ken cant run 10 miles. =Ken is not able to run 10 miles. (modality negated) c) Voice EP and DE used modals are voice neutral e.g. Tom may meet Mary on the train. Mary may be met by Tom on the train. DY used modals are usually not voice neutral e.g. 1 Martha can speak Japanese. ?Japanese can be spoken by Martha. not fully unacceptable but awkward 2 Ron can beat Roger. EP (possibility)/ DY (ability) Roger can be beaten by Ron. EP (not voice neutral) Discuss: e.g. 1 Sarah may visit them tomorrow. EP/DE Sarah may be visiting them tomorrow. EP (no voice neutral) 2 He cant be working. EP (possibility) They will tell awful lies. DY (habit) Michael must be working. =It is certain that he is working. EP (possibility)
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Can, Could
ability to do something, permission to do something, possibility, characteristic behavior Secondary meanings a) ability/capability (DY) be able to, be capable of, know how to 2 kinds: physical e.g. He can lift that box. mental/learnt skill/knowledge e.g. She can type very fast. They can speak Swedish. could as past restricted or general ability, not specific standard English, not colloquial could depends on the meaning we have to think about the meaning general ability e.g. She could read Latin and she was 10. (general ability; habit in past, not specific single occasion) The ship sand and they *could/were able to/managed to swim to the shore. (specific occasion when negated) He could pass the exam. (but he didnt; could does not refer to past, but present ability) He was able/managed to pass the exam. He could have passed the exam. (EP, not ability anymore, possibility existed in past but was not realized) specific past ability if negated e.g. *They ran fast and could catch the bus. (not negated, specific, not grammatical) They ran fast, but couldnt catch the bus. (negated, grammatical) Robert was so drunk that he couldnt find the front door. (negated, grammatical ,specific) I could almost reach the branch. (implicit negation; enough to be negated, grammatical; didnt managed to) b) permission (DE) more often in colloquial style but my be formal be allowed to, be permitted to e.g. You can go have fun. You cant smoke near a petrol station. could as past general permission the past e.g. When she lived at home, she could watch TV whenever she wanted to. (lived is past, so could has to be in past too) particular permission if negated e.g. We could bring our dog to the restaurant. (often regularly, in single occasion is not acceptable) Mike could see her yesterday evening. (he was allowed to) more tentative requests (present, future) e.g. Could I borrow your dictionary? Can you pass me the salt?
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup c) possibility (EP) both can and could for present possibility or likelihood usually theoretical possibility, not factual ( may and might usually factual) e.g. Accidents can happen. (theoretical possibility; generally speaking, not specific occasion) Measles can be dangerous. (theoretical possibility; generally speaking, not specific occasion) Will you answer the phone. It could/may/might be your sister. (factual) They cant/couldnt be hiding anymore now. (factual) This could be your big chance. (factual) past: could have Ven e.g. 1 You have helped them. (possibility in the past, not realized) He could have been delayed by the fog. (possibility in the past, not realize) 2 The money has disappeared; who could have taken it?(we dont know what happened, possibility) can have Ven (rare; questions, negation) e.g. 1 Where can she have gone? She cant have gone to school. 2 We could see him at any time. (present) We could have seen him at any time. (past) d) Characteristic behavior characteristic or habit, something typical e.g. Children can sometimes be restless. That area can be very warm in September. (- animate) be able to is not used instead; could is used for past e.g. She could be very unkind at times. ambiguous, refers to: a) tentative present (both present or past; less direct; possibility in the present) b) habitual past Secondary uses a) questions (surprise, impatience) e.g. What can he mean? What on earth could that be? b) with verbs of perception hear, feel, taste, smell, etc e.g. I can hear you. =ujem te (no full meaning of possibility or ability) I could feel pepper in the soup. could is used for past or tentative present c) in reported speech can shifts to could if the reporting verb is in the past
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May, Might
contracted negation: mightnt, *maynt Primary meanings a) permission (DE) be allowed to, be permitted to usually speakers permission, not extended to general permission can is less formal e.g. You may smoke in this room. (speakers permission) You can smoke in this room. (general permission) asking for permission e.g. May I do smoke? Ill have another biscuit, if I may. might in questions: greater degree of hesitation or uncertainty about the answer e.g. Might I borrow your PC? (less directly, more polite) might in past: only in indirect speech (be allowed/permitted to is used instead), not for direct speech e.g. 1 He said that you might borrow his book. 2 They were allowed to/*might take every afternoon off last week. (general permission) might for asking a permission, usually not for giving permission e.g. Might I have some more tea? Yes, you may/*might. b) possibility/probability (EP) usually denotes factual possibility e.g. 1 The gun may be loaded. =It is possible that the gun is loaded 2 The road can be blocked. =It is possible to block the road. (general possibility) The road may be blocked. =It is possible that the road is blocked. (factual possibility) 3 He may fly to Barcelona next week. (factual possibility) We may be moving to Thessaloniki soon. (factual possibility) They might get a job in the spring. (factual possibility but no to certain might) might usually not used in questions about possibility e.g. *May it rain? =Is it likely to rain? might has a lower degree of possibility than may e.g. She might arrive soon, but its doubtful. (lower degree of possibility) He may/might tell his wife. (higher/lower degree possibility; might increases doubt) may have Ven: past e.g. They may have lived there. (possibility existed but we dont know) What was that noise? It might have been a cat. (might expressed lower degree of possibility) might have Ven: past + more tentative active e.g. You might have told me. (implication of reproach) may/might Ven also speculations about past e.g. 1 He came home alone. You shouldnt have let him do that; he might have got lost. 2 You shouldnt have drunk that wine; it may/might been poisoned. (may: we dont know; might: we know that it wasnt poisoned) 3 Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might have been quicker. (possibility existed for something else) 4 You might be right. (possibility, but I doubt it) 5 Take your raincoat, it may rain. (possibility exists) Youd better take your raincoat, it may rain. (possibility, but not likely) 34
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup 6 Clair may have gone to the cinema. Clair might have gone to the cinema. (we are not certain, more tentative) 7 He may/might have heard it from Kate. (may have: possibility neutral; might have: lower degree of possibility) might have Ven a lower degree of possibility unreality, nonrealization Secondary uses a) wishes and hopes (health, success) e.g. May you both be happy! May the New Year bring you all you wish! b) suggestion e.g. He may come with us. c) reproach e.g. They might have phoned him. =Ba su mogli da ga zovu. d) consession (although, though, but condition) e.g. He may only be a shopkeeper but hes well educated. e) surprise, impatience e.g. Who may you be?
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Must, Have to
Primary uses a) strong obligation, compulsion (DE) must: speakers awareness of the obligation; at least with partial agreement have to: external obligation, imposed by external authority and circumstances e.g. Vivian gas to practice the piano every day. Ken must stop smoking. (speakers awareness) 1st p. sg/pl: self-compulsion e.g I have to/must work from 9 to 6. must in questions: the hearers authority or asking about someone elses intentions, wishes, etc. e.g. Must I answer all these letters myself? Must I clean all the rooms? have got to: informal, more in BrE must: mo morphological past tense form in direct speech: had to or must e.g. He reminded us that we must be back on time. negation: do not have to, do not need to, neednt V e.g. We dont have to be back at 10. You neednt work tomorrow. must not: prohibition e.g. You mustnt play with ? b) necessity (EP) in affirmative sentences e.g. You must be tired. They must be having dinner now. speakers conclusion after reasoning in questions and negatives can or cant/cannot e.g. What do you think this letter can mean? You cant be hungry. =Its not possible that you are hungry. have to is less frequently than must in this meaning e.g. There has to be a mistake. =It is possible that There cannot be a mistake. =It is not possible must have Ven: past e.g. You must have heard it. =Its highly possible They must have been here. a high degree of possibility, it is highly probable Secondary uses a) something is desirable, advisable e.g. When you come to Barcelona, you must visit Sargada Familia. (advice) b) annoyance, disapproval e.g. Must you take that dreadful noise? He must come and worry her with questions.
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Shall
shall vs. should: no modal meaning; shall means present and should means past shall often combines future and modal uses but there are some typical modal meanings Modal meanings a) a speakers determination/decision 2nd and 3rd person subjunctive formal, rare in spoken language, found in legal documents e.g. You shall obey his order. Every citizen shall be face to choose her/his job. b) speakers intention, obstinate attitude 1st person subjunctive e.g. We shall let you know our decision. I shall do it if I want to. c) threat, command e.g. They shall be punished. d) questions (offer, command) e.g. Shall we have coffee outside? in reported speech we use should for past
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Should
discussed separately, no direct present-past relation within one meaning between shall and should (except in indirect speech) Meanings a) obligation, duty (DE) speakers awareness, conscience not necessarily to be fulfilled, like a recommendation e.g. 1 You should attend lectures regularly. They shouldnt work so much. 2 I must/should practice at least an hour a day. (should: external obligation) no past because they are performative obligation in past: had to b) necessity, possibility (EP) not very high degree of certainty e.g. Tom should be here soon. The plane should be landing soon. should have Ven: past usually possibly not fulfilled or fulfilled but it was not desirable (negated) e.g. She should have finished her book last week. (not finished) Ben should have arrived by now. (we dont know what has happened) They shouldnt have told her the truth. (realized but not desirable) not with assumptions displeasing the speaker e.g. Lets not go shopping now. The shops will/*should be crowded. Lets go shopping now. The shops will/should be fairy empty now. c) putative should specific contexts, both in the main and subordinate clauses specific modal use: less directly expressed doubt, surprise, disapproval, a slower degree of possibility polite attitude its a pity/strange/odd/lucky/surprising that after verbs expressing sorrow, joy, surprise, wonder, etc. if clauses for tentative condition (unlikelihood) e.g. Its a pity that he should drink so much. How should I know? (surprise, annoyance, impatience) If the phone should ring, please let me know. Ill get some beer in case uncle should come. (low probability) Should you see Helen, give her my regards. d) offer, suggestion e.g. Should I help you with the dishes?
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Ought to
rare, more frequent in BrE than in AmE meanings similar to should, but with a stronger sense of obligation both ought to and should denote a lower degree of confidence and necessity than must more objective necessity than should (speakers opinion implied) e.g. I must/should/ought to pay for the broken window. (must: obligation; should: desirable; ought to: in between must and should) Primary meanings a) obligatory, duty (DE) e.g. He ought to phone his parents tonight. (strong recommendation) You oughtnt work so much. no past, performative b) necessity (EP) e.g. That ought to be enough fish for 2 persons. Larry ought to be here soon. ought to have Ven: past e.g. He ought to have gone to school. (necessity, but we are not certain) You ought to have told Sarah the truth. (something was not done in the past, regret) Secondary meanings e) advisable e.g. You ought to see that film. in reported speech no change e.g. She said we ought to be there soon. in question tags to is omitted e.g. They ought to see a doctor, oughtnt they?
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Will, Would
Primary meanings a) willingness, determination (speakers or someone elses) (DYN) stressed, not shortened to ll e.g. He will have his own way. (not only future but modal of willingness) would: past for general willingness, not concrete situation or when negated e.g. 1 He wouldnt help me yesterday. He would have his own way. *I invited him to the party and he would come. I invited him to the party but he wouldnt come. 2 All he would do was say he was shy. (implicit negation) subject: inanimate noun e.g. The door wont open. The car wont start. speakers irritation, subjects resistance b) characteristic behavior, habit repeated willingness e.g. She will leave that door open. They will sit for hours watching TV. You will keep forgetting things. (critical attitude) would for past e.g. When we were children, we would go skating every winter, similar to used to e.g. I used to/would go to Africa often when I was younger. c) probability (EP) e.g. This will be the book youre looking for. This will be the road to the station. would is not past, just more tentative present (lower degree of possibility) e.g. He wouldnt be a friend of yours, I suppose? That would be their house. will/would have Ven: past e.g. That will/would have been our cousin Kim. That would have been the postman. d) order (DE) performative, usually for irritation, annoyance e.g. You will wait here until I return. Will you sit down! Secondary meanings a) general truths e.g. Boys will be boys. =Deaci k'o deaci. Accidents will happen. general truths vs. characteristic behavior general truths is characteristic without implication of repetition characteristic behavior can change b) polite requests or offers e.g. Would you come in now? (present) 40
Need
a modal, auxiliary and lexical verb Lexical need transitive, followed by to infinitive or NP, inflected meaning require want no NICE properties (we have to use the DO-operator) e.g. Laura needs a new dress. He didnt need that money. Do I need to answer that question? He needs to work more. They needed to get up early. Auxiliary need followed by bare infinitive NICE properties in negative and interrogative clauses only meaning: necessity, obligation e.g. He neednt visit us. (lexical version: He doesnt need to) Need he visit us? (lexical version: Does he need to) negative adverbials, implicit negation e.g. He need hardly say how much he enjoyed the party. You need never wait for us. need vs. must & ought to e.g. 1 You must get a haircut. 2 You need to get a haircut. (lexical version: *You need get a haircut) 3 You ought to get a haircut. speaker expressing his/her authority, pointing to the fact and necessity negated auxiliary = absence of necessity e.g. You neednt do that. You mustnt do that. (prohibition) in questions, sometimes (not always!) no is expected as an answer and lexical need is not emotionally colored (neutral) e.g. 1 Need I take the exam in February? 2 Do I need to buy anything for lunch? lexical verb is inflected for past: needed auxiliary verb is inflected for past: need have Ven negated past: different implications e.g. He didnt need to pay for that both. (lexical verb: situation did not take place because it was not necessary) She neednt have filled the glass, than in wouldnt have spilt. (auxiliary verb: situation did take place but it was unnecessary) e.g. We didnt need to take an umbrella. (lexical verb) We neednt have to take an umbrella. (auxiliary verb)
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup sometimes difference in the present tense: e.g. 1 The hedges neednt be trimmed this week. (auxiliary verb; absence of obligation) The hedges dont need to be trimmed this week. (lexical verb; absence of necessity) 2 Need you wake him up? sometimes the meaning is the same, but 1st one is more neutral Do you need to wake him up? reported speech: needed (lexV) and neednt or didnt have to/had to (auxV) e.g. 1 You neednt wait. He said that I neednt/didnt need to wait. 2 Need I finish my soup? He asked if he had to finish his soup.
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Dare
lexical verb and auxiliary rare Lexial dare transitive, to infinitive Meanings: a) to challenge e.g. He dared me to jump! I dare you! b) to take a risk e.g. Few men dared this experiment. (inflected, to infinitive, Vt) this meaning also with the auxiliary dare as a lexical verb can also be used with bare infinitive in affirmative, interrogative and negative clauses (rare, literary) e.g. 1 He dares do it. He dared do it. 2 He dares to do it. He dared to do it. Auxiliary dare questions and negatives not inflected has NICE properties bare infinitive e.g. Dare he do it? He darent do it. He hardly dare ask. (implicit negation) reported speech: dare or dared e.g. Cora told me that she darent tell the truth. Mary wondered if Tom dare(d) come. dare with will/would e.g. No one will dare (to) oppose. I would almost dare (to) shout. Ving e.g. He left the house, not daring to call anybody.
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Conditionals
speakers attitude about possibility in some conditionals modals are used Definition and structure a complex sentence with 2 clauses, the main clause and the subordinate clause structure: If A than B a causal link between 2 situations indicating dependence of the situation on the main clause on the realization of the if-clause Basic division 2 types: a) real the speaker/writer merely states that the dependency exists, specifying what will happen if something else happens for the future: he/she does not declare that the condition will or will not be realized, leaving that issue open for the past: he/she specifies that something was realized of it is highly likely to have been realized b) unreal speakers/writers or general doubt about the possibility for the realization of the condition in the if clause not just indicating dependency, but also doubt for the future: implication that it is highly unlikely that the condition will be finished for the past: implication that the condition was not fulfilled Basic patterns a) with or without a conjunction the 2 clauses are usually linked with a conjunction (if, unless (negative condition), so long as, as long as, suppose/supposing, provided that, on condition that/ in case) e.g. You wont catch the train, unless you take a taxi. So/as long as you return the book by Friday, Ill lend it to you. Suppose/supposing your friends new that, what would they think? Hell accept the post provided that/on condition that the salary is satisfactory. Youd better take an umbrella in case it rain. without a conjunction e.g. Were you in my place, would you do the same? Had she known that, she would have Should he be late again, he will be dismissed. (real conditional: will is not possible in unreal; putative should) b) modals in the if-clause no future modals (shall/will) in the if-clause will and would for willingness, not future e.g. If you will/would/ wait a moment, Ill ask the doctor to see you. If you will/would/ help us, well succeed. other modals also possible: can, could, must, should e.g. If you can get here soon, well have enough time for some tea. If you must act the fool, please go away. I she should arrive, let me know. 44
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup Real conditionals basic combinations of verb forms in the if-clause and the main clause\
If-Clause present present present past past present perfect modal past perfect* Main Clause present imperative future past future future future/imperative past perfect Temporal Reference present/all time/future present/future present/future past future future future before past
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
*theoretically possible but unlikely; real, before past; context: another past situation which follows e.g. If the weather is fine, he walks to his office. (1) If you are thirsty, buy some juice. (2) If he said that, he told lies.(4) If Vivian left London 2 hours ago, she will/can/must/may reach Brighton at 3 oclock.(5) If Dan has repaired the car, well/can drive to the seaside on Sunday.(6) If harry will come to the party, Beth will be delighted. (7) If you must go, go! (7) If Peter had arrived, Helen had left. (8) Unreal conditionals just the following 3 combinations of tense forms
1. 2. 3.* If-Clause past past perfect past perfect Main Clause would + bare infinitive would have Ven would V Temporal Reference present/future past if: past, main: present
* mixed type other modals can be used, not just would the main clause has to contain a modal (modal enables to recognize that it is an unreal conditional) e.g. If Kevin left London this morning, he would be here at 2 oclock. (1) If you had bought the thickets in advance, you would have seen that film. (2) If Mona had gone to college, she would be a doctor now. (3) If you had taken mu advice, you wouldnt be in such a mess now. (3) other modals in the main clause are possible e.g. If Ben had arrived, Kate could have left. If he worked hard, he could pass the exam. Types of conditionals in addition to basic division (real-unreal) conditionals could also be divided into the following types (Palmer): a) predictive b) implicit and elliptic c) whenever d) inference 45
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup a) Predictive direct causal link for particular situation; this is the most frequent type divided into real and unreal all elements are specified: if-clause and main clause b) Implicit and elliptic all elements are not specified, some parts are omitted implicit if-clause is omitted, it is implied or understood from the context e.g. In fact, I would have said that Barcelona was worth going through. (if you had asked me) It would be very nice. (the pronoun it implies a condition; if that was done or attempted) I wouldnt be in such a hurry. (if I were you) explicit a part of the main clause is missing, usually Ill tell you e.g. If you are going out, its raining. If you want to know, I havent seen her. the missing part is understood and makes a logical link between the main clause and the condition specified clauses d not express cause and effect, there is no proper semantic link without the omitted part of the main clause c) Whenever habitual situation, not a specific single occasion if=whenever e.g. If it rains, I go by car. If it rained, I went by car. Whenever rained, I went by car. d) Interference indicates drawing conclusions rather than causality both clauses are false and not possible ironical comment, disapproval e.g. If hes the prime minister, I am a Dutchman. Serbian equivalence ako, da, kada, ukoliko without a conjunction e.g. Bude li se popravio, ii e s nama. Popravi li se, ii e s nama. English real conditional-translations e.g. If he knows that, hell tell us. Ako on to zna, rei e nam. English unreal conditional-translations e.g. 1 If I were in your position, I would accept that offer. Da sam na tvom mestu, prihvatio bih tu ponudu. 2 If he had been there, he would have done the same. Da je bio tamo, uinio bi to isto. Exercises 1. We don't have any matches, so we can't light a fire. If we had any matches, we would light a fire. (present, real) 2. The shop didn't pack the goods properly, so the got damaged. If the shop had packed the goods properly, they wouldn't have damaged. 46
Voice
also called diathesis Active, Passive and Middle the basic voice opposition in modern English is active and passive in some language (e.g. modern Greek) there is the third member-the middle middle denotes activities which the subject does on himself; similarly to English reflexive verbs some linguists believe that in Proto-Indo-European language the basic voice opposition was activemiddle, which had different suffixes (as today Greek); passive later developed the middle was used to denote position (like verbs sit, lie) or emotional states (feel, fear, rejoic) which the speaker can't control in Proto-IE active was used to denote processes outside the speakers, in the objective world, which the speaker can control English Active, Passive and Markedness passive as the marked member (markers: be + Ven, possible by agent, specific word order) sometimes get is used instead of be only transitive verbs can be passivized, all verbs are active active is more frequent (unmarked) Definitions of voice relatively difficult to provide the definition which would cover all the cases a) D. Crystal, A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics voice includes the change in the relation between the grammatical subject and object without changing the factual meaning of the sentence relation between the doer of the action and the sufferer grammatical subject is not the agent, it is passivized change of emphasis or arrangement in information reflexive and causative structures as a degree of the active-passive scale reflexive NP1(S) V reflexive pronoun subject is the agent and the patient specific subject-object relation in-between active and passive causatives subject is the initiator, object may perform the action as the actual doer act pass e.g. have someone do something b) B. Comrie, Language Universals and Linguistic Typology writes thar voice allows other semantic roles than the agent to appear as the grammatical/formal subject in passive, we assign some subject properties to the patient rather than to the agent (verb agrees with the patient/subject, initial position, inversion in questions) some linguists also write about the verb and its arguments (participiants in the situation) e.g. The child broke the vase with a hammer. 47
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup The hammer broke the base. (semantic roles don't change, only syntactic function) The vase broke. semantic relations between the verb break and the NP the vase are the same but the syntatic functions change (object in subject position, even the instrument can come in subject position) passive is a structure requiring a non-agentive subject passive impulses the rearrangement of verb's arguments other arguments/semantic roles can also fill the subject position in passive (recipient, instrument, location) e.g. The Mayor was written a letter. (recipient) The waiter was left a tip. (recipient) This bed has been slept in. (location; PP passivized into VP) semantic roles: specified in the lexicon for every verb-arguments) e.g. Sam broke the window. The window broke. (subject position filled by the patient) The wind broke the window. (subject position filled by the cause) semantic roles are sometimes difficult to establish e.g. He met her. They met. (he, her: co-agents) They met each other. They were met by somebody. (someone met them; patient and object) ambiguity e.g. Mona fell. (experiencer) What happened to Mona? (experiencer) What did Mona do? (agent) causatives e.g. Nathan walked the horse. (initiator, performer) The horse walked. (agent) Nathan made the horse walk. (initiator, performer) subject: not agent e.g. 1 Detergents sell well. (patient; lexical passive) They sell detergents. 2 The books sold quickly. (patient; books were sold their quality) The books were sold quickly. (patient; morphologically marked passive; someone was skilled in selling books) c) Quirk et al, A Grammar of Contemporary English passive makes it possible to view the situation of the sentence in two ways, with the change of meaning voice includes 2 levels: VP and clause level d) Palmer, The English Verb the meaning is not always the same in passive e.g. 1 Every student read one book. One book was read by every student. 2 Many students didn't read that book. (more negative implication) That book wasn't read my many students. (more positive implication) examples with quantifiers (e.g. every) slightly change the meaning functional sentence perspective discuss the arrangement of information in a sentence 48
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup familiar/predictable into first (topic, theme) than new/less predictable (comment, theme) passive makes it possible to place the object in the initial (thematic) position-topicalization e.g. I met my old friend. She is said to be a successful lawyer. (something familiar; topicalization) stylistic difference, how to link causes Summary To define passives one should take into account both syntactic and semantic levels. syntactic: the passive formula NP1 (S) Vt NP2 (Od) NP2 be/get Ven (by NP1) sentences with passive meaning but without this pattern e.g. The door open. (not covered by the passive formula, no by NP1) semantic: roles should be also included The category of voice deals with the repetition between the syntactic function of subject and object on the one hand and semantic roles of agent and patient (and other roles) on the other. passivization provides the means to change the emphasis or to make a different arrangement of factual information a combination of syntactic and semantic definitions is necessary
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Transitivity
the notion comes from traditional grammar; the activity starts from the subject and passes to the object animate/human subject-inanimate/nonhuman object human subject do something and transfer something to the nonhuman object this process in traditional grammar is seen as transition it is not always the case e.g. 1 Wealth attracts robbers. (animate) I hear you. (starts from object and subject receives something) 2 Nick moved the stone. Nick moved. The stone moved. (lexical passive: -animate; active morphology) agentivity connected with animacy animate nouns are usually doers inanimate subject is not agent transitivity is a necessary condition for passivization so, typical transitive structure is the one with the direct object (NP1 Vt NP2) Basic characteristics of direct object (Od) a) NP or clause that follows the verb (if the object direct doesnt intervene) b) in most cases it can be passivized c) typically patient d) selected by the verb (Vt requires O) e) usually affected/created by the subject e.g. They danced all night. (not an object; even though NP follows, the V cannot be passivized) They went that way. (not an object; even though NP follows, the V cannot be passivized) Who did you see? (precedes the V) Harry resembles Lionel. (Od but cannot be passivized) Barry is a lion-tamer. (Cs, cannot be passivized) Shawn gave Lisa a book. (Oi and Od) Tim became an actor. (Cs, cannot be passivized) Out went the light. (S) some do do not have all the basic characteristics (e.g. do with resemble) e.g. He weighed 75 kg. (Cs) The greengrocer weighted the potatoes. (Od) How much did he weight? (question for Cs) What did he weight? (question for Od) in addition to the division into transitive and intransitive verbs, there are also terms one-place, twoplace, three-place predicates which denote intransitive verbs, transitive verbs and ditransitive ones this traditional classification into intransitive and transitive is not adequate Transitive and intransitive uses of verbs a more complex classification of English verbs is into: a) transitive only (contain, make) with structure NP1 Vt NP2 (NP1 and NP2 are different) e.g. This box contains sugar. 50
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup b) reflexive verbs (dress) with structure NP Vt Reflexives direct object is a reflexive pronoun S=Od e.g. She dressed herself. c) cognate verbs (laugh a laugh, sing a song) with structure NP1 Vt NP2 cognate direct object with a noun morphologically and semantically reflected to the verb e.g. He laughed a very loud laugh. d) intransitive only (sleep, vanish) no direct object e.g. He slept. e) with or without Od (read, write, cook) verb can be used with or without direct object, usually with no difference in meaning e.g. They read. They read a letter. direct object is usually semantically understood from the context f) ergative verb (move, open) subject is typically the patient correspond transitive only (a) structure where the object of the verb is the same as the subject of the ergative structure e.g. The door opened. (ergative construction) Kevin opened the door. (transitive only construction) g) causative verbs e.g. Norman walked the horse. (causative construction) The horse walked. (the horse is performer) subject is the initiator sometimes, there is a correspondent contraction in which the object of the causative structure becomes the subject of the intransitive verb construction Functions of passive several reasons to use passive, basically for clause of emphasis or arrangements of information basic functions: 1. agent is unknown, irrelevant, obvious or there is no agent really; English does not allow subjectless clauses, so the clause is passivized and the object fills the subject position e.g. The first effective railway was opened at the end of the 18th century. (agent is irrelevant) Irenes car has been stolen. (agent is unknown) 2. authors modesty or impersonal style (in science, etc.) e.g. Another difficulty must be mention. It wasnt done intentionally. (indirect apology) 3. stylist reasons, to avoid inadequate linking of clauses (change of subject better style) e.g. 1 When he arrived home, a detective arrested him. When he arrived home, he was arrested by a detective. 2 When their mother was ill, the neighbors looked after the children. When their mother was ill, the children were looked after by the neighbors. 4. long or coordinated subject (NP or a clause) + short predicate e.g. Profitability will be depressed by weak demand at home and abroad, by worsening competitiveness and increasing cost pressures. 51
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup Weak demand at home and abroad, worsening competitiveness and increasing cost pressures will depress profitability. 5. animate nouns refers than inanimate nouns in the subject position e.g. A bus has just ran a man down. A man has just been run down by a bus. Restrictions on passivization even with the structure NP1 Vt NP2 passivization is sometimes not possible several groups of restrictions: I. Verb restrictions a) some transitive verbs are active only (fit, hold, lack, suit) e.g. 1 This bottle holds oil. *Oil is held by this bottle. Oil is held in this bottle. 2 The thief was held by the police. b) some transitive verbs are passive only (to be said/reputed to (with non-finite clause)) e.g. Barbara is said/reputed to be good actress. *They said/reputed Barbara to be a good actress. They said Barbara is a good actress. II. Object restrictions a) correspondence between subject and object (reflexives and reciprocals) e.g. 1 Noah could see himself in the mirror. *Himself could be seen in the mirror. Noah could be seen in the mirror/ 2 We could hardly see each other in the fog. *Each other could be hardly seen in the fog. b) clausal object sometimes cant be passivized (finite and non-finite clauses) e.g. 1 People believe that witches communicate with the devil [That witches communicate with the devil] was widely believed. It was widely believed what witches communicate with the devil. The witches were believed to communicate with the devil. 2 Nobody knew 3 Berry hoped to meet her. *To meet her was hoped by Berry. 4 Wendy enjoyed seeing him. *Seeing him was enjoyed by Wendy. conclusion: finite verbs can be passivized, non-finite cannot III. Noun phrases from adverbials, idiom and subject complements not passivized, with some exceptions in PPs: e.g. This bed has been slept in. These cubs can be played quite easily. Participial Adjectives and Past Participials some adjectives have the same form as past participial (Ven) such as amazed, astonished, disappeared, frightened, surprised, etc. when used after to be they occur in the structure similar to passive e.g. This problem is complicated. (complicated is adjective very complicated) to distinguish participial adjectives from past participials (PPt), there are several tests: 52
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup 1. Morphological tests a) adjective, not past participial, can have comparison e.g. *more written b) derivational suffixes are added to adjectives e.g. 1 negation: *unbought, unhappy 2 -ness for nouns: happiness, *boughtness 3 -ly for adverbs: nicely 2. Syntactic tests a) adjectives can be preceded by very e.g. very happy *very written b) adjectives can be coordinated with other adjectives e.g. rich and happy *happy and written c) adjectives can precede seem and become as subject complements e.g. They seem happy. *They seem written. d) attributive use with adjectives e.g. a complicated problem *a put cup however, not all adjectives have these features e.g. *unblue, *blueness, *bluely, *more absolute happy passes all the tests hit as PPt does not pass the tests (*hitter/*more hit, *very hit) these distinctions are significant for the classification into types of passive Types of passive in addition to typical active and passive constructions, there are also constructions which are inbetween with specific characteristics depending on the structures (be+Ven) and semantic roles, on English there is a passive scale including: scale 1. pseudo passive 2. semi passive act pas 3. statal passive 4. lexical passive I. Pseudo passive pseudo=false has be+Ven structure but it is not passive because Ven is adjective e.g. The problem is complicated. tests: a complicated problem, the problem seems complicated, the problem is very complicated, difficult and complicated be+Cs, not passive e.g. Tom complicated the problem. The problem was complicated (by Tom). typical passive, somebody made the problem complicated, it is not complicated itself
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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup other examples: e.g. 1 The room is very crowded. not the same (cf.)People crowded the room. (typical adjective) 2 His reserves seem limited. (cf.) Someone limited his reserves. 3 She is young and sophisticated. Characteristics: a) no correspondent active sentence and no by agent b) Ven is adjectival and lexically restricted (has to be listed in a dictionary as an adjective) in some cases, Ven doesnt show all adjectival properties e.g. This article is concerned with phonetics. Harry seems prepared to help. no attributive use They are closely connected with his family. II. Semi passive Characteristics: a) there is an active sentence and by agent b) Ven is adjective e.g. He was embarrassed by her actions. Her actions embarrassed him. - tests: He was very embarrassed. He seemed embarrassed. He was embarrassed and angry. also: encouraged, shocked in some cases, not by, but other preposition when the subject is not the actual agent but has other semantic role (e.g. instrument: with) e.g. 1 They were all worried about the accident. The accident worried them all. 2 I was surprised at the behavior. Her behavior surprised me. 3 They are satisfied with his actions. His actions satisfy them. III. Statal passive relatively lasting quality/state resulting from a completed activity e.g. Somebody broke the window. The window was broken (by somebody). (typical passive) The window was broken. (statal passive) typical passive without by agent (passivized activity) or statal passive (resulting quality, a certain act was performed and a state was created) e.g. The theatre was closed. (typical passive) The theatre was closed by the police on the order of the mayor. When I got to the theatre, I found that it was closed. (also open) Characteristics: a) no corresponding active sentence b) no by agent c) Ven has adjectival properties but it is not lexically restricted ( close, cut, build, etc.) e.g. They were married at the church (by the priest). (typical passive) They were married for many years. (statal passive) 54
EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup adjectival properties: a married man (attributive use), married and happy (coordination) Ven not lexically restricted e.g. The trees are cut down. The exams are finished. The garden is dug. The troops were defeated and miserable. adjectival properties: the troops seems defeated, the defeated troops IV. Lexical passive based on structure and semantic roles no passive morphology (be+Ven); active structure but the subject is not the agent ergative verbs: a) verbs suggesting a change of state (break, burst, form, heal, melt, tear, transform) b) verbs of cooking (bake, boil, cook, fry) e.g. Im cooking the pasta. The pasta is cooking. c) verbs of movement (move, shake, sweep, turn, wake) d) verb involving vehicles (drive, fly, reverse, run, sail) e.g. 1 The window broke. (lexical passive; subject is patient) Tom broke the window. (corresponding active sentence, direct object is subject in lexical passive) The window was broken (by somebody). 2 The boy opened the door with a key. (3 semantic roles: agent, patient, instrument) 3 The door opened. *The key opened. *The boy opened. *The door opened with a key. The key opened the door. the patient has to be present in the structure, the instrument can function as subject only if the patient is present some lexical passives require adverbials to be grammatical e.g. These shirts wash well. They are selling like hot cakes. Small apartments heat easily. Someone bribed the bureaucrats. Bureaucrats bribe easily.
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EV Contrastive Approach

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EV Contrastive Approach

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EG 1-Kontrastivni pristup

Syntax as a Level of Linguistic Analysis

Contrastive Studies (CS)

Contrastive Analysis (CA)

B (Serbian) mene meni mnom

1 to 1 relation 1 word in language A and 1 in language B

B (Serbian) Stigli su. /

Zero relation no equivalent in language B in the form of one lexeme

Verb as a Part of Speech

Morphology of the English Verb

Primary and Secondary Auxiliaries

/ / / / taken taken been been / / / / been been been been

/ / taking taking / / taking taking / / being being / / being being

the same as activities

Be as an Auxiliary and as a Lexical Verb

Have as an Auxiliary and as a Lexical Verb

Grammatical Categories Related to Verbs

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