Mythic Mothers Dead Dolls

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC
BATES COLLEGE
Mythic Mothers and Dead Dolls:

Subversive terministic screens and the myth of sex trafficking
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of the Department of Rhetoric
Bates College
In partial fulfillment of the re uirements for the
Degree of Bachelor of !rts
By "arla #arie Cook $e%iston& #aine !pril ''& ()'*

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Acknowledgements First and foremost& I %ould like to thank my advisor& +an ,ovden& for her patience and support during this challenging process& for al%ays encouraging me to think more critically& and for helping me develop as a scholar and %riter- Thank you also to my academic advisor Stephanie "elley.Romano& for the years of support and guidanceThank you to my professors in Denmark for inspiring me to pursue this topic& and for giving me the ama/ing opportunity to speak directly to several anti.trafficking groups in !msterdam and S%eden about their advertising initiatives in 0astern 0urope- Thank you to my friends& for their humor and support throughout these past four years& for sho%ing critical interest in my %ork at every dinner conversation& and for pushing me to constantly re.ans%er the uestion1 %hat exactly is rhetoric2 Finally& thank you to my ama/ing family& for their love and endless supply of Starbucks cards-
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For 3at and Tom
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Table of Contents
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INTROD !TION
4n 3ovember '=& ())@& a group of young %omen gathered in a village meeting place in rural #oldova to %atch a screening of a S%edish art.house drama& Lil"a 4-e#er& created by controversial auteur $ukas #oodysson- The event marked the first efforts of the $ilAa *.ever Campaign& a sex trafficking a%areness initiative aimed at informing %omen in 0astern 0urope about the potential dangers of migration- Created by the International 4rgani/ation for #igration& an intergovernmental organi/ation %ith '6' member states& in collaboration %ith $a Strada International& one of the largest anti.trafficking coalitions in 0urope& the $ilAa *.ever Campaign hosts screenings and discussions of #oodyssonBs film throughout rural and urban #oldova-' Released in ())(& Aust a year prior to the launch of I4#Bs initiative& Lil"a 4-e#er tells the story of sixteen year.old $ilAa Cplayed by Russian actress 4ksana !kinshinaD& a young girl %ith the lofty hope of escaping her dead.end existence in an unnamed post. Soviet country-( #oodysson based the film on the true story of DanguolE RasalaitE& a $ithuanian teenager %ho %as forced into sex %ork in S%eden before committing suicide in ()))@- $ittle about RasalaitE is kno%n& but #oodysson borro%ed from her experience to create his o%n fictionali/ed account of sex trafficking in Scandinavia- #oodyssonBs $ilAa dreams of traveling abroad& a dream %hich seems to become a reality %hen she falls
1 "IOM Marks One Year of Lil a !"E#er in Mol$o#a%" IOM Mol$o#a% T&e In'erna'ional Or(ani)a'ion for Mi(ra'ion* 1+ No#% ,--!% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% , Lilja 4-ever% Dir% L1kas Moo$ sson% Pro$% Lars 23nsson% Perf% Oksana Akins&ina an$ Ar' o4 Bo(15&arsk % Sone' Fil4* ,--,% Fil4% 0 Gre5o* Fre$eri5o% "L1kas Moo$ sson6 Dire5'or of Lil7a !"e#er%" Cine1ro8a Ma(a)ine% N%8%* ,--0% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 5
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in love %ith !ndrei& a Russian man %ho claims to %ork in S%eden- !ndrei promises $ilAa he can find her a Aob picking vegetables abroad- She eagerly agrees to follo% him back to S%eden& but is met instead by an abusive pimp and imprisoned in a small apartmentForced into the sex trade %ithout means of escape& $ilAaBs resolve slo%ly dies a%ay- She eventually thro%s herself from a high%ay overpass bridge& ending her suffering in the same manner as RasalaitEThrough based on RasalaitEBs experience& Lil"a 4-e#er does not sho% a statistically accurate portrayal of the female migratory experience from 0astern 0urope to countries %ithin the 0-5- <lobali/ation has caused a significant increase in international female labor market participation- Female migration from 0astern 0urope to %ealthier nations %ithin the 0-5- in search of employment has become more common- For example& %omen from 0astern 0urope represent 6)F of the total immigrant population in Italy& and outnumber men from 0astern 0uropean countries by *6.;)F& depending on the country of origin- :omen from 0astern 0urope represent one of the largest and fastest. gro%ing migrant population groups %ithin the 0-5- * ! model created by sociologists Blangiardo and #enonna predicts that these numbers %ill only increase bet%een ()'* and ()@)& %ith %omen remaining the largest group migrating from 0astern 0urope to the 0-5-6 T%o of the main reasons behind this clear migration trend of %omen from 0astern 0urope are the economic and cultural factors %hich place %omen at a distinct disadvantage in 0astern 0uropean labor markets- = 5nable to attain %ork at home& %omen
! Mon'anari* Ar4an$o an$ S'anis5ial* Bar/ara% 9Fe4ale Mi(ra'ion in a C&an(in( .orl$% Eas'ern E1ro8eans in Cen'ral I'al *: Es8a5e Po81la'ions So5i;';s !< =,--<>6 ,,?",!1% @ Mon'anari* Ar4an$o an$ S'anis5ial* Bar/ara% ,,?",!1% + Mon'anari* Ar4an$o an$ S'anis5ial* Bar/ara% ,,?",!1% 6
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see the 0-5- as a place of opportunity and gro%thThough sex trafficking and other forms of human trafficking are significant issues related to female migration& they do not represent the average experiences of female migrants leaving their home countries to find %ork abroad- In ())6 alone& '?' million migrants left their home countries to find %ork abroad- 4f this figure& ?*-> million C*?-=FD %ere female migrants- !ccording to the 5nited 3ations& an estimated ?))&))) %omen are trafficked into sex %ork %orld%ide each year- > That means that of the estimated ?*-> million %omen %ho left their home countries& ?))&))) %ere trafficked into sex %ork-; This figure is not insignificant& but it also by no means represents the maAority of female migrants %orld%ideI4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign presents $ilAaBs tragic narrative as the standard experience of female migrants- Statistics indicate that most %omen %ho migrate from home are not trafficked into sex %ork& though $ilAaBs story depicts sex trafficking as the natural and inevitable result of deciding to leave home- I4#Bs campaign has sho%n the film to an estimated =)&))) %omen in #oldova since ())@- Though the education and income levels of the %omen in attendance vary& the film often serves as the only source of information about migration and human trafficking that these %omen have- The fictional film is presented as an accurate portrayal of failed female migration& despite the statistical inaccuracies present in this assumption- <overnment organi/ations and 3<4s have spent money producing ad campaigns aimed at informing %omen about the
? "H14an Traffi5kin(6 T&e Fa5's%" Ani'e$ Na'ions Glo/al Ini'ia'i#e 'o Fi(&' H14an Traffi5kin(% Ani'e$ Na'ions Offi5e on Dr1(s an$ Cri4e* n%$% .e/% B ".o4en an$ Men Mi(ran' .orkers6 .orkin( 'oCar$s ED1al Ri(&'s an$ O88or'1ni'ies%" In'erna'ional La/or Or(ani)a'ion% De5en' .ork* n%$% .e/% 7
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dangerous and signs of sex trafficking- !dvertising campaigns aimed at informing %omen in 0astern 0urope about the signs and dangers of sex trafficking rely upon narratives about migration %hich end inevitably in death- These narratives problematically omit the diverse socio.economic& political& and historical contexts under %hich %omen decide to migrate- Instead& the narrative is reduced to a simple progression %hich dra%s a simple conclusion1 %omen %ho migrate from home die abroad- Though campaigns like the $ilAa *.ever Campaign claim to promote safe female migration and empo%er young %omen to kno% the signs of sex trafficking& they have the subversive effect of discouraging any form of female migration:hen used as an educational tool in I4#Bs campaign& Lil"a 4-e#er functions as a myth to suture the social disruptions caused by globali/ation by encouraging %omen to remain home- <lobali/ation has created an unprecedented %ave of female migration to the 0-5-& particularly from former.Soviet states in 0astern 0urope- This exodus of %omen disrupts 0astern 0uropean societies by removing %omen from their place in the sphere of domesticity G a place %hich has become deeply reified& or naturali/ed& in 0astern 0uropean %orldvie%s- $ilAaBs story informs young %omen that their natural place is in the home- If they foolishly choose to leave home& like $ilAa& they %ill be faced %ith inevitable deathThe sex trafficking myth promoted by Lil"a 4-e#er offers insight into the pervasive gender.based cultural hierarchy %hich persists in modern 0astern 0uropean society- I %ill explore here ho% this hierarchy forms po%erful %orldvie%s& or terministic screens& about the nature of %omen- These screens are articulated by the myth of sex
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trafficking& %hich discourages female movement as the means to maintaining a threatened cultural order-
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C,!7T0R I1
A $REI% &I'TOR(
The most modern definition of human trafficking& according to the 5nited 3ations& is an extremely broad categori/ation of a variety of crimes involving G Hrecruitment& transportation& transfer& harboring or receipt of persons& by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion& of abduction& of fraud& of deception& of the abuse of po%er or of a position of vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the consent of a person having control over another person& for the purpose of exploitation- 0xploitation shall include& at a minimum& the exploitation of the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation& forced labour or services& slavery or practices similar to slavery& servitude or the removal of organs-I? It is clear from this broad categori/ation that human trafficking is a diverse& multi.faceted crime or series of crimes %hich tend to resist concrete definition- The presence of ambiguity in the international communityBs understanding of human trafficking makes it not only difficult to recogni/e& but also difficult to combat on both a national and international level- Scenarios of trafficking around the %orld occur under a vast variety of circumstances& driven by complex motivations and stretching out into an amalgamation of human rights abusesThe term Hhuman traffickingI %as not the term used to describe this phenomenon until '?('& %hen @@ countries in the $eague of 3ations signed the International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in :omen and Children- 5ntil then& the common term %as H%hite slavery&I %hich offered a problematically narro%& :estern.
< 9H14an Traffi5kin(% .&a' Is H14an Traffi5kin(E: T&e Ani'e$ Na'ions Offi5e on Dr1(s an$ Cri4e% n%$% .e/% 10
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centric scope on an issue prevalent %orld%ide- ') This ambitious ne% term %as intended to cover the entire spectrum of commercial human exploitation among people of all ages& genders& and nationalitiesBeing such a broad categori/ation& the definition of human trafficking is of particular interest to me as I examine the rhetorical implications of campaigns aimed at combatting this phenomenon- In the definition adopted by the 53& the HactI in an offense of human trafficking is Hthe recruitment& transport& and transferI of victims- The exploitation& forced labor& and slavery.like practices %hich occur as a result of this HactI are vie%ed as independent human rights abuses resulting from trafficking- So it is the person responsible for recruitingJtransporting the victim %ho is technically guilty of human traffickingK those responsible for the resulting abuse are vie%ed as guilty of separate crimesThis emphasis on the movement of the victim becomes important %hen human trafficking is examined alongside other movement.based crimes %hich often overlap %ith trafficking G in particular& human smuggling- Both smuggling and trafficking deal %ith the assisted transport of a person from their place of origin to a ne% location4ne distinguishing factor used by the 53 and a multitude of anti.trafficking non. governmental organi/ations to differentiate bet%een smuggling and trafficking is the presence of a victim- :hile smuggling is categori/ed as Ha criminal commercial transaction bet%een t%o %illing parties %ho go their separate %ays once their business is
1- AronoCi')* AleFis A% "S41((lin( an$ Traffi5kin( in H14an Bein(s6 T&e P&eno4enon* '&e Marke's '&a' Dri#e i' an$ '&e Or(ani)a'ions '&a' Pro4o'e i'%" E1ro8ean 2o1rnal on Cri4inal Poli5 an$ Resear5& <%, =,--1>6 ProG1es' So5ial S5ien5e 2o1rnals% .e/% 11
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completeI& trafficking ends %ith the exploitation of the transported person& %hether by the person %ho transported them or by another party entirelyThe most central distinction bet%een the t%o indistinct crimes tends to be %hat the purpose& or point of the movement is& from the perspective of the person facilitating the movement- The point of smuggling is the illegal crossing of borders G the smugglerBs aim is simply to move their charge- Trafficking& %hich fre uently deals %ith illegal border crossings but does not necessarily al%ays include them& has the aim of exploitation at the place of destinationK the trafficker facilitates the movement of their victim %ith the clear intent to exploit them& or pass them off to a party that %ill:hile the intent of the transportation seems to be a clear distinction in theory& it is more of a blurred line in practice- Smuggling and trafficking often appear very similar during most stages- Both deal %ith the facilitated movement of one party by another& from one location to another- !dditionally& smuggled people& much like victims of trafficking C94TsD& can also be subAect to debts& sexually exploitive crimes& and abuse- !s the 5-S- State Department explains& Ha person being smuggled may at any point become a trafficking victim&I making the distinction bet%een the t%o crimes extremely difficult to clearly demarcate- '' For this reason& statistics on human trafficking& even %hen coordinated globally bet%een governments and 3<4s& are extremely difficult to collect and confirmDespite the ambiguity and other difficulties surrounding identification of human trafficking cases& it is %idely ackno%ledged to be increasing in prevalence around the
11 "Fa5' S&ee'6 Dis'in5'ions Be'Ceen H14an S41((lin( an$ H14an Traffi5kin( ,--+%" A%S% De8ar'4en' of S'a'e% A%S% De8ar'4en' of S'a'e* -1 2an% ,--+% .e/% ,B Mar% ,-1!% 12
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%orld- It should be noted ho%ever that this statistical increase correlates %ith improved data collection cooperation internationally& so it is difficult to tell if the issue is becoming more %idespread or if simply more cases are being classified as trafficking!ccording to a fact sheet published by the 5nited 3ations& (-6 million people %orld%ide are currently living in an exploitive situation resulting from trafficking and an estimated 5SL @'-= billion is earned annually from their exploitation- 4f this figure& *@F of those trafficked are subAect to forced commercial sexual exploitation& and ?;F of those sex %orkers are female-'( :hile human trafficking is difficult to classify and reduce to a single chain of straightfor%ard offenses& there are a fe% basic elements usually present in a human trafficking scenario- ! recruiter selects a victim& gains their trust& and offers them %ork in another location %here such opportunities are said to exist- 9ictims of human trafficking G 94Ts G are often deceived about the type of %ork they %ill be performing or the pay they %ill be receiving& but become trapped in their undesirable ne% circumstances due to threats& fear of legal retribution for illegal immigration& or physical confinementThe countries of origin G the place %here the 94T is trafficked from G often fits the profile of an undeveloped nation or %hat the 53 refers to as a Hnation in transitionI& meaning they lack an economy developed enough to provide %ork- These countries often suffer from high rates of unemployment and unstable governments- !lso relevant to note about countries of origin is the presence of a gender hierarchy %hich traditionally and
1, "H14an Traffi5kin(6 T&e Fa5's%" Ani'e$ Na'ions Glo/al Ini'ia'i#e 'o Fi(&' H14an Traffi5kin(% T&e Ani'e$ Na'ions Offi5e on Dr1(s an$ Cri4e* n%$% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 13
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economically places %omen and children in places of submission& such as 0astern 0urope'@- The countries of destination tend to have more developed economies and stable governments& and most are found in :estern 0urope& :estern !sia& and 3orth !merica- '* There is no distinct profile of a recruiter G they are 6(F men& *(F %omen& and in =F of situations& men and %omen %ork as a team- They have a slight tendency to be strangers to the victim C6*FD& but they are almost Aust as regularly people previously kno%n to the victimK *=F of all cases reported that the trafficker had a previous relationship %ith the victim- Traffickers can be friends& significant others& or even family members- 7erhaps most easy to classify is the nationality of the trafficker compared to their victim1 there is a tendency for recruiters to be the same nationality as their victim- '6 0ssentially& there is no single statistically.supported profile of a recruiter& though advertisements %arning against sex trafficking usually use a male image to represent traffickers!nother significant point of ambiguity in trafficking situations& especially is situations of sex %ork& is the level of consent of the potential victim- Consent is often vie%ed starkly in sex trafficking situations G either a %oman is a consenting sex %orker or a coerced sex %orker G but it is actually riddled %ith gray areas and more accurately thought of as a spectrum- #any %omen trafficked into sex %ork %ere previously
10 Eastern Europe refers 'o '&e ,1 5o1n'ries of E1ro8e (eo(ra8&i5all eas' of '&e Aral Mo1n'ains6 Al/ania* Belar1s* Bosnia an$ Her)e(o#ina* B1l(aria* Croa'ia* C)e5& Re81/li5* Es'onia* H1n(ar * Hoso#o* La'#ia* Li'&1ania* Ma5e$onia* Mol$o#a* Mon'ene(ro* Polan$* Ro4ania* R1ssia* Ser/ia* Slo#akia* Slo#enia* an$ Akraine% 1! Human Trafficking: An Overview. Iol% 1% Iienna6 Ani'e$ Na'ions* n%$% Ani'e$ Na'ions Glo/al Ini'ia'i#e 'o Fi(&' H14an Traffi5kin(% Ani'e$ Na'ions Offi5e on Dr1(s an$ Cri4e* ,--B% 8(% !,% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 1@ ".&o Are '&e Ii5'i4s of H14an Traffi5kin(E" Ani'e$ Na'ions Glo/al Ini'ia'i#e 'o Fi(&' H14an Traffi5kin(% Ani'e$ Na'ions Offi5e on Dr1(s an$ Cri4e* n%$% .e/% ,? Mar% ,-1!% 14
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involved in sex %ork& migrate %ith the intention to %ork in the sex industry& and are exploited upon their arrivalK but because they %ere previously involved in sex %ork& they are denied the status of 94T and instead prosecuted for illegal migration or illegal sex %ork Cdepending on the legal status of sex %ork in the country in uestionD- In other situations& %omen %ho are trafficked into sex %ork develop a Stockholm Syndrome.like affection for their traffickers& captors or pimps- This phenomenon& called H$overboyI syndrome by anti.sex trafficking 3<4s& makes sexual exploitation extremely difficult to identify since the %omen in uestion do not believe that they are being imprisoned& exploited& or abused& and often say that they consent to the sex %ork that they are involved inThe issue of human trafficking& particularly sex trafficking of %omen& is complicated by a number of factors& including but not limited to uestions of consent& a fluid relationship %ith smuggling& a similarity to migrant sex %ork& and the lack of a defined profile for recruiters& traffickers& and captors- 7erhaps the largest issue surrounding sex %ork is the lack of a%areness in countries of destination %here sex %orkers are purchased& exploited& and enslaved- The 53 <ift G <lobal Initiative to Fight ,uman Trafficking G cites raising a%areness G Hdemonstrating to the %orld that human trafficking exists and mobili/ing people to stop itI G as the top priority for combating human trafficking on a global scale- '= In destination countries& 94Ts are often not considered to be a pressing issue& as most :estern 3ations tend to take a it can)t ha**en here + o,t o- si.ht/ o,t o- 0ind mentality1+ Human Trafficking: An Overview. !,"!0% 15
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Due to the lack of a%areness in the developed countries %here these %omen end up& particularly in countries %here sex %ork does not have a fully legal status& authorities are rarely a%are of the signs of sex trafficking and therefore are not actively seeking them out- It takes an incredibly blatant case of sex trafficking to catch the attention of the public in destination countries& such as the case of of DanguolE RasalaitE4n +anuary >& ()))& a young teenage girl Aumped from a high%ay overpass bridge in the affluent& relatively crime.free city of #almM in southern S%eden- !fter her death& three days later in a hospital& police %ere able to use the three crumpled letters G apparently suicide notes addressed to friends in $ithuania G in her pocket to identify her as DanguolE RasalaitE& a '= year.old $ithuanian %ith no S%edish 9isa %ho had entered the country %ith a false passport- The letters in her pockets relayed in frantic %riting that RasalaitE had been a victim of sex traffickingShe referred to a friend or boyfriend kno%n only as HThe RussianI %ho had helped her leave her poor circumstances in $ithuania on the promise of employment in S%eden at a vegetable farm- The child of an abusive father and a mother %ho abandoned her for the 5nited States& RasalaitEBs circumstances %ere poor and she %as desperate for an escape& she told friends- It %as apparent that she trusted and %as very familiar %ith HThe RussianI %ho promised her a better life& as she %rote happily to her grandmother of a man sheBd met %ho %as going to move abroad %ith her5pon arriving in S%eden& RasalaitEBs black.market passport %as taken by HThe RussianI and she %as imprisoned in a run.do%n apartment in !rlMv& a uiet city near #almM- ,er captors claimed that she o%ed them ()&))) S%edish kroner Caround 5SL
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@&)))D for her travel expenses and informed her that she %ould have to prostitute herself in order to earn the money- RasalaitEBs captors raped her on a daily basis& threatening her %ith violence and death if she attempted to reach authorities in S%eden- !lone& scared& and abused& RasalaitE %as forced to sell sex to clients in and around the affluent& lo%. crime area of #almM- :hen she %as able to escape from the apartment in !rlMv on +anuary >& she did not seek out authorities to help her& as she had been told by her captors that prostitution %as illegal in S%eden and she %ould be arrested and put into prisonSeeing no other alternatives of escape& she Aumped from a bridge:ith such little information on RasalaitE and her captors& the police response %as ineffective at identifying and prosecuting RasalaitEBs captors or those %ho had purchased sex from her- They %ere only able to conclude that HThe RussianI %ho trafficked RasalaitE is no% thought to have been a $ithuanian man named <idreus Caccording to neighbors in the apartment complexD& though he %as never further identified nor arrested-'> The apartment in !rlMv %hich police %ere led to by a phone number in RasalaitEBs pocket %as also prison to t%o sisters G "laudia and $ivia& '= and '@ years of age respectively G %ho informed police they %ere trafficked from the C/ech Republic and also forced into prostitution by <idreusDanguolE RasalaitEBs death made national ne%s in S%eden& %here stricter anti. prostitution la%s had been put in place Aust a year earlier& in '???- Driven by a gender e uality movement and public demand& the SlutbetNnkande frOn "vinnovOldskommissionen CThe Commission on 9iolence !gainst :omenD had Aust
1? B73rne/la$* Pe'er% "Hon T#in(a$es Bli Pros'i'1era$6 To( Li#e' A# Si(%" JS'o5k&ol4* SCe$enK n%$%6 n% 8a(% Af'on/la$e'% SCe$is& Tra$e Anion Confe$era'ion* ,, Mar% ,---% .e/% 1, Mar% ,-1!% 17
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overseen the passing of the "vinnofrid la%& called the 9iolence !gainst :omen !ct in 0nglish- The la% operated on the premise that prostitution %as an inherently gendered issue and reinforced a gender.based hierarchy& since %omen represent nearly all sex %orkers in Scandinavia- The la% did not put any kind of particular focus on the issues of migrant sex %ork or sex trafficking& but focused mainly on prostitution as an insular& domestic issue- It sought to eliminate the issue of prostitution by defining the purchase of sex as an act of violence& regardless if the person selling the sex consented or not0ssentially& it criminali/ed the customer& hoping to reduce the supply by %ay of the demand- '; RasalaitE became a uiet& enduring symbol of the %ork that %as yet to be done in sex trafficking- ,er story became embedded in the conversation about sex trafficking& reminding la% makers and the public that despite the lack of visibility& victims of forced sexual exploitation exist beneath the calm surface of developed 0uropean nations- Stories similar to her H$overboyI situation have become the dominant narrative in anti. trafficking campaigns& despite the fact that they are not representative of the entire scope of sex trafficking scenarios& only a small sliceIn ())(& Aust t%o years after DanguolE RasalaitEBs death& $ukas #oodysson& a S%edish auteur director famous for his social commentary and blunt portrayals of Scandinavian culture& released a film inspired heavily by RasalaitEBs story& Lil"a 4-e#er. ,is third feature& the film %as received extremely %ell by critics in both Scandinavia and
1B Ek/er(* G1nilla% "Pros'i'1'ion an$ Traffi5kin( in H14an Bein(s T&e SCe$is& LaC T&a' Pro&i/i's '&e P1r5&ase of SeF1al Ser#i5es6 Bes' Pra5'i5es for Pre#en'ion of Traffi5kin( .o4en%" Iiolen5e A(ains' .o4en 1-%11B? =,--!>6 1@% Sa(e P1/li5a'ions% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 18
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abroad& earning the young director international attention and acclaim- The film %as praised by the 3e% 8ork Times for Hnever feeling exploitiveI despite its scenes of graphic rape and brutal abuse'?#oodysson %as straightfor%ard about his inspiration for the film& citing a story in the ne%spaper about DanguolE RasalaitEBs suicide as spa%ning his idea for Lil"a. In %riting and directing a film about a young girl from an 0astern 0uropean country being trafficked into prostitution in a uiet S%edish suburb& #oodysoon %anted to illicit a strong reaction from his audience- H#y intention %as for the audience to Aust sit there and feel like they %ere being run over by a train&I #oodysson explains& Hand that they cannot really defend themselves- I donPt %ant people Aust to be sad and depressed- #ost people get angry- ThatPs really the reaction I %anted-I () Though the film highlights RasalaitEBs story as a failure of the S%edish prostitution la%s& #oodysson himself has stated the Lil"a is more a story about the failure of the 0uropean 5nion to properly manage immigration& and ho% draconian border measures spa%n horrible social conse uences& such as sexual exploitation- The film is also a comment on the disparity bet%een developing and developed 0urope& and ho% the gap bet%een the impoverished and the %ealthy nations only exacerbates poverty& desperation& and cultural back%ardness in 0astern 0urope- #oodysson told !ine,ro*a Ma.a1ine1 H8es& in part this film points the finger at S%eden& but the story of Lil"a 4-e#er is a
1< Hol$en* S'e8&en% "Lil7a !"e#er6 Ho8es Disin'e(ra'e In'o a Life of De(ra$a'ion%" T&e NeC York Ti4es% T&e NeC York Ti4es Co48an * 1B A8r% ,--0% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% ,- 2a4es* S'e#e% "A Mo#in( Por'ra al of '&e Tra(e$ S1ffere$ / Yo1n( R1ssians%" .orl$ So5ialis' .e/% In'erna'ional Co44i''ee on '&e Fo1r'& In'erna'ional* ,0 Ma ,--0% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 19
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result of the Bfree marketB that came as a result of the fall of communism- ! place %here everything can be bought or sold- I %anted to sho% the gap that exists bet%een the so.called free and rich countries and the poor ones- :e are all members of the 0uropean 5nion but each of us is doing everything in our po%er to close our borders-I(' #oodysson himself is kno%n for his outspoken politics and criticism of capitalismK directly prior to beginning %ork on Lil"a 4-e#er in ())'& he attended an anti.capitalist demonstration on <othenburg %hich stressed issues %ith disparities among nations in the 05- ,is criticism of capitalism as the cause of these disparities is evident in his latest film& Ma00oth C())?D& %hich deals %ith the fracturing of traditional family life& as %ell as the pressures to migrate and the difficulties facing people %ho decide to migrate- In Lil"a 4-e#er& the anti.capitalist themes are more subtle& reflected in the decay of 7ost. Soviet Russia& Hthe vile social conditions and unrelenting back%ardness that have come %ith gangster capitalism& %here children& like everything else& have become commodities to be looted-I(( Sex trafficking in 0urope& from #oodyssonBs perspective& is not only a result of the disparities bet%een rich and poor& but also the 05Bs regressive immigration policies %hich make legal migration nearly impossible- ,e also faults the lack of a%areness :estern countries have for the extreme poverty faced by people like $ilAa& living in 7ost. Soviet s ualor %ithout the means to better her lifeThe S%edish #inistry of Industry& 0mployment& and Communications took note of Hthe fingerI #oodysson points at S%edishJ:estern societyBs %illful blindness to%ard
,1 Gre5o* Fre$eri5o% "L1kas Moo$ sson6 Dire5'or of Lil7a !"e#er%" Cine1ro8a Ma(a)ine% N%8%* ,--0% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% ,, 2a4es* S'e#e% "A Mo#in( Por'ra al of '&e Tra(e$ S1ffere$ / Yo1n( R1ssians%" 20
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sex trafficking in $ilAa *.ever& and as a result they granted '-6 million S%edish kroner Caround 5SL (*)&)))D so all '=.'; year old students in S%eden %ould %atch and discuss #oodyssonBs film in school- The aim of these re uired educational film sho%ings& %hich took place in ())= Cfive years after the filmBs premiereD& %as to instill that the ideas of gender& class& and sexual e uality are essential for a Aust global society& and that sex trafficking and prostitution are inherently damaging to these concepts- <overnment researchers interested in studying discussions about gender among S%edish youth& recorded the classroom discussions follo%ing film vie%ings- The governmentBs goal in funding these films %as openly politicalK S%eden %as beginning an initiative to further promote de facto gender e uality in schools and reduce the sex trade in S%eden as t%o sides of the same coin-(@ 7rior to %atching Lil"a 4-e#er& the students self.reported no prior kno%ledge of sex trafficking being present in S%eden& vie%ing it instead as an issue affecting othersDuring the post.vie%ing discussion %hich took place in co.ed classrooms& the male students still marked the men purchasing sex as divergent Hothers&I despite the fact that they %ere S%edish& often middle.class men- The film vie%ing succeeded in reinforcing the idea that sex trafficking %as detrimental to gender e uality& but the students failed to see ho% the film connected specifically to S%edish society& ignoring #oodyssonBs narrative of 0uropean class ine uality %hich drives $ilAaBs desperation to leave Russia!dditionally& the student discussions never touched upon the relationship bet%een closed
,0 S8arr4an* Anna% "Fil4 as a Poli'i5al an$ E$15a'ional De#i5e6 Talk a/o1' Men* Male SeF1ali' an$ Gen$er a4on( SCe$is& Yo1'&%" Iis1al S'1$ies ,1%, =,--+>6 1+?"1B,% .e/% 21
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0uropean borders and sex trafficking G one of #oodyssonBs maAor points of the film- (* The S%edish governmentBs educational screening of Lil"a 4-e#er had the political purpose of positioning sex trafficking as a maAor artery of gender ine uality& keeping issues of female disempo%erment alive in Scandinavia- ,o%ever& the screenings reinforced one of #oodyssonBs maAor points of the film G that insulated :estern societies like S%eden are not only largely blind to the issue of sex trafficking& and also fail to connect socioeconomic disparities in 0urope and the closing of 05 borders to the continued onslaught of forced sexual exploitationS%edish classrooms are not the only place $ukaBs #oodyssonBs sex trafficking nightmare has been used for educational purposes- It is also used as a tool in 0astern 0uropean countries to %arn young %omen about the HrealitiesI of sex trafficking& and e uip them to Hkno% the signs-I(6 The International 4rgani/ation for #igration CI4#D launched a H$ilAa *.ever CampaignI in #oldova& aimed at sho%ing the film to young #oldovan %omen aged '*.@)& %ho live in rural poverty and lack high school.level education- Since its first screening in ())@& the campaign has reached an estimated =)&))) #oldovan %omen- The film often serves as their only source of information about trafficking and migration The $ilAa *.ever campaign has elevated #oodyssonBs film to a %idely.used educational tool about the dangers of traveling abroad and sex trafficking in 0astern 0urope- For example& members of the Russian police& or Duma& %ere re uired to %atch $ilAa *.ever to gain a greater understanding of the issue and identifyJprevent similar
,! S8arr4an* Anna% 1+?"1B,% ,@ "IOM Marks One Year of Lil a !"E#er in Mol$o#a%" IOM Mol$o#a% 22
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HloverboyI type situations in real life- (= Lil"a 4-e#er has been adopted by I4# Cand the other groups follo%ing their exampleD as a definitive resource about sex trafficking& though statistics about the demographics of 94Ts and recruiters do not support the male traffickerJfemale victim scenario as the average situationI4#& formed in '?6' follo%ing :orld :ar II to resettle displaced persons& is an intergovernmental organi/ation %ith '6' member states %hich aims to promote Hhumane and orderly policies in the movement of persons across borders-I I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign is also officially sponsored by the 5nited States government& the 0uropean 5nion& $Nkarmissionen CS%edish #edical #issionD and the government of #oldova- (> Though I4#Bs mission statement is to promote safe migration education through the $ilAa *.ever Campaign& many of the organi/ationBs member countries and its official government sponsors have advocated for regressive migration policies in recent yearsIn ())@& %hen the $ilAa *.ever campaign %as launched by I4# in #oldova& the 05 %as experiencing a significant spike in migration from nonmember countries in 0astern 0urope- In fact& the entire first decade of the (' st sa% a large influx of nonmember immigrants entering the 05& representing a '(F increase in migration from the previous decade- This %ave of immigration reached its peak in ());& %hen a staggering @-; million immigrants entered the 05 from nonmember countries- The largest group %ithin this figure %ere 0astern 0uropeans& representing '-; million of those seeking relocation-(; 4ver%helmed economically& socially& and culturally %ith this
,+ S15&lan$* 2ennifer% "Do1/le Fra4in( in Lil a !"E#er 6 SeF Traffi5kin( an$ Pos'so5ialis' A/7e5'ion%" E1ro8ean 2o1rnal of C1l'1ral S'1$ies 1-%11?? =,-10>6 n% 8a(% Sa(e P1/lis&ers% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% ,? "IOM Marks One Year of Lil a !"E#er in Mol$o#a%" IOM Mol$o#a% ,B Migrants in Europe !"" E#ition: A $tatistical %ortrait of t&e 'irst an# $econ# (eneration% ,-11 e$% 23
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unprecedented influx& the 05 began a shift to%ards policies %hich %ould restrict non.05 immigrants from entering Schengen- It makes sense then that a campaign like I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign %ould gain significant support from the 05 member countries- The campaignBs educational aim has the effect of discouraging %omen from 0astern 0urope from accepting offers to travel abroad& thus in theory reducing the number of non.05 female migrantsThe 05 is not the only government group to find political appeal in the $ilAa *. ever Campaign- 0astern 0uropean governments have spent the last decade struggling to prevent their populations from further d%indling due to heightened emigration- For over ten years& the number of emigrants leaving 0astern 0urope has far outnumbered the number of immigrants entering& resulting in the depletion of labor markets and the steady decline of the regions economies- (? Seeking %ays to keep their populations from leaving& governments like #oldova %ould see the $ilAa *.ever Campaign as a %ay to encourage people to remain at home by portraying emigration as an ill.fated& hopeless processThe $ilAa *.ever campaign emerged among a flood of anti.immigration policies and sentiments throughout 0urope- !s immigration from 0astern 0urope has continued to flo% into the 05& 0urope has %itnessed a dramatic shift to%ards regressive immigration policies- The heightened levels of immigration are directly related to the anti.immigration policies gaining popularity and becoming the over%helming maAority opinion- SynnQve 5gelvik& a researcher at the Department of 7ublic and International $a% at the 5niversity of 4slo& has been examining the push among 05 member countries
Bel(i146 E1roS'a'* ,-11% E1roS'a'% E1ro8ean Anion* ,-116 1!",-% .e/% 1- Mar% ,-1!% ,< Migrants in Europe !"" E#ition: A $tatistical %ortrait of t&e 'irst an# $econ# (eneration% 1!",-% 24
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to enact stricter immigration policies to discourage migration& stating that Hstricter control of foreign citi/ens is an unavoidable result of a more integrated 0urope-I @) ,e explains1 HThe foreigners and the poor are seen as a security risk- 4pen borders and globali/ation create more uncertainties& %hich in some countries could lead to tough measures %ith /ero tolerance and attempts to eliminate uncertainty as far as possible-I@' This H/ero toleranceI stance to migration is evident throughout the 05K the most recent election cycle exhibited a Hdeluge of support for extreme right parties&I %hich favor policies to make legal migration more difficult and illegal migration subAect to stricter punishment-@( Recent years have been an increase in border control measures and a decrease in tolerance for irregular immigration& regardless of circumstances- @@ In 3or%ay Ca non.05 member of the Schengen agreement& %hich subAects them to cooperation %ith the 05 on external border policiesD& the prison population of non.05 citi/ens has increased by one.third since the enactment of more penalties for illegal immigration- @* In ()''& Denmark posed their opposition to the 05Bs open border policies by controversially restoring (*.hour customs control& a marker of the mainstreamBs increasing support for the right.%ing Danish 7eopleBs 7arty-@6 Similarly in the 3etherlands and Finland& the fringe right.%ing Freedom 7arty and True Finn 7arty& respectively& have been adopted by the ne% mainstream in the face of economic uncertainty and increased immigration0- Foss* Arli$ S% "O8en Bor$ers* Close$ E1ro8e%" S5ien5e Nor$i5% Forsknin( NorCa * 11 21l ,-1,% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 01 Foss* Arli$ S% "O8en Bor$ers* Close$ E1ro8e%" 0, Hines* Colin% "E1ro8e Is Fallin( o1' of Lo#e Ci'& O8en Bor$ers%" T&e G1ar$ian Online% T&e G1ar$ian Me$ia Gro18* 1< No#% ,-10% .e/% 1+ Mar% ,-1!% 00 Hines* Colin% "E1ro8e Is Fallin( o1' of Lo#e Ci'& O8en Bor$ers%" 0! Foss* Arli$ S% "O8en Bor$ers* Close$ E1ro8e%" 0@ Dale * S1)anne% "Den4ark Lea$s Na'ionalis' C&allen(e 'o E1ro8eLs O8en Bor$ers%" T&e NeC York Ti4es% T&e NeC York Ti4es Co48an * ,! 21ne ,-11% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 25
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The culmination of the 05 member statesB visible push to tighten borders came %ith the proposal of a Hsmart bordersI package in early ()'@ @=- The supposed system %ould rely on fingerprint data& rather than simply passports and travel documents& %hich the la%Bs proponents stress are forged regularly by illegal immigrants- ! representative for the <erman <reen 7arty& %hich opposes the bill& claims H!ll non.05 travelers %ould be effectively treated as suspected criminals& %ith their fingerprints to be collected not Aust every time they enter and exit the 05& but also %hen they cross identity controls by police %ithin the 05-I@> The official proposal by the 0uropean Commission explains that Hcertain groups of travelersI G defined later as HBusiness travelers& %orkers on short term contracts& researchers and students& RandS third country nationals %ith close family ties to 05I G %ould be permitted usage of Hsimplified border checks-I 3on.05 travelers %ho do not fit the descriptions %ould be subAect to increased scrutiny and increased penalties if their stays are longer than originally reported at their initial border check- @; The Hsmart bordersI package is not simply against all non.05 travelersK the groups described in the proposal as meriting simplified admittance are all privileged groups seeking only temporary stays in the 05- Those non.05 members %ho the Hsmart bordersI proposal %ould admit speak also to those they %ould not admit G individuals from impoverished countries seeking long term stays& immigrants& people looking to
0+ Neilsen* Nikola7% "EA Pro8oses Ti(&'er Bor$er Con'rol Bill%" E1ro8ean Anion O/ser#er% ASBL* ,B Fe/% ,-10% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 0? Neilsen* Nikola7% "EA Pro8oses Ti(&'er Bor$er Con'rol Bill%" 0B "LS4ar' Bor$ersL6 En&an5in( Mo/ili' an$ Se51ri' %" E1ro8ean Co44ission6 Ho4e Affairs% T&e E1ro8ean Anion* ,B Fe/% ,-1,% .e/% 0- Mar% ,-1!% 26
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resettle in the 05<lobali/ation has spa%ned an unprecedented global movement of people& testing the boundaries of the :estern %orld& highlighting international economic and cultural disparities& and bringing rise to the abusive flo% of human trafficking from impoverished countries to the economic centers of 0urope- The uncertainty of a rapidly changing %orld has marked a recent push by 05 member states to close their borders to immigrants& visible in the gro%ing support for regressive immigration policies throughout the 05 Cand 3or%ayD- Coinciding %ith this push for less permeable borders is the increase of the illegal and inhumane sale of human beings across borders& a hugely multi.faceted and multi.form phenomenon %hich takes place largely on the underbelly of 05 society& evading detection from those %ho patrol the borders7olitically.active S%edish director $ukaBs #oodysson& ackno%ledging that a direct connection exists bet%een less legal migration options and an increase in illegal migration and human trafficking exists& created $ilAa *.ever& a film intended to highlight the disparities bet%een :estern and 0astern 0urope and sho%case the lack of a%areness for the prevalence of sex trafficking in Scandinavia- Lil"a 4-e#er& %hich tells of a specific HloveboyI scenario inspired by the story of $ithuanian 94T DanguolE RasalaitE& has been co.opted by I4#& and by extension its government sponsors& as a definitive source on the horrors facing young %omen %ho agree to travel abroad- I4# claims to support the promotion in safe migration& but 05 member states %ho have pushed to have #oodyssonBs cautionary tale sho%n in 0astern 0uropean countries have exhibited in favor of regressive immigration policies %hich promote only very limited movement27
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C,!7T0R II1
LITERAT RE REVIE2
!nti.sex trafficking campaigns in 0urope usually have t%o very distinct audiences and goals- First& they attempt to raise a%areness among average citi/ens about trafficking in destination countries- Secondly& and certainly more prominently in 0astern 0urope& the campaigns serve as a %arning to %omen %ho are vulnerable to sex trafficking in countries kno%n to export 94Ts regularly- In order to assert the dangers and urgency of sex trafficking as a global issue& most anti.trafficking campaigns rely on the same set narrative- #any scholars have taken note of this prominent narrative& and their %ork suggests that %hile it may be representative of some instances of sex trafficking& it is by no means the only %ay %omen are lured and trapped in sexually exploitive labor- This section %ill explore literature concerning the basal narrative progression of anti.sex trafficking campaigns& the use of stereotypical characters& symbolic female death& the ideali/ation of home countries& and ho% these factors problematically simplify the issue of human trafficking to discourage any form of female movement G the best %ay to combat the fractures of an increasingly globali/ed %orld!nti.sex trafficking campaigns operate on the presence of a basal narrativeK campaigns concerning sex trafficking tend to use the same recycled and repackaged cautionary tale- These stories& no matter %hat form they appear in& al%ays follo% a standard do%n%ard traAectory %ith no possibility of recovery or return- In the narrative& a %oman decides to leave home and is deceived about the actual circumstances under
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%hich she %ill be %orking- 4nce abroad& a %oman is enslaved into sex %ork& abused& and imprisoned %ithout hope of escape- !fter a period of hardship& she dies& making the return to the safety of the home impossible- This use of a basal narrative discourages female migration by ignoring the context in %hich a %oman decides to migrate& telling her instead that any decision she makes to travel abroad %ill end in forced prostitution and deathRutvica !ndriAasevic %as the first to specifically define the plot points of narratives about sex trafficking- !ndriAasevic examines a print poster campaign from the Baltic States and the C/ech Republic %hich %ere funded by both the International 4rgani/ation for #igration CI4#D and $a Strada International& an !msterdam.based coalition of female advocacy 3<4s in 0urope focused on counter.trafficking initiatives- @? The campaign features edited photographic images of brutali/ed female bodies alongside %ritten& first.person victim accounts of their experiences in sex trafficking- Though each of the stories vary in slight %ays& they all seem to follo% the same narrative structure %hich reduces the complexities of female migration G %hy they decide to leave& %hat alternatives they have or do not have G to stories about %omen falling victim to fateThe starting point of the traAectory begins %ith the concept of Hhopeful migration-I In this stage& a %oman is excited by the possibilities of going abroad to %orkIt is important to note here that the reasons %omen decide to leave their home countries are completely minimi/ed or excluded in anti.trafficking narratives& a point both !ndriAasevic and another scholar& 3andita Sharma& bring up in their discussions- *) This
0< ".&o Are .e%" La S'ra$a In'erna'ional NeCs% N%8%* n%$% .e/% -B Mar% ,-1!% !- J1K S&ar4a* Nan$i'a% "Tra#el A(en5 6 A Cri'iD1e of An'i"Traffi5kin( Ca48ai(ns%" Ref1(e ,1%0 =n%$%>6 29
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exclusion signifies that anti.trafficking narratives are not concerned %ith the context in %hich trafficking takes place& presenting it as an abnormal phenomenon born from female naivete rather than the pressures of poverty& %ar& or globali/ation- *' Follo%ing a %omanBs Hhopeful migrationI is the moment %here deception becomes clear& and she is coerced into forced sexual labor- This stage is presented as a direct result of the %omanBs desire to travel abroad- The agency or individual %ho arranges for her travel and eventually deceives and coerces her is presented as a mere logistic detail& rather than the real reason she becomes enslaved- This presentation poses that it is the %omanBs misguided desire to travel abroad& rather than her misplaced trust in the trafficker& %hich results directly in her forced sexual imprisonment- It is the %omanBs fault she has been trafficked& not the actual trafficker- *( H4nce the theme of the forced prostitution is introduced&I !ndriAasevic explains& Hthe plot ceases to advance-I*@ In the series of advertisements used as artifacts in her examination& all the provided 94T narratives effectively end %ith forced prostitution& leaving no room for any kind of further development- 4nce the %omen have been trafficked& they have reached rock bottom G a place of no return- This migration narrativeBs Hend.stopI is al%ays a form of death& %hether symbolic or literal- ** !ll narratives reach abrupt conclusions in %hich the 94T through physical and emotional
@!"+@% .e/% J,K An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% "Bea1'if1l Dea$ Bo$ies6 Gen$er* Mi(ra'ion an$ Re8resen'a'ion in An'i" 'raffi5kin( Ca48ai(ns%" Fe4inis' Re#ieC B+% =,--?>6 ,!"!!% Prin'% !1 S&ar4a* Na$i'a% @!"@@% !, An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,!"!!% !0 An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,B% !! An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,B"0-% 30
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damage has been stripped of not only their control& but also of their future- !s !ndriAasevic points out& Hin order to convey the danger of trafficking Rthese advertisementsS e uate %omenBs migration %ith forced prostitution&I and %ork to Hencourage %omen to stay at homeI as the best and only %ay to avoid this fate- *6 Sharma reflects this idea& saying HInstead of empo%ering %omen to migrate safely&I anti. trafficking narratives can be Hbest described as discouraging informal labour migration and advising staying at home as the safest option for young %omen-I *= !s the <lobal !lliance !gainst Traffic C<!!T:D in :omen explained in their most recent analysis of anti.trafficking campaigns1 5nfortunately <!!T: has observed that some safe migration programmes have used BscaremongeringB or sensational tactics to try to convince people not to moveThis is often the case& for instance& %hen trafficking is discussed in sensational %ays that inflate the risk out of proportion- :hen taken to the extreme& people can end up in a state of fear& rather than %ith any ne% kno%ledge or %ith any ne% abilities to negotiate terms of their migration- They also might leave %ith an idea that all migration ends up in trafficking& or that all returning migrant %omen have been forced into prostitution-*> 3arratives in anti.trafficking campaigns %hich end in death make t%o things abundantly clear1 'D all roads of female migration lead inevitably to forced prostitution& and (D there is Hno escape or recoveryI from forced prostitution- *; The only conclusion that can be dra%n from these t%o HtruthsI is that the singular %ay to completely avoid the death that results from forced prostitution is to not migrate at all& and to stay at home G no matter %hat the circumstances at home may be!@ An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% !,% !+ S&ar4a* Nan$i'a% @+% !? GAAT.6 Be on$ Bor$ers6 EF8lorin( Links Be'Ceen Traffi5kin( an$ Mi(ra'ion% .orkin( Pa8ers Series ,-1-% Glo/al Allian5e A(ains' Traffi5kin( in .o4en* =,-1->6 ,+% Prin'% !B An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% 00% 31
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!lso important to these narratives about sex trafficking is the presence of stereotypical characters %hich promote an idea of passive& naTve femininity set against aggressive male criminality- :hen these stereotypical characters are presented as fact& it presents a problematically simplified picture of human trafficking and a hierarchical gender structure %hich serves as a kind of natural order- The femaleBs desire to migrate is a result only of her misguided female innocence G of course male criminals %ill take advantage of her decision to step outside of the hierarchy& she is deviating from the natural orderU They are only sho%ing her that she has no place in the globali/ed %orld& and that the conse uences of deviating are dire and irrevocable- 5nfortunately& this narrative tactic problematically simplifies the motivations behind migration& and mischaracteri/es traffickers as predominantly male- In terms of discouraging female migration& the use of exclusively stereotypical characters in anti.sex trafficking narratives suggest that a naturally.occurring gender structure exists %hich confines men and %omen to specific roles& and that deviating from this norm by trafficking %ill inevitably have negative effects!s %e sa% in the narrative structure for anti.sex trafficking campaigns& it is the migration itself %hich directly leads to trafficking& rather than the traffickers- ,o%ever& despite the idea that the a %omanBs desire to travel abroad is the reason for trafficking& %omen still lack any form of legitimate agency in these narratives- !s !ndriAasevic points out& anti.sex trafficking rhetoric1 confirms stereotypes about eastern 0uropean %omen as beautiful victims& e uates the feminine %ith the passive obAect& severs the body from its materiality and from the historical context in %hich trafficking occurs& and finally confines %omen
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%ithin the highly disabling symbolic register of B:omanB as to maintain an imaginary social order-*? !ndriAasevicBs reference to Hthe symbolic register of B:omanBI here refers to the idea that female agency is often reduced to the representation of H:omanI rather than an actual& living& agent of %oman- H:omanI is the stereotypical sketch of %omen& a picture of passivity& femininity& sexuality& and submission to menThe %omen in anti.sex trafficking narratives are reduced to victimi/ed caricatures %hich represent feminine passivity& Hdemarcating the limits %ithin %hich %omen can be imaged as active agents-I 6) In other %ords& though the starting point of the traAectory to%ards forced sexual exploitation is the %omanBs decision to travel abroad& her decision does not come from a place of any legitimate agency- Rather& it is the forces of evil and criminality G the traffickers G %ho prey upon her female passivity and innocence and exploit her dangerous idea of traveling abroad!ndriAasevic explains that anti.trafficking consists of G a repertoire organi/ed around the notions of passivity& domesticity and crime R%hichS impel a representation of eastern 0uropean societies in manners that are highly stereotypical& and constrict eastern 0uropean %omen and men %ithin confining and disabling order of representation- 6' :hen confined %ithin these inaccurate and restrictive stereotypical terms& all the characters of anti.trafficking campaigns are presented %ithout agency- The male traffickers are merely representative of 0astern 0uropean criminality1 a force %hich occurs as part of a reified dichotomy bet%een female passivityJmale criminality!< An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,!% @- An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,+% @1 An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% 0B% 33
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In addition to !ndriAasevic& many scholars& in their examinations of anti.sex trafficking rhetoric& have taken note of this dichotomous relationship and ho% it simplifies trafficking in a problematic manner- 6( !s +o Doe/ma argues& anti.trafficking campaigns in 0astern 0urope often utili/e1HBthe paradigmatic image --- of a young and naTve innocent lured or deceived by evil traffickers into a life of sordid horror from %hich escape is nearly impossibleB-I6@ This dichotomy is deeply embedded %ithin stories of sex trafficking- !s Doe/ma explains& they perpetuate inaccurate ideas about %ho is trafficked and %ho trafficsThe complex and varied experiences of migrant sex %orkers do not Vt into the stereotypical portrayal of a young and naTve innocent lured or deceived by evil trafVckers into a life of sordid horror from %hich escape is nearly impossible- 8et these images continue to dominate media perceptions& feminist activism& and policy making- In the myth of trafVcking in %omen& structured around the figure of the passive and unkno%ing innocent& the active& a%are Wsex %orkerP disappears-6* !sserting that male criminals are the primary traffickers is also problematic& as statistics mentioned previously in this paper have sho%n that the portrait of a trafficker resists profiling and categori/ation- They are likely to be family members& friends& ac uaintances G male or female- The idea that traffickers are al%ays males involved in organi/ed crime is inaccurate& and feeds into the gender hierarchy of 0astern 0urope as the governing force of human traffickingRonald :eit/er& %ho e uates anti.sex trafficking and anti.prostitution narratives
@, J1K Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE T&e Re"e4er(en5e of '&e M '& of LC&i'e Sla#er L in Con'e48orar Dis5o1rses of L'raffi5kin( in .o4enL" Gen$er Iss1es 1B%1 =,--->6 ,0"@-% .e/% J,K .ei')er* Ronal$% "T&e So5ial Cons'r15'ion of SeF Traffi5kin(6 I$eolo( an$ Ins'i'1'ionali)a'ion of a Moral Cr1sa$e%" Poli'i5s M So5ie' 0@%!!? =,--?>6 !!?"!?@% Sa(e 2o1rnals% Sa(e P1/li5a'ions% .e/% @0 Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE: ,!% @! Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE: !B% 34
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to moral crusades by the religious right& ackno%ledges the use of stereotypical characters in these narratives- #ale traffickers are presented as Hfolk devilsI G forces of pure evil G %hile female victims are defined primarily in terms of innocence and naivety66
Female
victimhood is denied any form of agency& :eit/er assertsK HThe central claim Rin anti. trafficking rhetoricS is that %orkers do not actively make choices to enter or remain in prostitution& and there is no such thing as voluntary migration for the purpose of sex %ork- The notion of consent is deemed irrelevant-I 6= #en and %omen& :eit/er observes& are presented in Hhighly dramaticI terms G evil and innocence& respectively- !ny real context surrounding human trafficking and migration Cmotivations& la%s& societal normsD is removed& and instead this stereotypical Hanecdotal horror storyI stands in- 6> !nti.trafficking campaigns asserts that the gross hyperbolic perils of female migration and the inevitable force of criminality preying on innocence are useless to fight against- It is a %omanBs desire to travel abroad G her foolish hopes to run against 0astern 0uropeBs imaginary and stereotypical natural order G %hich lead to forced prostitution and death- The only %ay to avoid being a victim of your o%n innocence as a %oman is to abandon ideas of exerting your agency to migrateThe conclusion of the ever.present basal narrative on sex trafficking presents the idea that %omen& once their sexuality has been exploited through forced prostitution& have absolutely nothing& %hich only reaffirms the female status as Hpassive obAects of male violenceI defined entirely in terms of their sexuality- 6; Their desire to travel abroad
@@ @+ @? @B .ei')er* Ronal$% !@,"!@0% .ei')er* Ronal$% !@0% .ei')er* Ronal$% !@B% An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,+% 35
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is removed entirely from the historical context of their situation in their home country& and instead figured only in a stereotypical 0astern 0uropean landscape %here female innocence exists as the natural prey of male criminality- There is not agency in this landscape& only a natural imaginary order %hich corrects itself %ith the death of the female %ho attempts to leave Hthe familiar space of heterosexual domesticityI in her home country-6? The only %ay to avoid danger is to remain in the sphere of homeTheir sexuality exploited& left %ithout any course of reprieve& victims of trafficking inevitably die %ithin these narratives- Symbolic death solidifies the idea that %omen cannot survive a%ay from the home- By death& I mean a lack of a future& the idea that prostitution has no escape G if not physically& then emotionally- !ndriAasevic explains this death in the form of a female doll metaphor1 Hin order to convey the lived experience of trafficked %omen&I she explains& the female figure becomes Hcaptured in the trope of the doll-I The HdollI is a symbol of a %oman %ho is out of control& %ho is only subAect to the control of others& and %ho is %ithout a future- 0ssentially& becoming a HdollI is the convergence of death and femininity- =) This HdollI image G %oman permanently reduced to an obAect to be acted upon by men G is a trope embedded deep %ithin :estern Culture- 0li/abeth Bronfen explores themes of %omen as doll.like symbols %hich populate history& from images of female death in early paintings to novels %hich end in female death as the means of re. establishing balance- The female body is often the battleground upon %hich changes in society are negotiated- Bronfen explains1
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4ver her dead body& cultural norms are reconfirmed or secured& %hether because the sacrifice of the virtuous& innocent %oman serves a social criti ue and transformation or because the sacrifice of a dangerous %oman re.establishes an order that is momentarily suspended due to her presence =' In other %ords& %hen the natural order of things becomes threatened& the death of a female body& the sacrifice or crucifixion of the doll& can set things on the right path againThe failures of society are righted by the death of a virtuous %omen& as her death reveals that society has ills& %hich need to be fixedK the balance of society is kept level by the death of a dangerous %oman& %ho is destroyed to keep the peace- The %omen %ho appear in anti.sex trafficking campaigns can be seen as both virtuous and dangerous G either %ay& they have to die to re.establish order- :hen seen as virtuous& the female migrant dies at the end of human trafficking narratives to signify that female migration is a societal ill& and in order to maintain balance& society must discourage female migration:hen seen as dangerous& her decision to travel abroad makes her a dangerous upset to the balance of society& and her death re.establishes this balance- Both vie%s establish that the female migrant is an unnatural phenomenon %hich hurts society& and that %omen should remain at home- =( H,ome&I in sex.trafficking narratives& is presented as the only safe space for %omen- If they %ant to avoid death& the only sure %ay for a %oman is to remain in the domestic sphere and not vie% migration as a viable option- ! number of scholars take note of the safe homeJunsafe other dichotomy present in human trafficking narratives =@+1 Bronfen* Eli)a/e'&% Over Her )ea# *o#+. )eat&, 'emininit+ an# t&e Aest&etic. Man5&es'er6 Man5&es'er Ani#ersi' Press% =1<<,>6 1B,% +, Bronfen* El)a/e'&% 1B<% +0 J1K An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% ,!"!!% 37
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!ndriAasevicBs %ork takes note of this phenomenon1 Instead of empo%ering %omen to migrate safely& the series is best described as discouraging informal labour migration and advising staying at home as the safest option for young %omen CSharma& ())@D- By doing so& the campaign places images of %omen %ithin the traditional representation of %omanhood& %hich positions %omen outside of the labour market& that is& production& and inside the realm of home thus relegating %omen to reproduction %ithin the private sphere- Conse uently& the $a StradaJI4# series upholds the ideali/ation of home as a place devoid of conflict& danger and exploitation- =* ,ere !ndriAasevic concludes that the I4#J$a Strada campaign narratives do not promote safe migration of %omen& but rather no migration of %omen G the underlying idea here being that %omen inherently belong in the home& %here they %ill be safe from the harms of the outside %orldH,omeI here has no contextK Aust as the female innocenceJmale criminality dichotomy occupies a landscape steeped in stereotype and ungrounded in reality& the safe homeJunsafe other dichotomy fails to account for the differences in situations under %hich 94Ts decide to leave their home nations- It also problematically demarcates the boundaries of female movement& denying the effects globali/ation has on more %omen entering the increasingly.international labor market& and presents the true female place as inherently outside of the labor marketThe issue %ith presenting HhomeI as an ideali/ed place is that it further removes human trafficking narratives from reality and places them in a problematic landscape devoid of historical& institutional& and legal context& %hich is dangerous as it grossly
J,K Bronfen* Eli)a/e'&% 1B,% J0K Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE: ,0"@-% J!K S&ar4a* Nan$i'a% @?"+@% +! An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% 01% 38
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misrepresent the issue& causes& and %ho is responsibleJvulnerable- This simplistic binary narrative of a submissive victim and dominant criminal& layered %ith this ideali/ation of Hhome&I is far too simple to accurately depict the multi.faceted global issue of human trafficking& and the many reasons %omen seek %ork outside of their home nation& often as means of escape and pursuit of a better life!s 3andita Sharma points out& the removal of home country context and inAection of ideali/ation fails to ask vital uestions about the national contexts and legalJeconomicJpersonal circumstances from %hich %omen become vulnerable to forced sexual exploitation- Sharma claims these campaign narratives actually aim to counteract the increasingly globali/ed international labor market and instead keep migrants from deciding to leave through instilling a fear of trafficking and ideali/ing the home as the one true safe space G regardless of %here a personBs home is and %hat the circumstances there are like- !s Sharma explains1 one of the key underlying motives of these campaigns is to restrict the mobility of migrants& particularly undocumented movements of people- Indeed& deeply embedded %ithin the anti.trafficking and anti.smuggling discourse and particle are anti.immigrant sentiments expressed best in the idea that migrants are almost Cif notD al%ays better off at Hhome=6This romantici/ed HhomeI has been ripped from its contextuali/ed lining and is presented as a reified fact- The bottom line is that %omen are better off Aust staying %here they areForced sexual exploitation is reduced to an issue that occurs only in the realm of the unsafe other& and only %hen one is foolish enough to leave the confines of the home- The idea that a person can become dislocated from their national home is never addressed by
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these campaigns- Though& statistics tell us that places vulnerable to trafficking often suffer from economic& social& and legal issues %hich stir the desire of people to leave and find %ork and survival else%here- == The real issue people become 94Ts& these campaigns assert& is the movement of people from their home countries- 3ot the myriad of institutional conditions %hich motivate people to migrate and others to traffic in human beings G it is the movement itself& this unnatural& exceptional& and ultimately doomed Aourney from the home Can ideali/ed state of safetyD& %hich causes people to become trafficked- HBy making migration the problem& it is assumed that migration is something that is inherently damaging&I leading to irrevocable conse uences such as forced sexual exploitation- => In addition& the home is presented as the natural place for %omenK leaving the sphere of home is depicted as dangerous because it contradicts the classic order of feminine exception from the public sphere- !s +o Doe/ma explains& H%omenBs independence %as& and is& seen as a threat to the stability of the family and by extension& of the nation- Contemporary efforts to stop trafficking dra% on underlying moral values of feminine dependence and ideals of %omenBs role in the family-I =; Both this ideali/ation of home and the presence of stereotypical characters dramatically oversimplify the complex issue of human trafficking& and not Aust in rhetoric- The narratives promoted by anti.trafficking campaigns reflect an international policy agenda to institutionali/e the discouragement of female migration- The huge
++ An$ri7ase#i5* R1'#i5a% 0<"!-% +? S&ar4a* Nan$i'a% @!"@@% +B Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE: !1% 40
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myriad of contexts under %hich human trafficking occurs is ignored by la% makers in favor of a problematically oversimplified narrative promoted by anti.trafficking campaignsThe %eaving of these simple binaries of homeJother and victimJcriminal to form statements about national identity and an implied natural order of gender and movement are reminiscent of rhetorical constructions present in moral crusade rhetoric- In his examination of anti.trafficking strategies used by 3<4s and the 5-S- government to combat sex trafficking& Ronald :eit/er presents the idea that the moral crusade he vie%s occurring against sex trafficking in !merica has become a series of Hanecdotal horror stories&I %hich Hstoke popular revulsion and support for draconian measuresI against immigrants in the 5-S-=? !nti sex.trafficking campaigns& %hether they come from leftist feminists or the religious right& provide Hshocking exemplars of victimi/ationI in Hhighly dramatic terms&I %hich starkly present the issue of sex trafficking %ithout gray areas G an assertion that is simply not true& as human trafficking is extremely difficult to define precisely because it occurs in so many forms against a backdrop of legal and political nuances and agendas->) These unambiguous strains of discourse about human trafficking promoted by the crusaders are intended Hto alarm the public and policy makers&I thus resulting in other%ise unAustifiably harsh& regressive policies to%ards migrants- !ccording to :eit/er& this stark& alarmist rhetoric gave rise to conservative policies- Discourse on migrant victimhood %as in the early ()))s rapidly Hbecoming almost fully institutionali/ed in
+< .ei')er* Ronal$% !+0% ?- .ei')er* Ronal$% !!B% 41
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official discourse& legislation& and enforcement practices under the Bush administration-I>' It is not a stretch to vie% the stark& unambiguous& extremely simplified dichotomies of the safe homeJunsafe other and feminine victimhoodJmale criminality present in 0uropean anti.trafficking rhetoric as contributing to an institutionali/ed moral crusade in this area as %ellSharma too sees the institutionali/ation of these narratives in global policy& despite their inaccuracy- :hen voters and policy.makers think of human trafficking& they think first of the stereotypical and statistically inaccurate narrative presented in anti. trafficking rhetoric- In her %ork& Sharma explores the connection the constructions of an ideali/ed home and dangerous other have to the agendas government institutions& asserting that anti.trafficking campaigns serve the interests of restrictive government policies on migration- To reach this connection& she examines the definition of human trafficking as it has been accepted by the 53 and independent governments around the globe- Though defining human trafficking has proven a difficult task due to its variance in forms and difficulty to separate it from smuggling and other forms of illegal migration& the vast maAority of definitions& Sharma concludes& contain the Hsignificant aspect&I %hich Hstates that to be considered trafficked a person %ould have to be exploited& abused and deceived in a community other than the one in %hich such a person lived at the time of the original deception-I >( This stress on the crime of exploitation taking place in the realm o,tside of the home creates a problematic distinction bet%een exploitation in a home community and
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the same exploitation occurring a%ay from home- !gain& it is the movement itself a%ay from the home %hich becomes the issue& since it is the movement %hich defines a crime as human trafficking- HThe exploitation&I Sharma says& Hcomes to be identified %ith peopleBs movements abroad and loses its mooring from the organi/ation and expansion of capitalist social relationships %herein peopleBs labour is alienated- In the process& BhomeB is left naturali/ed and therefore depolitici/ed as a site %here harm is also done to persons-I>@ SharmaBs criti ue here %ould suggest that the entire construction of human trafficking as it is defined by international bodies of la% and vie%ed in the context of globali/ation is a deterrent for migrants and an excuse for governments to remove HtraffickedI people from their national labor marketsThe label of being HtraffickedI implies a passivity& %hich ignores the conditions under %hich a person becomes detached from their home enough to desire international movement- The label additionally promotes victimhood& %hich allo%s the government to remove migrants labeled as HtraffickedI from their nation under the umbrella of doing %hat is best for the foolishly tricked 94T- Returning them to their home restores the imagined natural order- !nti.trafficking campaigns fail to address that it is often the undocumented status and the difficultyJimpossibility of ac uiring legal %ork permits and residency that makes migrants vulnerable to exploitation& because they need to rely on traffickers to leave their home countries and gain employment- !s Sharma sees it& applying the label HtraffickedI to a person is an inade uate umbrella term to describe a large& varied population of migrants %ho leave their home countries and are exploited in
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their ne% ones->* This oversimplification of human trafficking makes it a more digestible issue for la%.makers& but they ignore the variety of circumstances under %hich trafficking occurs and instead apply a false cookie.cutter image of %ho is trafficked and %ho trafficsDoe/ema examines ho% kno%ledge about sex trafficking is constructed and legitimi/ed through the simplified narratives pushed by anti.trafficking groups- !s a sex %orker rights activist& Doe/ema attempts to bring the concerns of professional& consensual sex %orkers to the conversation of on prostitution& %hich is usually dominated by sex trafficking discourse- !nti.trafficking narratives isolate the consensual migrant sex %orkerBs autonomy- Doe/ma points out1 The reality of female labour migration for the sex industry and other industries is complex& messy& and resists easy explanations and solutions- It certainly has very little to do %ith the stereotypical interpretation of Btrafficking in %omenB- #yth& on the other hand& is persistent precisely because it reduces complex phenomena to simple causes and clear.cut solutions->6 Doe/maBs approaches this Hmyth of trafficking in %omenI by comparing it to %hat she vie%s as a similar phenomenon of rhetorical narratives becoming institutionali/ed in public policy1 %hite slavery- The myth of %hite slavery emerged in the () th century as the means to mediate increasing anxieties about female autonomy& immigration& and national identity- H:hite slaveryI essentially referred to Hthe procurement& by force& deceit& or drugs& of a %hite %oman or girl against her %ill& for prostitution-I The myth attempted to control female sexuality by restricting female autonomy under the guise of protecting innocent %hite %omen from falling to forced prostitution- In reality& %omen in
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prostitution during this time did not fit the profile of the fabled H%hite slave&I and %ere mostly migrant sex %orkers traveling from or %ithin 0urope to find %ork- Despite the lack of factual backing& H%hite slaveryI resulted in a %idespread moral panic& and led to regressive policies on female autonomy in 0urope and 3orth !merica- The same processes that constructed the myth of %hite slavery %ork to form the myth of sex trafficking1 the adoption of discursive themes& %hich establish a dichotomy of innocence and evil as the means to making sense of a complex and diverse situationDoe/ma vie%s the direction of anti.trafficking rhetoric as follo%ing that of %hite slavery& establishing a specific myth about %omen %ho decide to migrateHContemporary accounts of trafVcking& I demonstrated& consistently coupled their arguments for protection of innocent %omen %ith narrative elements %hich discursively subverted their supposedly liberatory intent-I >= In other %ords& the stories populari/ed in anti.trafficking rhetoric seem to support the HliberationI and autonomy of %omen& but the themes of these stories undermine this effect- Instead& they encourage %omen to abandon their autonomy of movement- This subversion of liberatory intent& as Doe/ma calls it& is the result of the myth created by the themes of female innocence& criminality of the other& and the conse uences of female autonomy- >> This myth attempts to demarcate female movement as a kind of social suture& restricting %omen as the means to stabili/ing society- >; :hen reality faces a crisis& Doe/ma explains& Hmyth serves to suture social dislocations through a representation of
?+ Doe)4a* 2o% "NoC Yo1 See Her* NoC Yo1 DonL'6 SeF .orkers a' A%N% Traffi5kin( Pro'o5ol Ne(o'ia'ions%" So5ial an$ Le(al S'1$ies 1!%! =,-1->6 +1"B<% Sa(e P1/li5a'ions% .e/% ?? Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE: ,0"@-% ?B Doe)4a* 2o% "Loose .o4en or Los' .o4enE: !B% 45
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%hat could be-I>? <lobali/ation causes a crisis by disrupting the gender structure of 0urope G %omen are leaving the home& breaking do%n their confined role %ithin the home- <lobali/ation causes %omen to leave the confines of the social sphere& venturing out from the home to enter the labor market- The increased international exchange of labor caused by globali/ation means that the rates of %omen entering the labor market have sho%n considerable gro%th since the '??)s- #ore %omen %orking means less %omen remaining in their traditional roles as %ives and nurturers- Female motivations for entering the labor market are incredibly varied and resist simple definition- There is no one reason to explain increased female labor participation outside of the home& but rather a myriad of complex socioeconomic and political factors involved- ;) :omen %ho are trafficked into sex %ork represent a fraction of female migrants& and the trafficking itself occurs under a variety of circumstances and factors- ;' The simple narratives of anti. trafficking campaigns are a %ay of explaining the complicated reality of sex trafficking and female migration in its myriad forms through the promotion of this one simple form<lobali/ation causes disruptions to the social structures of society- CohenBs classic definition of moral panic is applicable here1 Societies appear to be subAect& every no% and then& to periods of moral panic- ! condition& episode& person or groups of persons emerges to become defined as a threat to societal values and interestsK its nature is presented in a styli/ed and stereotypical fashion by the mass mediaK the moral barricades are manned by editors& bishops& politicians and other right.thinking peopleK socially.accredited experts pronounce their diagnoses and solutionsK %ays of coping are evolved Cor
?< Doe)4a* 2o% "NoC Yo1 See Her* NoC Yo1 DonL': +@"++% B- "En(a(in( in Glo/ali)a'ion6 I48li5a'ions for Gen$er Rela'ions%" E5ono4i5 an$ So5ial Co44ission for .es'ern Asia =ESC.A> =n%$%>6 Ani'e$ Na'ions% .e/% B1 Doe)4a* 2o% "NoC Yo1 See Her* NoC Yo1 DonL': +?"+<% 46
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more oftenD resorted to---;( Female migration is a moral panic perpetuated by anti.sex trafficking campaigns& since it threatens the perceived nature order- The myth of human trafficking& relying on highly. stereotypical terms& effectively neutrali/es this threat by discouraging female migration& presenting it only as an inevitable road to death& and encouraging %omen to remain at home:hile Doe/ma concluded that the myth of human trafficking is used to remove female agency and keep %oman at home& I assert that this can be taken a step further- In my o%n %ork& I %ill dra% upon the elements of the stereotypical sex trafficking narrative defined in this section& attempting to understand ho% these elements form a po%erful& institutionali/ed myth %hich %orks to counteract the moral panic of globali/ation G not only through the removal of female agency& as Doe/ma asserts G but through the creation of a series of highly simplified dichotomies ChomeJother& evilJinnocence& maleJfemaleD %hich remove context and promote restrictive& draconian immigration policies in 0astern 0urope-
B, Co&en* S'anle % 'olk )evils an# Moral %anic. .orkin( Pa8ers Series ,-1-% NeC York6 Ro1'le(e% =1<?,>6 ,!",@% Prin'% 47
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C,!7T0R III1
T&EOR(
In order to best understand the processes taking place %ithin the discursive goals of I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever campaign& theories of rhetorical myth can be applied& since myth is often used to mediate and simplify complex issues into more easily digestible forms- !t the most basic level& myth is an origin story- It is the mechanism by %hich humans construct a hypostatic system of sense in chaos& explaining other%ise inexplicable aspects of their %orld- #yth often rises to fill the gaps %here our understanding fails to derive meaning G e-g- birth& death& creation G the places %e cannot %itness ourselves but %hich re uire explanation in a complete %orldvie%- #yth as a concept is most associated %ith primitive societies& though more modern rhetorical theorists understand that mythologies are still an important force in behind societiesB meditation of discursive structures of reality and existence#yth can also be used to a deliberative effect to promote certain political ideologies& privileging heavily.calcified terministic screens so that they are accepted as a naturali/ed state- In my analysis& I %ill adopt an understanding of myth from 0rnesto $aclau& %ho understood that myth could be used to gain acceptance for political ideas& as %ell as act as a stabili/ing force in societal conflicts- The deliberative tissue of myth G the ideologies communicated and instilled in those %ho accept it as truth G is articulated through the selection of a %orld vie% or Burkean terministic screen that the myth chooses to represent-
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#yth is much more than an origin story for society& it is also an ideologically. marked narrative used to construct societal beliefs and suture societal crises- Society& $aclau asserts in his %ork& is a symbolic order& a coherent pattern %hich allo%s members of a given community to operate under a shared understanding of ho% the %orld is organi/ed and analy/ed- #yth organi/es and narrativi/es these chains of discursive symbols in a %ay that makes sense to all members of society- 0ssentially& a dominant societal myth ensures that a community shares the same hypostatic version of ideal realityIn this %ay& a myth is performative& a vision of ideal society and a blueprint on ho% members of a community should understand reality- :hile dominant ideologies of ho% society should function certainly exist& visions of ideal society exist at various points of calcification in a given community& and can be manipulated rhetorically by anyone& not Aust the dominant po%ers that be- 7olitical activists In this %ay& the performative of myth not only can explain to members of a community ho% to vie% the %orld& it can also be used deliberatively to explain the benefits of alternative %orld vie%s#ore than a static& ideologically.marked narrativi/ation of societal values& myth is adaptive %here it needs to be& serving as a suturing agent for points of dislocation- ! dislocation& $aclau explains& occurs %hen the dominant& hypostatic myth of societal understanding is met %ith an Hother&I an event it cannot explain in its existing terms3othing in the existing symbol system can explain a dislocation& so the myth must gro% and adapt to cover and soothe a%ay this disturbance in terms everyone can understand;@
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For example& in a hypothetical primitive society& the emergence of fire %ould be a dislocation& that is& it %ould present a gap in this societyBs myth- 3othing in the societyBs previous understanding of reality can explain fire& so in order to make sense of it& the myth must cover or HsutureI the gap in understanding G hence a ne% myth is born %hich makes sense of fire in terms of everything else this society kno%s to be true#yth constructs ne% representational spaces %hich attempt to mediate the arrival of the other %ithin the existing symbol system- Though $aclau does note that points of dislocation also provide opportunities for mythological upheaval G that is& the abandonment of an entire societal myth in favor of a ne% understanding and order G I concern myself here %ith myths %hich attempt to explain the ne% in terms of the old& or existing order-;* It is best to think of these suturing myths not as ne% myths entirety G since they must fit seamlessly %ith the rest of a societyBs mythology to explain the disturbance G but rather ne% chapters in the existing %orld vie%- It is useful to think of myth as a body forming societyBs %orldvie%K %hen a bone becomes dislocated& in order for the skeleton to remain functional& ne% tissue must form to fill the gap perfectlyCoherent societal myth in this sense has to consistently expand to order to make sense of dislocation in terms of %hat is already Hkno%n-I In my understanding of anti.sex trafficking rhetoric& myth is the performance of an ideal& naturali/ed as the accepted natural orderK not simply as political ideology& as in $aclau& but as fact G the %ay nature intended society to be organi/ed- In this %ay& myth is the performance of ideology as natureB! La5la1* Ernes'o% +-"+!% 50
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This performance of nature is articulated through the assertion of certain terministic screens- Terministic screens are the messages communicated through mythThey are the vie%points asserted by myth- Those %ho buy into a certain myth are vie%ing reality through the terministic screens %hich the myth articulatesBurke explains his theory of terministic screens %ith a metaphor1 a single image of the same obAect is reproduced multiple times& each %ith a different colored filter- 0ach of the images depict the same obAect& yet each depiction is distinct as a result of the colored filters used- $anguage& Burke asserts& functions in the same %ay as a colored filter G it HcolorsI observation of reality& altering the vie%ersB perception so the same action& event& obAect& etc- can be vie%ed and understood in many distinct %ays- HThe terms or vocabulary %e use as a result of our occupations&I Burke explains& Hconstitute a kind of screen that directs our attention to particular aspects of reality rather than others-I;6 The screen is formed by the terminology used& hence the name& terministic screen- Individuals perceive reality through an endless overlap of terministic screens G their religion& their political beliefs& experiences etc- G and some terministic screens are more calcified as others& meaning they hold as stronger influence over an individualBs Cor entire societiesBD perception of reality- !ll observation is confined by terministic screensK %e %ill never see the image %ithout the colored filters- $anguage shapes and demarcates our understanding of the %orld& so %e cannot HobserveI reality %ithout peering through our kaleidoscopic& overlapping lenses of terministic perception#ost relevant to my understanding of myth in BurkeBs theory of terministic
B@ B1rke* Henne'&% "Ter4inis'i5 S5reens%" Lan(1a(e as S 4/oli5 A5'ion% Sara'o(a S8rin(s* NY6 E48ire S'a'e Colle(e* S'a'e Ani#ersi' of NeC York* 1<?0% !!"!@% Prin'% 51
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screens is ho% certain screens are selected& %hile others are deflected and omitted from reality- !s Burke explains& H0ven if any given terminology is a reflection of reality& by its very nature as a terminology it must be a selection of realityK and to this extent it must function also as a deflection of realityI ;= In other %ords& a terminology is notable not Aust by %hat it includes& but also %hat it omits or ignores entirely- For every perception of reality& there are endless galaxies of reAected realities- To this effect& terministic screens and the reality they select can be used deliberativelyK the acceptance of a %orldvie% necessitates the reAection of alternatives#yth can be understood as containing a terministic screen %hich has been calcified to the highest degree G naturali/ed into undisputed& organic fact- :hen a terministic screen is reified to this degree& it ceases to be understood a construction of language& and comes to be kno%n as fact- The more a myth or terministic screen becomes calcified and understood as fact& the more alternative screens or myths are reAected or ignored to the point %here they are& in the most extreme cases& no longer even considered as possibilities in the realm of reality- #yth is the dramati/ation of terministic screens This becomes extremely problematic %hen heavily.calcified terministic screens form the dominant myths of political ideologies- ! political group can promote a certain ideological %orldvie% as pure& indisputable fact- Take for instance the myth of a racial hierarchy& %hich served as a HfactualI and HnaturalI Austification for slavery for over t%o. hundred years in certain !merican political ideologies- The !bolitionist #ovement %as forced to counter HfactI and a sense of Hnatural orderI %hich %as deeply.embedded in the
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!merican mythos by terministic screens of racial superiority- #yth& the illogical& is a po%erful rhetorical exigency& but also a po%erful deliberative tool to assert ideology for political gain- #yth is ultimately the performance of an ideological order %hich articulates reified terministic screens to form an ontological state of the %orld!nti.sex trafficking campaigns often assert deeply.reified %orldvie%s about 0astern 0uropean society as a simplistic location of gendered dichotomies- The terministic screens regarding gender in 0astern 0urope form a hierarchical relationship bet%een female domesticity and hegemonic masculinity- The cultural and historical context of 0astern 0urope has caused these terministic screens to become calcified to the point of reification- Increased movement due to globali/ation causes a $aclauian disruption to this naturali/ed order of society& since %omen leave their natural place of domesticity- To mediate the anxieties caused by challenged terministic screens& the myth of sex trafficking is created and expressed in anti.trafficking campaigns- The suturing myth applies existing terministic screens of gender hierarchy to the ne% situation of female migration- This is an an attempt to maintain a consistent %orldvie% in 0astern 0urope by carrying over existing terministic screens to explain a disruptive situation-
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C,!7T0R I91
MET&ODOLO3(
To better understand ho% Lil"a 4-e#er uses a po%erful& subversive myth about gender in 0astern 0urope& I %ill examine the plot progression and character development of $ilAa& the main character- I %ill explain ho% gender hierarchy in the region has been calcified by culture& history& and politics& analy/ing ho% $ilAaBs narrative relies upon and reinforces these terministic screens about gender relations in 0astern 0urope- I %ill sho% ho% the disruption of female emigration from 0astern 0urope has created a cultural need for a suturing myth %hich applies these terministic screens to this ne% phenomenonFinally& I %ill sho% ho% the suturing myth of the film& %hich carries over old terministic screens to explain a ne% problem& can create problematic gaps in our understanding of sex trafficking- It maintains terministic screens %hich promote stereotypes of %omen as vulnerable obAects for male aggression& and demarcates sexual and international boundaries for %omen- Through $ilAaBs story& I %ill examine the subversive effects the continuation of pervasive terministic screens can have on not only the %ay %omen are vie%ed& but the %ay the international community deals %ith the issue of sex trafficking-
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C,!7T0R 91
ANAL('I' O% $I$+! *.090R
In my analysis of $ukaBs #oodyssonBs ())( crime drama& Lil"a 4-e#er& I %ill examine myth of sex trafficking %hich the film promotes through the narrative of deeply.rooted terministic screens- I argue here that %hen used to educate %omen& the film serves the subversive purpose of discouraging any form of female migration from 0astern 0urope to the 0-5- Lil"a 4-e#er promotes a myth of sex trafficking used to a politically deliberative effect of demarcating the boundaries of female movement in 0urope by asserting that all %omen %ho leave 0astern 0urope under any circumstances to travel to the 0-5- %ill be trafficked into prostitution and face inescapable death- !s $aclau discusses& myth can serve a suturing purpose& allo%ing societies to mediate social and cultural anxieties in times of crisis- The unprecedented international female movement and female labor market participation cannot be contextuali/ed in 0astern 0uropeBs existing terministic screens- They represent a disruption to the perceived natural order of a gender hierarchyThe myth of sex trafficking acts as a suture& making sense of increased female migration in terms of the reified terministic screen of gender roles present in 0astern 0uropean society- The terministic screen of a natural hierarchical gender structure promoted by this myth is visible in the progression of $ilAaBs narrative a%ay from the home to%ards deathThe further $ilAa ventures from the role of domesticity as a female nurturer %ithin the home& the more male aggression she attracts- Traveling abroad represents the ultimate dislocation from her natural female role and results inevitably in her reduction to a
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brutali/ed body and death$ilAa follo%s an ill.fated progression from hopeful migration to suicide& a progression %hich closely mirrors the one noted by Rutvica !ndriAasevic as a cautionary narrative present in many anti.sex trafficking campaigns- This narrative asserts that once a %oman has decided to migrate a%ay from her home country& no matter %hat the circumstances of this migration& she %ill at some point be betrayed and coerced into the sex trade& a fate %hich %ill end certainly in the dissolution of her future in emotional andJor physical death- $ilAaBs progression from a hopeful young %oman dreaming of successful migration to a battered prostitute Aumping from a high%ay overpass bridge to her death neatly follo%s this progression- The terministic screen of a naturali/ed gender hierarchy asserts that the natural place of %omen is the home- The myth of sex trafficking simplifies the circumstances under %hich a %oman decides to travel abroad& depicting it instead as a linear narrative from migration to certain death- The female migrant faces death not because of the brutality of circumstances& but rather because of her decision to migrate in the first place- Death is sealed the moment a %oman decides to leave her natural place at home and travel abroad from the ideali/ed home& so the only %ay to avoid it is to remain in the natural female sphere of the home country-
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0astern 0urope as a Dystopia1

di#er.ent 4o0en ca,se *o#erty
In the myth of sex trafficking& female divergence from their natural role not only leads to female death& but also the death of the community they leave behind- Female domesticity is therefore presented as a foundational element of functional society G if %omen like $ilAa leave the home& a cycle of abandonment and poverty is perpetuated- The myth of sex trafficking as it operates in Lil"a 4-e#er is cautionary and dystopic& sho%ing a %orld %here the dislocation of %omen from the sphere of domesticity has led to a perpetuating cycle of extreme poverty- :hen %omen& the natural nurturers of society& abandon their roles& the %hole society collapsesThe poverty and hopelessness of $ilAaBs vaguely 0astern 0uropean %orld G described only as HSome%here in the Former Soviet 5nionI by an opening caption G is painfully apparent in #oodyssonBs establishing shots- The landscape is starkK concrete housing blocks& abandoned military bases& and factories from the former days of Soviet Russia are sho%n overrun %ith garbage and brutal& mindless crime- #oodyssonBs politics are clear at first glance G the dissolution of the Soviet 5nion has left 0astern 0urope in a pile of battered ruins and bottomless poverty- ,o%ever& the film asserts that the most destructive and perpetuating force of this cyclical poverty and crime is not the dissolution of 0astern 0uropeBs economy& but rather the removal of %omen from their natural place in the home as mothers- The dominant terministic screen %ithin the myth of 0astern 0urope asserts that %omen should remain at home& and that female domesticity is essential for keeping societal balance- Since globali/ation pulls %omen from their natural place& the
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suturing myth of sex trafficking mediates this disruption by asserting that female dislocation causes societal collapseThe concept of a gender hierarchy is deeply.embedded %ithin 0astern 0uropean culture- <ender roles form a heavily.calcified terministic screen& dictating ho% the sexes should behave and interact %ith each other- Follo%ing the fall of communism& 0astern 0urope experienced a massive upheaval culturally as %ell as economically- The #arxist idea that both men and %omen should %ork outside of the home %as abandoned& and family structure regressed to pre.communist ideals about female domesticity- This is not to say that de facto gender e uality existed under communism- 7atriarchal concepts of %omen as true nurturers in the home remained present& and the true purpose of %omen %as to birth and rear children- During communism ho%ever %omen %ere afforded more e uality in the %orkplace& though they %ere expected to continue to be the primary caregiver in the home- Follo%ing the fall of communism& %orkplace discrimination forced %omen from the commercial sphere and made it extremely difficult to gain employment- This cultural trend %as reflected by a significant drop in female employment rates in recovering Soviet countries- In 0ast <ermany& the employment rate among %omen dropped from ?'F during communism to ='F post.communismStatistics indicate that this trend in lo% female employment has persisted into the (' st century- In ,ungary& female employment has dropped by ()F in the last decade alone$abor market discrimination against %omen in 0astern 0urope continues today to be common- Single.mothers& like $ilAaBs mother in the film& are affected most negatively by this institutionali/ed patriarchal culture- Research indicates that single.parent homes run
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by %omen are most adversely affected by the economy in former.Soviet countries& due to high unemployment and lo% %ages- :omen are encouraged to marry young and rear children& on %hich there is a significant cultural emphasis- For example& in a national survey in Romania the maAority of participants indicated that they needed to have a child to feel fulfilled- The role of females as nurturers %ho remain in the home has become culturally significant in ho% 0astern 0uropeans vie% %omen and female agency- The terministic screen of gender roles dictates that the natural state of society re uires %omen to remain in the domestic sphere as caregivers- ;> Female domesticity is nearly non.existent in Lil"a 4-e#er. The society has failed to function due to the failure of %omen& leading to a cycle of poverty and crime- $ilAaBs mother& %ho appears only in the beginning of the film& abandons her daughter to go to !merica %ith her boyfriend& and later sends a letter to child services renouncing her parenthood of $ilAa& making her abandonment official- The scene is potent G a screaming $ilAa is ripped from her mothers arms by Sergei and falls into a pile of mud %ith a dog& all in slo% motion- $ilAaBs fate here is clear- !s she thrashes in the mud& she is reduced to the lo%est possible status among the dogs- ,er motherBs abandonment has left her %ith nothingThough %e do not ever learn of $ilAaBs motherBs fate& her character is significant not in %here she goes& but %hat she leaves behind- This abandonment leads to the extreme %orsening of $ilAaBs circumstances& making her desperate and hungry enough to enter the %orld of sex %ork- She is displaced from the modest& run.do%n flat she shared
B? Ro/ila* Mi&eala% "Fa4ilies in Eas'ern E1ro8e6 Con'eF's* Tren$s* an$ Iaria'ions%" Con'e48orar Pers8e5'i#es in Fa4il Resear5& @ =,--!>6 1"1!% .e/% B A8r% ,-1!% 59
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%ith her mother and left to live in a dark concrete block among the filth of the previous tenant- She no longer has the means to purchase food and she drops out of school- ,er motherBs abandonment of her in search of a better life leaves $ilAa %ith an intensified resolve to leave as %ell- In going abroad& $ilAaBs mother has not only abandoned her child to a certain dismal future& she has inflicted her %ith the dangerous idea that home is not the best place for her- $ooking out a %indo% at the barren landscape& $ilAa tells a friend& HTotal fucking shit& I understand %hy my mother left& thereBs nothing there-I $ilAaBs determination to leave home is intensified by her motherBs abandonment& since she has nothing left in 0astern 0urope- This film promotes the idea that if you leave to go abroad& you %ill not only cause destruction to yourself- 8ou %ill also upset the balance at home& leaving your children %ith no resort except to try and seek life outside of 0astern 0uropeIn the film& abandonment breeds more abandonment& until the society is completely collapsed- 9olodya& a young homeless boy& is abandoned by his mother and is left %ith only his father& %ho is unable to provide him %ith the nurturing he re uires and forces 9olodya out onto the streets- $ilAa fulfills this role as nurturer& providing the young boy %ith food& shelter& and genuine affection that only a %oman can give- This idea that females are the only possible nurturers is punctuated by the metaphor of a basketball in the film- $ilAa& the female nurturer& gives 9olodya a basketball for his birthday& and 9olodyaBs father& a male incapable of rearing a child alone& stabs the basketball %ith a knife and destroys it& kicking 9olodya out of the house again- The message here is clear1 only %omen can take care of children- :hen children are left %ith men& they %ill only gro% up to continue the cycle of poverty60
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$ilAaBs symbolic adoption of 9olodya only serves to make her desire to leave home increasingly problematicK not only is she leading to her o%n death& she is leaving behind a child& and as evident in her o%n motherBs abandonment this %ill only perpetuate the cycle of poverty and societal disfunction at home- :hile $ilAa remains at home& she saves 9olodyaBs life several times& talking him out of suicide on multiple occasions- !fter she leaves for S%eden and is no longer there to care for the young boy& 9olodya& resigned to death in the absence of his nurturer and left %ith no other options& takes a bottle of unkno%n pills and dies on the steps of $ilAaBs abandoned apartment- $ilAaBs maternal presence %as the only thing keeping 9olodya alive& and %ithout her& there is nothing to stop him from taking his o%n lifeFemale abandonment of their natural roles is therefore the real reason %hy 0astern 0urope has collapsed into this display of extreme disfunction- The real context of 0astern 0uropeBs over%helming poverty are ignored by this myth and explained instead in terms of the terministic screen of hierarchical gender structure- :omen %ho travel abroad like $ilAa and her mother are responsible for perpetuating the cycle and breaking the society do%n- The implied assumption here is that if they had remained in their natural places they %ould have someho% prevented the community from collapsing into despair:omen need to stay in their natural roles in order for society to function- <lobali/ation causes a disruption to 0astern 0uropean society- The myth of sex trafficking must contextuali/e this ne% phenomenon in terms of the existing gender hierarchy& sho%ing %hat happens to society %hen %omen step outside of their rightful place-
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3atural 3urturers1
ideali1ation o- the 0ythic ho0e as a *lace o- sa-e 0others
The deliberate subversion of economic& political& and historical context to describe 0astern 0uropeBs failing society in terms of female roles is perpetuated in anti.trafficking narratives by %hat 3andita Sharma calls the ideali/ation of the home- ;; :hen the idea of home is presented as a romantici/ed vision of as a place of safety for %omen& any place outside of the home becomes& in contrast& a place of danger- This perpetuates the terministic screen of gender roles by asserting that the home& regardless of the context& is the only place of safety for a %oman& and that traveling abroad %ill only bring destruction- :hile #oodyssonBs bleak portrayal of $ilAaBs vaguely 0astern 0uropean country hardly seems a place of romantic safety& the concept of home in Lil"a 4-e#er is ideali/ed through religious symbols and dream se uences throughout the filmReligion composes a significant component of Lil"a 4-e#er. $ilAa herself is presented as a deeply religious characterK her pri/ed possession is a painting of a small child clutching the hand of a female angel G a clear maternal allusion to the concept idea that %omen are natural nurturers- Though none of the female characters in the film are presented as natural maternal figures as the angel& the painting is representative of an ideali/ed state in %hich %omen take care of children- :hile she is in her home country& $ilAa is sho%n lovingly polishing and praying to the painting& %hich comes to symboli/e ho% the home sho,ld be if %omen remained in the home as nurturing figures- ,er loving care of the painting sho%s her dedication to %hat it symboli/es G the rightful place of
BB S&ar4a* Nan$i'ra% @!% 62
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%omen as nurturers- !fter being trafficked to S%eden& $ilAa smashes the painting in a fit of despair- This act of destruction symboli/es not only $ilAaBs o%n personal loss of faith& but also her final abandonment of her role as a nurturer- The painting represented her last ties to her place as a caregiver& and her last hope to return to her rightful role- Smashing the painting of the ideali/ed female nurturer punctuates the idea that traveling abroad ruined this future and dislocated her from her roleThe ideali/ation of the home as a mythic location Ca place in %hich the natural order is restored and all %omen remain at home as nurturersD is best exemplified by the ending scene- !s $ilAa lays dying on a hospital gurney& medical personnel surrounding her after her Aump from the bridge& she has a vision as she slips from reality and enters heaven- !s if on re%ind& $ilAa is sho%n back in her home country on the day she is supposed to leave the country %ith !ndrei& the man %ho traffickers her- The sun is shining for the first time in any scene of the film as $ilAa marches up to the %indo% of !ndreiBs car and informs him that she %ill not be going %ith him- In this vision& she is able to see through !ndreiBs deception clearly- HDo you think IBm stupid2I she shouts at him& Hthey donBt pick vegetables in %interUI ;? !s uplifting music s%ells& $ilAa is sho%n meeting 9olodya again in heaven& %hich is simply a sunny version of a rooftop $ilAa and 9olodya used to play on back in 0astern 0urope- Though $ilAa spends the %hole film believing that the only heaven she needs to believe in is a life outside of 0astern 0urope& the film concludes %ith her reali/ation that heaven is actually her home country after allIgnoring the poverty and hunger $ilAa %as living in& the myth of sex trafficking asserts
B< An$rei $e5ei#es Lil7a / offerin( &er a 7o/ 8i5kin( #e(e'a/les in '&e Cin'er in SCe$en* C&i5& s&e /lin$l i(nores an$ a55e8's% 63
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the idea that the home is truly the only place %here a person can find true happiness and prosperity- This myth sutures the social %ounds of globali/ation by insisting that %omen can find safety and happiness only in the domestic sphere at home- !ll $ilAa had to do to reach this understanding %as to tell !ndrei HnoI and give up her idea of a life a%ay from home& implying that her main misstep in life %as agreeing to travel outside of her natural place-
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Desire to $eave1
the -irst 0isste* to4ards death a5road
In $ilAaBs progression a%ay from her natural place at home and to%ards her fated death abroad& the first step she takes to%ards dislocation is her misplaced desire to leave the home- In the terministic screens of 0astern 0uropean gender structure& the only true place of female safety and future is the home- $eaving the home and becoming dislocated from the domestic sphere is presented in the progression of the sex trafficking myth as fatal to %omen- The myth asserts that %omen should remain home or else they %ill meet inevitable death abroad- Lil"a 4-e#er promotes the sex trafficking myth by directly linking $ilAaBs death abroad to her desire to leave her role at home& implying that an inevitable correlation exists bet%een leaving home and dying abroadIn Lil"a 4-e#er& $ilAaBs death is never a matter of uestion- The film opens %ith a scene of $ilAa in clear crisis& her face purpled %ith bruises and her hair chopped off at strange angles- She is sho%n sprinting frantically do%n the side of a high%ay in do%nto%n #almM& S%eden Cthe place established by a cheery H:elcome to #almMUI sign against the other%ise gray landscapeD- It is clear she is being chased& but by %hom or %hat is unclear- She is not being follo%ed& though she stops every once in a %hile to glance over her shoulder before abruptly changing directions- ,er path is erratic and seemingly randomK if she is running from something& she does not kno% %hat direction it is coming from- 0ventually she comes to a high%ay overpass& and breathing heavily& she stops and looks do%n over the edge- ,er fate is clear1 she %ill Aump- The scene then abruptly cuts to a much healthier looking $ilAa as a caption establishes the time as H@
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months earlierI and the place as HSome%here in the former Soviet 5nion-I ,er hair longer and shiny& her complexion clear of brutal marks& the pretty teen is sho%n smiling and chatting excitedly %ith her best friend about the idea of leaving home as she packs her suitcase- The Aarring Auxtaposition leaves no room for interpretationK leaving home %ill someho% result in this smiling young %omanBs demise at the bottom of a bridgeFramed by $ilAaBs suicide& the film takes on a cautionary note- It is established right a%ay that anything $ilAa does throughout the course of the film& %hatever decisions she makes& %ill lead to her death- :e kno% right a%ay that %e are %atching a story of a decline and fallThe filmBs opening scenes point to $ilAaBs desire to leave home as her first misstep to%ards death- In myth of sex trafficking& death becomes inevitable at the point of hopeful migration& and $ilAaBs defining trait throughout the film is her un%avering desire to migrate in search of a better life outside of 0astern 0urope- This is presented as her fatal fla% and sets her apart from the other members of her community- 3o character in Lil"a 4-e#er seems satisfied %ith their lives- In fact& the people around her seem to be defined only by their intense dissatisfaction %ith existence- The characters in $ilAaBs %orld live against a bleak landscape of poverty and crime in the ruins of the former Soviet 5nion& fre uently using drugs and alcohol to escape the pain of day.to.day livingDespite this universal and pervasive hopelessness& no one in $ilAaBs community sees leaving the country as a viable& realistic option to a better life- 4nly $ilAa holds the misguided belief that she can escape 0astern 0urope and achieve a higher standard of living- 0veryone elseBs dissatisfaction merely ends %ith resignation- $ilAaBs demands
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change& and more importantly& demands movement- From the framing of the film& it is clear that this movement %ill not be as successful as $ilAa believes$ilAaBs friends and peers have difficultly understanding her need to leave- :hile everyone seems to share her feelings of hopelessness about their %orld& they find her desire to leave almost disrespectful& or in some cases& comically above her station in life,er friend 3atasha seems angry and deAected %hen $ilAa announces she is going to move to !merica %ith her mother- $ilAa tries to cheer her up by saying Hyou can go to !merica tooUI but her friend merely gapes at her incredulously& as if it had never occurred to her that leaving %as even %ithin the realm of possibility- $ilAaBs plans to travel to !merica fall through after she has spent the first fe% scenes of the film bragging about her escape from 0astern 0urope& and her peers act smugly to%ards her failure to escape& kno%ing that it %as misguided all along- HShouldnBt you be in !merica2I her teacher asks her snidely %hile handing back a failing exam grade to a distracted $ilAa and remarking sarcastically about $ilAaBs ridiculous belief in a Hgolden future-I $ilAa& furious and defiant& responds& H<o to hell bitchU 8ou can be sure I have a golden futureUI and storms out- ,er %ords here are thick %ith dramatic irony& since the film depicts $ilAaBs future from the start as anything but Hgolden-I There is no room to root for $ilAaBs successful migration hereK in the progression the sex trafficking myth& death is inevitable since the first hope of migration- :e can only %itness $ilAaBs do%nfall and note the direct connection the film makes bet%een her desire to leave and her later suicideThe fatal difference bet%een the hopeful $ilAa and her more resigned peers is made most apparent during a scene in %hich a small gathering of teenagers in her
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apartment turns into a party- !n upbeat song plays %hile a montage of $ilAa and the other teens laughing& kissing& drinking& and doing drugs flashes across the screen- !fter the party is broken up by one of $ilAaBs irritable old neighbors in the impoverished apartment complex& most of the teens tumble out of the room laughing and Aoking around %ith each other& bringing their little party outside to the courtyard- $ilAa ho%ever& remains& crying against the rusted radiator in her dark apartment as 9olodya& the young homeless boy %ith %hom she develops an emotional bond& attempts in vain to console her- The brief respite offered by the drugs and boo/e& %hile clearly enough to placate her peers& is not nearly enough to distract $ilAa from her intense need to escape- :hile 9olodya attempts to calm her by explaining his version of heaven as the means of escape from reality& she exclaims& HThatBs bullshitU IBm not going to die& IBm going to !mericaUI There is something about $ilAaBs dissatisfaction %hich marks her as divergent G %hile everyone else in the film merely discusses leaving this Hshithole&I $ilAa is bra/en enough to consider it a tangible opportunityBy framing the film %ith $ilAaBs death a%ay from home& #oodysson inexorably links $ilAaBs desire and drive for a golden future outside of 0astern 0urope %ith her inevitable suicide in S%eden- $ilAaBs death at the beginning of the film is directly Auxtaposed %ith the scenes of her hoping desperately for the chance to travel abroad- It has already been established that she %ill die abroad& so her desire to travel abroad seems ill.fated- In the myth of sex trafficking& hopeful migration is the fatal fla% %hich leads to death- 4nce a %oman has decided she %ill migrate& her fate is sealed completely& since she is venturing from the safety of the ideali/ed home- The sex trafficking myth asserts
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that the farther a %omen travels from the realm of domesticity in her home country& the further she damages her chance at a future- This mediates globali/ation in terms of the 0astern 0uropean gender order by sho%ing that the ne% phenomenon of increased female migration still subAects %omen to traditional roles-The terministic screen of confined female roles promotes the idea that %omen belong in the home- 3o matter ho% battered and unforgiving this home may be& is the natural place& the only place& %here one can live out their days- $ilAaBs idea that leaving is a real possibility is vie%ed not only as deviant& but dangerous& unnatural& and something that %ill lead to her do%nfall- This myth narrates the terministic screen of female domesticity to sho% %hat happens %hen %omen leave the home- ,ope for a life outside of the home is the first misstep to%ards death& since it brings her to the precarious edge of her natural role- Lil"a 4-e#er makes this connection clear by directly Auxtaposing $ilAaBs death in S%eden %ith her hope for a better future abroad-
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#isguided :omen1
-e0ale di#er.ence attracts 0ale a..ression
In order to make sense of increased female migration& the myth of sex trafficking explains female migrants in terms of existing gender roles- In other %ords& %omen %ho migrate cannot be explained by the current 0astern 0uropean understanding of the %orld& so this myth must sho% %hat happens %hen %omen migrate- The sex trafficking myth follo%s a progression from hope for a better future to inevitable death& a progression %hich is driven by increasing female dislocation from their natural state and the ideali/ed homeThe further a %oman removes herself from the safe sphere of domesticity& the more vulnerable she becomes to male aggression- In fact& female divergence from natural roles attracts male aggression-The myth of sex trafficking holds that the dominance and predatory nature of men occurs naturally& and that the only safe place for %omen is to remain in the domestic sphere of their home nation- :hen %omen leave the home sphere G %hether to sell sex outside of the home& or the ultimate unnatural movement of leaving the home nation entirely G this myth asserts that the %omen %ill face and be con uered by male aggression- ,o%ever& since male aggression occurs naturally& it is the fault of the %omen for making themselves vulnerableK the only real %ay to be safe from male aggression is to remain homeIn Lil"a 4-e#er& prostitution is presented as the stage of dislocation %hich follo%s misguided hope to travel abroad- 7rostitution represents a misuse of sexuality& since it takes place outside of the sphere of domesticity and therefore outside of the natural female role- 7rostitution is presented as a negative effect of the poverty caused by female
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dislocation from their roles- It dra%s desperate& divergent %omen out of the safe domestic sphere and into a %orld of vulnerability to male aggression7rostitution in 0astern 0urope emerged as a prominent issue in the post. communism era& and remains a common phenomenon in the region today- Increased male dominance as social and economic leaders led to the persistence of a pervasive male identity characteri/ed Hby %ork in the paid labor market& the subordination of %omen and girls& heterosexism and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men-I ?) Diminished female roles outside of the home led to an emphasis on feminine ualitiesK the most important traits being submissiveness and sexual receptivity- :omen %ho are unfortunate enough to lack a dominating male force in their life to provide income are left %ith very fe% employment options& and regularly turn to prostitution as the means to survive7rostitutes are prime targets for sex traffickers& %ho exploit the market demand for sex %orkers and prey upon the desire of young %omen to escape their current circumstances-?' The sex trafficking myth attempts to counteract the flo% of young %omen from the domestic sphere by asserting that male aggression and uncontrollable sexuality %ill dominate and destroy natural submissiveness- The myth presents %omen as natural victims of male violence- The single %ay to avoid male aggression is to remain in the safety of the home& regardless of the circumstances thereIn Lil"a 4-e#er& the further $ilAa removes herself from the sphere of domesticity&
<- Nikoli5"Ris'ano#i5* Iesna% "SeF Traffi5kin(6 T&e I48a5' of .ar* Mili'aris4 an$ Glo/ali)a'ion in Eas'ern E1ro8e%" 2o1rnal for Poli'i5al T&eor an$ Resear5& on Glo/alisa'ion* De#elo84en'* an$ Gen$er Iss1es =n%$%>6 n% 8a(% Glo/ali)a5i7a% .e/% B A8r% ,-1!% <1 Nikoli5"Ris'ano#i5* Iesna% n% 8a(% 71
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the more heightened her victimhood becomes- The film sho%s that once a %oman enters the %orld of prostitution& she loses any chance to return to her natural role as a nurturer7rostitution is presented as a cycle of dislocation and abandonmentK %omen %ho become prostitutes leave behind abandoned children %ho must resort to prostitution themselves CfemaleD& or die CmaleDIt is mentioned that $ilAaBs mother %as a prostitute& and $ilAa herself %as the result of a Aohn impregnating and abandoning $ilAaBs mother- This act of prostitution condemned her and her mother to a hopeless life on societyBs impoverished outskirts& and her mother %as never able to re.enter her natural place as a nurturer& eventually abandoning $ilAa to travel abroad- #isuse of female sexuality such as prostitution is depicted here as dangerous& the penultimate dislocation of %omen from their roles- $ilAa& the child of such a dangerous dislocated %omen& is caught up in the cycle of poverty and abandonment her motherBs misuse of sexuality brought do%n upon them G a cycle %e see repeated %hen $ilAa begins selling sex and abandons 9olodya to travel abroad7rostitution is depicted then as both a symptom and a perpetuating factor of a society damaged by the dislocation of %omen from their natural roles- $ilAa is reluctant to begin selling sex& only resorting to it after she sees that she has no other option- Desperate and starving& $ilAa goes to see her spinster aunt& an old crone of a %oman %ho s%indled her out of her flat at one point- The older %omen dismisses her niece& explaining that if $ilAa needs money so badly& she can Hdo %hat RherS mother did--- go to to%n and spread her legs-I $ilAa& distraught %ith the possibility of resorting to prostitution& initially tries to make money in other %ays& none of %hich are sho%n as successful- !t a yard sale she
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holds& she beseeches a passerby& HDonBt you %ant to buy something2I to %hich the person responds& Hthere is nothing here to sellUI In the Aump cut to the next scene& it is clear that $ilAa G a full face of makeup and a resigned expression on her %ay to to%n to Hspread her legsI G truly has nothing to sell but herself- The desperate situation %hich leads her to sex %ork is the result of her motherBs o%n sex %ork and conse uent abandonment- $ilAaBs o%n entrance into sex %ork leads to the eventual abandonment of 9olodya& %ho& left %ith no other alternatives& kills himself4nce involved in sex %ork& $ilAaBs vulnerability to male aggression increases dramatically- This vie% of divergent %omen as the natural victims of male aggression is visible throughout Lil"a 4-e#er- #ale violence to%ards %omen is a common theme of the film& and it occurs naturally and seemingly %ithout any motivation- In one particularly graphic scene& a group of young men from $ilAaBs apartment building break do%n her door and invade her home& beating and raping her into submission as they thro% her meager possessions out the %indo%- The same group of young men %as sho%n earlier drinking and laughing %ith $ilAa at a party& but her ne% lo%ered status as a prostitute G a %oman %ho has removed herself permanently from her natural role G makes her a target for male aggression- If $ilAa had not entered the %orld of sex %ork& she %ould not have been subAect to this act of violence- The more a %oman removes herself from her place in the %orld& the more vulnerable she becomes to male aggression and violence- The sale of sex is the penultimate displacement of %omen from their natural roles- +ust short of leaving home& selling sex removes %omen from the domestic sphere and places them in the commercial sphere in a %ay that makes them vulnerable and helpless to the natural
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predatory nature of men& %hich can only be kept in check if %omen remain in the domestic sphereIt follo%s then that leaving the home nation represents the ultimate form of female vulnerability to male aggression G a form of vulnerability %hich %ill lead to inevitable death- :hen $ilAa arrives in #almM& S%eden& the violence against her is extreme compared to the violence she endured as a sex %orker in her home country& since she has abandoned the safety provided by the home sphere- !fter !ndrei& the trafficker& deceives her into traveling abroad by preying on her desire to escape& any control she had over her o%n body is removed and her death becomes an inescapable fact- ! pimp meets her at the airport and takes her passport& suspending her ability to return to her home country- She is then locked in an apartment building %here the pimp brutally rapes her before leaving her alone in her ne% prison& naked and deAected in the bathtub- :hat follo%s is a disturbing montage of male clients grunting and thrusting above $ilAa %hile she lies beneath them& resigned& unmoving and corpse.like!t this point in the film& any agency $ilAa had previously is stripped from her& reducing her to a mere obAect for male violence- She becomes imprisoned physically& emotionally& and psychologically- In one scene& $ilAa desperately screams and pounds on the locked door of the apartment& attempting in vain to get the attention of a passerby in the hall- The only person %ho hears her cries is her pimp& %ho busts into her room to silence her& explaining& HI kill you if you run a%ayU If you go to police& they send you back& and my friends %ait on you and then %e kill you-I ,e then pats her rump reassuringly& in an almost father.like %ay& hushing her cries by saying gently& HitBs okay&
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itBs okay-I The HitBs okay&I means that everything is simply occurring as it should in this situation& so there is no need for $ilAa to be upset about something she cannot change- In the myth of sex trafficking& $ilAaBs fate is sealed since she exited the realm of safety& and no% there is nothing she can do to fight itThough she is trapped in a populated city& $ilAaBs plight is completely unkno%n to those around her& further emphasi/ing her helplessness- The S%edes are not the HkindI folk !ndrei promised her that they %ould be& and instead they look past $ilAa& never seeing her plight- Instead& $ilAa experiences only male violence at the hands of the S%edish Aohns %ho pay her pimp for her services- If they are not purchasing sex from her& the people $ilAa encounters do not seem to see her at all- This becomes painfully apparent %hen $ilAaBs pimp brings her into an upscale department store do%nto%nThough the store is full of people and $ilAa is not physically incapable of escaping the situation& she does not run& since she has no%here to run to& and the people around her cannot help her- She has been reduced to a body upon %hich male violence is enacted& and there is no %ay and no one %ho can help her escape-
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Dead Dolls1
red,ction to a 5r,tali1ed 5odies
Though the inescapability of $ilAaBs death is kno%n from the opening scene of the film& #oodysson highlights a moment of emotional death at the hands of male violence before $ilAaBs actual death- To%ards the end of the film& $ilAa kno%s that her fate is inescapable& but she has been sho%n to rebel in small acts of defiance& such as cutting her hair off at odd angles and distorting her face %ith makeup to make herself look less sexually attractive- It is not until she visits a %ealthy Aohn in the affluent suburbs of #almM that she is reduced both physically and emotionally to a mere brutali/ed body- The Aohn attempts to role.play %ith $ilAa& %ho is uncooperative1 $ilAa1 I hate you& you think IBm your prop but IBm notThe Aohn1 Be uiet- Do your home%ork$ilAa1 8ou think you can buy me& but you canBt buy my heart and soulThe Aohn1 Shut upU $ilAa1 8ou think IBm your propertyThough $ilAa seems like she is asserting her rebellion here& her %ords& spoken in Russian& are completely lost on the S%edish.speaking Aohn- In response to %hat he vie%s as unintelligent babbling& the Aohn sodomi/es $ilAa- Though many rape scenes have occurred throughout the film at this point& this scene is notably distinct in t%o important %aysFirst& it is the first scene %ith a Aohn in %hich $ilAa is sho%n not simply lying inert and corpse.like& but rather she is actively screaming and trying to break free- Second& this is the first rape scene in %hich the camera does not sho% $ilAaBs point of vie%- !ll previous scenes have sho%n $ilAaBs vantage point& the men grunting into the lens of the camera- In this scene& the camera adopts the vantage point of the Aohn& and %e see the back of $ilAaBs
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head as she struggles- $ilAa has become the HpropI she told the Aohn she refused to be:hen her pimp picks her up& he has to carry her like a doll- ,e dumps her like a dead body on the floor of her apartment& %here she lays completely still& crying- ,er %ords of defiance to the %ealthy Aohn %ere the last %ords she %ill speak to anyone on 0arth- #ale violence has overcome her completely at last& and she is merely a brutali/ed bodyImmediately follo%ing $ilAaBs emotional death is her physical death& %hich seems only to be a formality- 9olodyaBs angel comes to $ilAa %ith Ha christmas presentI G the pimp has neglected to lock the apartment door& leaving $ilAa the opportunity to escape$ilAa& %ho is effectively a dead body at this point& seems uncomprehending& and has to be coaxed out the door by 9olodya- The opening scene of the film is the sho%n again G $ilAa erratically running in different directions& kno%ing she has no%here to go- !t a gas station& she spots a police officerK but instead of asking the officer for help& $ilAa begins to run again- 3o one can help her at this point since she is already far beyond help& a mere shell of the hopeful girl in 0astern 0urope- This time& %hen $ilAa is sho%n coming to the high%ay overpass bridge& she Aumps- Though the scene cuts to $ilAa in a hospital gurney being rushed into the emergency room& her vision of ascent into heaven %ith 9olodya confirms that she dies a physical death to mirror her earlier emotional one-
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Dra%ing conclusions about $ilAa *.ever1

a s,5#ersi#e ter0inistic 0ytholo.y
Lil"a 4-e#er attempts to cover the gaps in 0astern 0uropeBs %orldvie% caused by increased female labor participation and migration through the myth of sex trafficking!cting a as a suture to the disruption of globali/ation& this myth explains female migration in terms of the terministic screen of rigid gender roles-The myth of sex trafficking essentially serves as a cautionary narrative %hich sho%s the dangers for %omen and society as a %hole if female gender roles become dislocated from their naturali/ed state- The further a %omen becomes removed from her natural place as a nurturer& the more male aggression she %ill attract& eventually leading to death- #en& in turn& are not responsible for their o%n aggression& since it occurs naturally- It is %omen like $ilAa %ho become taken %ith the dangerous concept of migration %ho bring male violence do%n upon themselves- The natural aggression of males eventually leads to the dehumani/ation and subse uent death of dislocated %omen& %ho are inevitably reduced to brutali/ed bodies %ith no hope of escape- This myth serves the ideological purpose of discouraging female migration& since the myth asserts that %omen %ho migrate from the home %ill inevitably follo% $ilAaBs descent to%ards death- The only reasonable %ay to avoid this is to remain home-
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C,!7T0R 9I1
2&AT DOE' IT ALL MEAN6
!n analysis of $ukas #oodyssonBs Lil"a 4-e#er in the context of I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign reveals that anti.trafficking narratives subversively demarcate the boundaries of female movement from 0astern 0urope to the 0-5- The rigid gender hierarchy of 0astern 0urope is deeply.reified in terministic screens- :omen have a heavily.calcified cultural history of confinement to the home and exclusion from the public sphere<lobali/ation and the efflux of %omen from former.Soviet states causes a disruption to this perceived natural orderK since %omen are leaving their natural place& society breaks do%n into poverty and the %omen %ho leave become vulnerable to male aggression- Sex trafficking is constructed as a myth to make sense of this female movement and to discourage it- It stretches the gender hierarchy of 0astern 0urope to cover female migration& serving as a cautionary narrative that explains %hat happens to divergent %omen- :hen %omen leave their natural roles& they face death by male sexual aggression- This myth attempts to maintain the reified natural order of 0astern 0urope by reasserting that the home is the only safe sphere for %omenThe myth of sex trafficking reveals much about the persistence of a pervasive gender hierarchy in 0astern 0uropean society- :hen constructed as natural nurturers& %omen are defined entirely by their roles as mothers- Care of children becomes their primary and singular purpose- This not only confines %omen to the home& but it excludes them entirely from the public sphere- This exclusion has extremely negative effects on
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the ability of %omen to earn sustainable income independent of men- :omen therefore become dependent on men for a source of income& %hich maintains not only economic male dominance but social dominance over %omen as %ell- The social dominance of men creates an environment %here male aggression is accepted as natural- :omen %ho digress from their natural roles are cast as the natural targets of male aggression& since the home is the only safe space for them- The pervasive hierarchy of 0astern 0urope explains economically %hy there is a %illingness in 0astern 0uropean %omen to travel abroad for possible employment- 3ot only are the economies in post.Soviet states notably %eak& but the gender hierarchy restricts %omen from earning money in a legitimate %ayThis can also explain %hy the sex industry in this region has high female participation and male demand- Sex %ork is one of the only %ays in %hich a %oman can earn money %ithout male attachment- In environments %here %omen are placed in positions of vulnerability and lo% agency& the demand for sex %ork increases& since %omen outside of the domestic sphere are seen as obAects of male sexual aggression- ?( !n analysis of Lil"a 4-e#er offers some insight into the cultural reduction of %omen in the sex industry to obAects upon %hich male violence is enacted& but another important factor to understanding the historical and socioeconomic landscape of 0astern 0urope is the compulsory hyper.masculinity of men- This hegemonic masculinity has been suggested as a contributing factor to the culture of organi/ed crime in the region- ?@ 4rgani/ed crime is vie%ed as the height of hegemonic masculinity& since it incorporates dominance over %omen and violence as the means to economic gain- The domestic sex industry& as %ell
<, Nikoli5"Ris'ano#i5* Iesna% n% 8a(% <0 Nikoli5"Ris'ano#i5* Iesna% n% 8a(% 80
BATES COLLEGE
as the international market for sex trafficking& are both fueled in part by this 0astern 0uropean masculinity- I speak briefly here about hegemonic masculinity as a natural foil for female vulnerability in Lil"a 4-e#er& but the history and processes of reification behind 0astern 0uropean masculinity %ould contribute greatly to a more complete understanding of ho% the region has used suturing myths to maintain gender roles- Furthermore& %hile globali/ation is undoubtedly responsible for disrupting the %ay 0astern 0uropean countries perceive themselves and their people& it is by no means the only cultural disruption the region has experienced- ! tumultuous landscape of %ar& economic transition& the dissolution of the Soviet 5nion has caused cultural upheaval in the past fifty years-?* 0xploration into the %ay 0astern 0urope has grappled %ith these anxieties mythically %ould benefit a more comprehensive study about ho% gender roles have evolved over timeThis analysis also raises uestions about the subversive motivations of I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign- :hile I4# claims to have purely educational intent in screening Lil"a 4-e#er in #oldova& this analysis reveals that Lil"a 4-e#er relies upon a myth %hich demarcates female movement and reduces female agency- Rather than empo%ering safe female migration& the film asserts that %omen %ho leave 0astern 0urope to enter the 0-5%ill only face brutal death abroad- !s discussed in the literature revie%& many forms of anti.trafficking rhetoric rely upon this narrative& discouraging all forms of migration instead of informing %omen about ho% to migrate safely- !nti.sex trafficking campaigns %ould benefit %omen more if they %ere to inform their audiences about safe path%ays of
<! Nikoli5"Ris'ano#i5* Iesna% n% 8a(% 81
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migration& rather than asserting that all paths lead to death- This %ould increase female autonomy of movement and empo%er them to make choices about their o%n movementThough ideally anti.trafficking rhetoric %ould shift to increase rather than restrict female autonomy& this analysis reveals that these campaigns have potentially subversive intent- This promotion of a statistically.inaccurate portrait of sex trafficking as a cautionary norm has several alternative ideological purposes besides education- Countries like #oldova in 0astern 0urope are facing not only an efflux of %omen due to lack of female opportunities& but are also trying to mediate their threatened gender order at homeThe country of #oldova has a vested interest in preventing the further loss of their female population- The $ilAa *.ever Campaign discourages %omen from leaving the country& %hich could potentially %ork to stabili/e female emigration rates-4n the other side of the issue& the 0uropean 5nion is experiencing a dramatic political shift to the right on this issue of open borders- !n increasing number of 0-5- member countries Cincluding 3or%ay?6D have expressed political and economic interest in overhauling existing open border policies in favor of more internal border security %ithin the 0-5- Ideologically& the 0-5- has become increasingly anti.immigration in recent years& resulting in a noted lack of path%ays or support for people attempting to enter the 0-5- legally for employment purposes- The 0-5- officially provided financial sponsorship of I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign- 7roviding education for at.risk %omen in 0astern 0urope might have been the primary purpose& but the subversive effects of the campaign cannot be ignored- <iven the
<@ NorCa * C&ile no' a 4e4/er of '&e E1ro8ean Anion* is s'ron(l linke$ 'o '&e E%A% e5ono4i5all an$ 8oli'i5all % T&e are offi5ial 4e4/ers of '&e S5&en(en A(ree4en'* C&i5& eli4ina'es '&e nee$ for in'ernal 8ass8or' 5on'rol a4on( 8ar'i5i8a'in( 5o1n'ries% 82
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0-5-Bs interest in closing borders and severing immigration path%ays& the $ilAa *.ever CampaignBs myth can be seen as a %ay to discourage female migration into the 0-5under the guise of providing educational tools to %omenThe myth of sex trafficking articulated in Lil"a 4-e#er also exposes issues %ith the %ay sex trafficking and migratory sex %ork problematically lack distinction in international discourse- Sex trafficking is used as a broad umbrella term for a variety of crimes %hich involve movement and sex %ork& but the issue of coercion as the core criminal element of sex trafficking has become secondary to the sex %ork itself7rostitution is vie%ed as the real crime in many cases of sex trafficking& and 94Ts are regularly denied rehabilitation services- Instead& they are more often than not deported for their activities in the sex industry- In $ilAaBs narrative& it is her participation in the sex industry %hich leads her to be coerced into sex %ork in S%eden- Female sex %orkers are vie%ed as the ultimate obAects of male aggression- The issue of female agency in prostitution becomes irrelevant in discussions of sex trafficking- Self.identified autonomous female sex %orkers exist in the 0uropean sex industry ?=& but are blatantly ignored in campaigns like I4#Bs $ilAa *.ever Campaign& %hich present only images of damaging sex %ork from desperation or coercion- In ())=& *6F of all sex %orkers in the 0-5- %ere migrant sex %orkers from 0astern 0urope& the largest group represented in the 0uropean sex industry-?> 5ntil methods to obtain data on sex %orkers improve& it is nearly
<+ "SeF .orkers in E1ro8e Manifes'o%" ICRSE Reso1r5es% In'erna'ional Co44i''ee on '&e Ri(&'s of SeF .orkers in E1ro8e* n%$% .e/% B A8r% ,-1!% In ,--@* 1,- self"i$en'ifie$ a1'ono4o1s seF Corkers fro4 ,+ 5o1n'ries a1'&ore$ an$ release$ T&e SeF .orkersL Manifes'o* a $e5lara'ion of seF Corker re5o44en$a'ions an$ ri(&'s 'o i48ro#e le(al an$ 51l'1ral a''i'1$es 'oCar$s seF Corkers in E1ro8e% <? Br1ssa* Li5ia* 5o48% SeF .ork in E1ro8e6 A Ma88in( of '&e Pros'i'1'ion S5ene in ,@ E1ro8ean Co1n'ries% Iol% 1% A4s'er$a4* Ne'&erlan$s6 TAMPEP In'erna'ional* n%$% E1ro8ean Ne'Cork for 83
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impossible to gain a figure on ho% many %omen voluntarily participate in prostitution around the globe- Despite this gap in our understanding of sex %orker autonomy& it is problematic that discourse claiming to provide education about sex trafficking ignores the existence of voluntary migrant sex %orkers- Instead& this myth promotes the idea that all %omen in the sex industry are victims& either of circumstance or of trafficking3arratives about sex trafficking need to be refined to represent a more statistically accurate portrayal of %omen trafficked into sex %ork- :hile myth simplifies and sutures& it also ignores complexities vital to a complete understanding of %hat it attempts to explain- Sex trafficking is not a straightfor%ard issue of a naTve female victim misled by an aggressive male forceK it is a multifaceted phenomenon& a variety of crimes involving sex and movement riddled %ith gray areas and gaps in our understanding- Discourse on sex trafficking should reflect these exigencies and complexities& or in the very least ackno%ledge them-
HIINSTI Pre#en'ion an$ Heal'& Pro4o'ion a4on( Mi(ran' SeF .orkers* De5% ,--<% .e/% B A8r% ,-1!% 84
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:orks Cited
!ndriAasevic& Rutvica- XBeautiful Dead Bodies1 <ender& #igration and Representation in !nti.trafficking Campaigns-X Feminist Revie% ;=- C())>D- 7rint!rono%it/& !lexis !- XSmuggling and Trafficking in ,uman Beings1 The 7henomenon& the #arkets that Drive it and the 4rgani/ations that 7romote it-X 0uropean +ournal on Criminal 7olicy and Research ?-( C())'D1 7roYuest Social Science +ournals- :eb- (; #ar- ()'*BAMrneblad& 7eter- X,on Tvingades Bli 7rostituerad1 Tog $ivet !v Sig-X RStockholm& S%edenS n-d-1 n- pag!ftonbladet- S%edish Trade 5nion Confederation& (( #ar- ()))- :eb- '( #ar- ()'*Bronfen& 0li/abeth- O#er &er Dead $ody. Death/ %e0ininity and the Aesthetic. #anchester1 #anchester 5niversity 7ress- C'??(DBrussa& $icia& comp- 'e7 2or8 in E,ro*e: A Ma**in. o- the Prostit,tion 'cene in 9: E,ro*ean !o,ntries. 9ol- '- !msterdam& 3etherlands1 T!#707 International& n-d- 0uropean 3et%ork for ,I9JSTI 7revention and ,ealth 7romotion among #igrant Sex :orkers& Dec- ())?- :eb- ; !pr- ()'*Burke& "enneth- XTerministic Screens-X $anguage as Symbolic !ction- Saratoga Springs& 381 0mpire State College& State 5niversity of 3e% 8ork& '?>@- 7rintCohen& Stanley- %ol8 De#ils and Moral Panic. :orking 7apers Series ()')- 3e% 8ork1 Routlege- C'?>(D1 7rintDaley& Su/anne- XDenmark $eads 3ationalist Challenge to 0uropeBs 4pen Borders-X The 3e% 8ork TimesThe 3e% 8ork Times Company& (* +une ()''- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*Doe/ma& +o- X$oose :omen or $ost :omen2 The Re.emergence of the #yth of B:hite SlaveryB in Contemporary Discourses of Btrafficking in :omenBX <ender Issues ';-' C()))D1 (@.6)- :ebDoe/ma& +o- X3o% 8ou See ,er& 3o% 8ou DonBt1 Sex :orkers at 5-3- Trafficking 7rotocol 3egotiations-X Social and $egal Studies '*-* C()')D- Sage 7ublications- :eb0kberg& <unilla- X7rostitution and Trafficking in ,uman Beings The S%edish $a% That 7rohibits the 7urchase of Sexual Services1 Best 7ractices for 7revention of Trafficking :omen-X 9iolence !gainst :omen ')-'';> C())*D- Sage 7ublications- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*H0ngaging in <lobali/ation1 Implications for <ender Relations-X 0conomic and Social Commission for :estern !sia C0SC:!D Cn-d-D- 5nited 3ations- :ebHFact Sheet1 Distinctions Bet%een ,uman Smuggling and ,uman Trafficking ())=-X 5-S- Department of State- 5-S- Department of State& )' +an- ())=- :eb- (; #ar- ()'*Foss& !rlid S- X4pen Borders& Closed 0urope-X Science 3ordic- Forskning 3or%ay& '' +uly ()'(- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*3AAT2: $eyond $orders: E7*lorin. Lin8s $et4een Tra--ic8in. and Mi.ration. :orking 7apers Series ()')- 3-p-1 <lobal !lliance !gainst Trafficking in :omen& n-d- 7rint85
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<reco& Frederico- X$ukas #oodysson1 Director of $ilAa *.ever-X Cineuropa #aga/ine- 3-p-& ())@- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*,olden& Stephen- X$ilAa *.ever1 ,opes Disintegrate Into a $ife of Degradation-X The 3e% 8ork Times- The 3e% 8ork Times Company& '; !pr- ())@- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*,ines& Colin- X0urope Is Falling out of $ove %ith 4pen Borders-X The <uardian 4nline- The <uardian #edia <roup& '? 3ov- ()'@- :eb- '= #ar- ()'*H,uman Trafficking1 The Facts-X 5nited 3ations <lobal Initiative to Fight ,uman Trafficking- The 5nited 3ations 4ffice on Drugs and Crime& n-d- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*H,uman Trafficking-X :hat Is ,uman Trafficking2 The 5nited 3ations 4ffice on Drugs and Crime& n-d:eb- (; #ar- ()'*H,uman Trafficking1 !n 4vervie%- 9ol- '-I 9ienna1 5nited 3ations& n-d- 5nited 3ations <lobal Initiative to Fight ,uman Trafficking- 5nited 3ations 4ffice on Drugs and Crime& ());- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*XI4# #arks 4ne 8ear of $ilya *.0ver in #oldova-X I4# #oldova- The International 4rgani/ation for #igration& '= 3ov- ())*- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*+ames& Steve- X! #oving 7ortrayal of the Tragedy Suffered by 8oung Russians-X :orld Socialist :ebInternational Committee on the Fourth International& (@ #ay ())@- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*$aclau& 0rnesto- Ne4 Re-lections on the Re#ol,tion o- O,r Ti0e + Ernesto Lacla,- $ondon1 9erso& '??)7rint- @?.6?Lil"a 4-e#er- Dir- $ukas #oodysson- 7rod- $ars +Mnsson- 7erf- 4ksana !kinshina and !rtyom BogucharskySonet Film& ())(- FilmMi.rants in E,ro*e 9;<< Edition: A 'tatistical Portrait o- the %irst and 'econd 3eneration. ()'' edBelgium1 0uroStat& ()''- 0uroStat- 0uropean 5nion& ()''- :eb- ') #ar- ()'*#ontanari& !rmando and Staniscial& Barbara- HFemale #igration in a Changing :orld- 0astern 0uropeans in Central Italy&I 0space 7opulations SociZtZs *? C())?D1 ((>.(*'3eilsen& 3ikolaA- X05 7roposes Tighter Border Control Bill-X 0uropean 5nion 4bserver- !SB$& (; Feb()'@- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*3ikolic.Ristanovic& 9esna- XSex Trafficking1 The Impact of :ar& #ilitarism and <lobali/ation in 0astern 0urope-X +ournal for 7olitical Theory and Research on <lobalisation& Development& and <ender Issues Cn-d-D1 <lobali/aciAa- :eb- ; !pr- ()'*Robila& #iheala- XFamilies in 0astern 0urope1 Contexts& Trends& and 9ariations-X Contemporary 7erspectives in Family Research 6 C())*D1 '.'*- :eb- ; !pr- ()'*XSex :orkers in 0urope #anifesto-X ICRS0 Resources- International Committee on the Rights of Sex :orkers in 0urope& n-d- :eb- ; !pr- ()'*-
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Sharma& 3andita- XTravel !gency1 ! Criti ue of !nti.Trafficking Campaigns-X Refuge ('-@ Cn-d-DXBSmart BordersB1 0nhancing #obility and Security-X 0uropean Commission1 ,ome !ffairs- The 0uropean 5nion& (; Feb- ()'(- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*Sparrman& !nna- XFilm as a 7olitical and 0ducational Device1 Talk about #en& #ale Sexuality and <ender among S%edish 8outh-X 9isual Studies ('-( C())=D1 '=>.;(- :ebSuchland& +ennifer- XDouble Framing in $ilya *.0ver 1 Sex Trafficking and 7ostsocialist !bAection-X 0uropean +ournal of Cultural Studies ')-''>> C()'@D1 n- pag- Sage 7ublishers- :eb- @) #ar- ()'*:eit/er& Ronald- XThe Social Construction of Sex Trafficking1 Ideology and Institutionali/ation of a #oral Crusade-X 7olitics [ Society @6-**> C())>D1 n- pag- Sage +ournals- Sage 7ublications- :ebX:ho !re the 9ictims of ,uman Trafficking2X 5nited 3ations <lobal Initiative to Fight ,uman Trafficking- 5nited 3ations 4ffice on Drugs and Crime& n-d- :eb- (> #ar- ()'*X:ho !re :e-X $a Strada International 3e%s- 3-p-& n-d- :eb- ); #ar- ()'*X:omen and #en #igrant :orkers1 :orking to%ards 0 ual Rights and 4pportunities-X International $abor 4rgani/ation- Decent :ork& n-d- :eb-
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THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

Mythic Mothers and Dead Dolls:

Degree of Bachelor of !rts

By "arla #arie Cook $e%iston& #aine !pril ''& ()'*

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

For 3at and Tom

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

0astern 0urope as a Dystopia1

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC

THE DEPARTMENT OF RHETORIC